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Logarithmic Amplifier
The response of the op-amp circuit is determined by the choice of elements used in
the feedback network of op-amp.
When resistors are used, which have a linear relation between the voltage and
current, the resulting circuit shows a linear response for the input.
On the other hand, when a logarithmic PN junction obtained from a transistor is

used, the circuit results in a log or antilog response.
The log and antilog responses can be derived from the popular log/antilog ICs such
as 755 and 759 from Analog Devices and IC 4127 from Burr-Brown, which are
monolithic devices.
These logarithmic amplifiers can also be used in applications where significant rise
in the dynamic range of certain signal processing systems are desired.
There will be no loss in accuracy and resolution, even when the input signal is very
small in comparison with the full dynamic range.
The logarithmic amplifier, called a log-amp or a logger.
The transistor Q with its base grounded and its collector at virtual ground is
connected in a transdiode configuration.
Its voltage-current relationship is thus defined by
Here, IE = IC
where Is is the emitter saturation current and

kT/q is the volt-temperature equivalent
Hence, the output voltage is found to be the logarithmic equivalent of input voltage.
Although the circuit gives natural log (ln)
Log 10 (X) = 0.4343 ln (X)
This circuit have one problem.
The emitter saturation current Is of the transistor widely varies from one transistor
to the other and with temperature.
Thus a stable reference voltage Vr cannot be obtained.
This problem could be eliminated by employing two transistors Q1 and Q2,

manufactured under the same process conditions on a single silicon wafer.
The input conversion is applied to one log amp and an external reference voltage
VR is applied to another.
By this arrangement, close matching of VR and good thermal tracking are achieved.
That is, IS1 = IS2 = IS
The output Vo1 is
The output Vo2 is
The op-amp A3 configured as a subtractor will subtract the two inputs, thus
providing at the output,
The VR is thus set with a single external voltage source. Therefore, the dependence
of the circuit on the device and temperature has been removed.
The op-amp A4 configured as the fourth stage compensates for the effects of
temperature with the inclusion of the temperature sensitive resistor RTC with
positive temperature coefficient.
The overall output voltage VL is thus
Antilogarithmic Amplifier
Antilog amplifier is a decoding circuitry to convert the logarithmically encoded
signal back to the real world signal levels.
A decade change in the input of the logarithmic amplifier causes a one volt change
in its output, and conversely, the antilog amplifier creates a decade change in output
with respect to a unit change in the input signal.
It is used to convert the input voltage into an input current, with a log function.
The input Vi for the antilog amplifier is fed
into the temperature compensating voltage
divider R2 and RTC and then to the base of
Q2.
The output VL of the antilog amplifier is fed

back to the inverting input A1 through the
resistor R1.
The base to emitter voltage of transistors Q1

and Q2 can be written as
Analog Multipliers
A multiplier produces an output vO proportional to the product of two inputs VX
and VY
Applications:
Frequency doubling
Measurement of real power
Detecting phase angle difference between two signals of equal frequency
Multiplying two signals
Dividing one signal by another
Taking square root of a signal
Squaring a signal
Analog Multipliers
The output is product of the
two inputs divided by reference
voltage.
Normally, Vref is internally set

to 10 volts.
The output of the multiplier is not saturated.

Analog Multipliers
If both inputs are positive, the
IC is said to be a one quadrant
multiplier.
A two quadrant multiplier will
function properly if one input is
held positive and the other is
allowed to swing both positive
and negative.
If both inputs may be either
positive or negative the IC is
called a four quadrant
multiplier
Analog Multipliers
Log antilog Method
The log antilog method relies on the mathematical relationship that the sum of the
logarithm of the product of those numbers
The input voltages Vx and Vy are converted to their logarithmic equivalents, which
are then added together by a summer.
An antilogarithmic converter produces the output voltage of the summer.
The output is given by
This method is applicable only to positive values of Vx and Vy.

Therefore, this type of multiplier is restricted to one quadrant operation only.
Analog Multipliers
Frequency Doubling
The Multiplication of two sine waves of the same frequency, but of possibly
different amplitudes and phase allows to double a frequency and to directly measure
real power
Applying these two signals to the inputs of a four quadrant multiplier will yield an
output as,
Analog Multipliers
Analog Multipliers
Divider
Division, can be accomplished by placing the multiplier circuit in the op-amps
feedback loop.
Analog Multipliers
Divider
feedback loop.
Analog Multipliers
Divider
feedback loop.
Generalized Impedance Converters (GIC)
Impedance converters are active RC
circuits designed to simulate
frequency dependent elements such
as inductances for use in active filter
synthesis.
Among the various configurations,

one that has gained prominence is
the generalized impedance converter
(GIC) is shown in figure.
The mention GIC in figure, which

can be used not only to simulate
inductances, but also to synthesize
frequency-dependent resistances.
Finding the equivalent impedance of a GIC
Find the resulting current I, and then we let Z =

V/I .
Summing currents at the node common to Z2

and Z3 and at the node common to Z4 and Z5
we obtain, respectively,
V2 = (Z4 V +Z5 V)/Z5

V2 = ((Z4+ Z5)/Z5) V
In above equation we put the value of V2

And by using below equation we solve for Z
(V/I)
By Eliminating V1 and V2, and solving for the

ratio Z = V/I, we get
Depending on the type of components we use for Z1 through Z5, we can configure
the circuit for various impedance types.
The most interesting and useful ones are as follows:
1. All Zs are resistances, except Z2 (or
Z4), which is a capacitance. Letting
Z2 = 1/jωC2
Depending on the type of components we use for Z1 through Z5, we can configure
the circuit for various impedance types.
The most interesting and useful ones are as follows:
2. All Zs are resistances, except for Z1 and
Z5, which are capacitances. Letting Z1 =
1/jωC1 and Z5 = 1/jωC5
The circuit now simulates a grounded

frequency-dependent negative resistance
(grounded FDNR).
Since a capacitance produces a voltage
proportional to the integral of the current, the
FDNR (or D element, as it is often called) can
be viewed as an element that integrates current
twice.
The D element can be adjusted by varying one

of the resistances.
For good results, use metal-film resistors and

NPO ceramic capacitors for temperature
stability and polypropylene capacitors for
high-Q performance.
Synthesis Using Grounded Inductances
A popular GIC application is the realization of inductor less filters starting from
passive RLC filter prototypes.
To this end we first design an RLC filter meeting the given specifications; then we
replace its inductances with synthetic inductances realized with GICs.
Note, however, that this direct one-to-one replacement is applicable only if the
inductances in the prototype are of the grounded type.
Once the filter specifications are known, we first find a set of RLC values meeting
the specification; then we replace the original inductance with a GIC inductance
simulator to end up with a circuit containing only resistances and capacitances. The
result is the dual-amplifier band-pass (DABP) filter
Example
In the circuit of Figure specify component values for a band-pass response with f0 =
100 kHz and Q = 25.
Example
In the circuit of Figure specify component values for a band-pass response with f0 =
100 kHz and Q = 25.
The DABP filter is easily tuned since R1 (or R3) adjusts ω0, and R adjusts Q.
Fairly small deviations of Q and ω0 from their design values.
Owing to these advantages, the DABP filter is a highly recommended
configuration.
Synthesis Using FDNRs
Since L is not a grounded inductance, we cannot replace it with a simulated one.
This obstacle is avoided by the artifice of dividing each element value in the
original network by jω.
This transforms resistances into capacitances, inductances into resistances, and
capacitances into D elements as
Example
Using the RLC circuit of Figure as a prototype, design a GIC low-pass filter with f0
= 1 kHz and Q = 5.
Example
Using the RLC circuit of Figure as a prototype, design a GIC low-pass filter with f0
= 1 kHz and Q = 5.
Active Filters
A filter is a frequency selective circuit that allows only a certain band of the desired
frequency components of an input signal to pass through and attenuates the signals
of undesired frequency components.
The filters are of two types namely (i) analog filters and (ii) digital filters.
The analog filters are further classified as passive filters and active filters.
The passive filters utilise only resistors, inductors and capacitors. An active network
is a circuit obtained by interconnecting passive elements (resistors and capacitors)
and active elements (transistors, tunnel diodes and operational amplifiers).
An active filter uses an op-amp in order to minimise the effect of loading on the
frequency characteristics of the filter.
The filters are widely used in communication, signal processing and sophisticated
electronic instruments.
Active Filters
Limitations of passive RLC networks over RC active networks
1. In RLC networks, the practical inductors tend to deviate from the inductance
realised.
2. There is a power loss because of the dissipation in resistive and inductive
elements of the passive network.
3. The Q factor is defined by Q = ωL/rL . Since rL = 0 for an ideal inductor, Q = ∞.
But in practical networks, Q will not be infinity because rL cannot be zero.
4. For most practical inductors, the total dissipative losses tend to increase with
frequency, since Q does not increase linearly with frequency.
5. The magnetic coupling creates additional problem in the form of unwanted and
stray field which is harmful for applications such as satellite instrumentation.
6. At low frequency (less than 1 kHz) applications such as control systems and
analog computers, practical inductors of reasonable Q tend to become bulky
and expensive.
Active Filters
Advantages of RC active networks over passive RLC networks
1. The maximum value of the transfer function or gain may be greater than unity.
2. The loading effect is minimal, which means that the output response of the
filter is essentially independent of the load driven by the filter.
3. The active filters do not exhibit insertion loss. Hence, the passband gain is
equal to 0dB.
4. Complex filters can be realised without the use of inductors.
5. The passive filters using R, L and C components are realisable only for radio
frequencies. Because, the inductors become very large, bulky and expensive at
audio frequencies. Due to low Q at low frequency applications, high power
dissipation is incurred. The active filters overcome these problems.
6. Rapid, stable and economical design of filters for variety of applications is
possible.
7. The active filters are easily tunable due to flexibility in gain and frequency
adjustments.
8. The op-amp has high input impedance and low output impedance. Hence, the
active filters using op-amp do not cause loading effect on the source and load.
Therefore, cascading of networks does not need buffer amplifier.
Active Filters
The oldest technology for realizing filters makes use of inductors and capacitors,
and the resulting circuits are called passive LC filters.
Such filters work well at high frequencies; however, in low-frequency applications

(dc to 100 kHz) the required inductors are large and physically bulky, and their
characteristics are quite nonideal.
Such inductors are impossible to fabricate in monolithic form and are incompatible
with any of the modern techniques for assembling electronic systems.
Therefore, there has been considerable interest in finding filter realizations that do
not require inductors.
Now we study about inductorless filters or active-RC filters,

Active Filters
Active-RC filters utilize op amps together with resistors and capacitors and are
fabricated using discrete, hybrid thick-film or hybrid thin-film circuit technologies.
For large-volume production, such technologies do not yield the economies

achieved by monolithic (IC) fabrication.
At the present time, there are two popular approaches for realizing fully integrated
filters: the transconductance-C approach, which is particularly suited for
high-frequency applications, and the switched-capacitor approach, which is used
for audio-frequency applications.
Active Filters
Filter Transmission
The filters we are about to study are linear circuits that can be represented by the
general two-port network shown in Figure.
The filter transfer function T(s) is the ratio of the output voltage Vo(s) to the
input voltage Vi(s),
The filter transmission is found by evaluating T(s) for physical frequencies, s = jω,
and can be expressed in terms of its magnitude and phase as
Active Filters
Filter Transmission
The magnitude of transmission is often expressed in decibels in terms of the gain

function.
in terms of the attenuation function

Filters Types
Low Pass Filters
A low-pass filter allows only low frequency signals up to a certain break-point fH to
pass through, while suppressing high frequency components as shown in Figure.
The range of frequencies from 0 to higher cut-off frequency fH is called passband

and the range of frequencies beyond fH is called stopband.
Filters Types
High Pass Filters
A high-pass filter allows only frequencies above a certain break-point fH to pass
through and attenuates the low frequency components as shown in Figure.
The range of frequencies beyond its lower cut-off frequency fL is called passband
and the range of frequencies from 0 to fL is called stopband.
Filters Types
Band Pass Filters
The bandpass filter is the combination of high and low-pass filters, and this allows a
specified range of frequencies to pass through. The ideal and practical
characteristics of the bandpass filter are shown in Figure.
It has two stopbands in the range of frequencies between 0 and fL and beyond fH.
The band between fL and fH is called passband. Hence its bandwidth is ( fH - fL ).
Filters Types
Band Reject Filters
The band-reject filter is the logical inverse of bandpass filter, which does not allow
a specified range of frequencies to pass through. The ideal and practical
characteristics of the band-reject filter are shown in Figure.
It has two passbands in the range of frequencies between 0 and fL and beyond fH.
The band between fL and fH is called stopband.
Filters Types
Filter Specification
Figure shows realistic specifications for the transmission characteristics of a
low-pass filter.
Observe that since a physical circuit cannot provide constant transmission at all
passband frequencies, the specifications allow for deviation of the passband
transmission from the ideal 0 dB, but place an upper bound, Amax (dB), on this
deviation.
Depending on the application, Amax typically ranges from 0.05 dB to 3 dB.
Also, since a physical circuit cannot provide zero transmission at all stopband
frequencies, the specifications in Figure allow for some transmission over the
stopband.
However, the specifications require the stopband signals to be attenuated by at least

Amin (dB) relative to the passband signals.
Depending on the filter application, Amin can range from 20 dB to 100 dB.
Filters Types
Filters Types
Filter Specification
The transmission of a physical circuit cannot change abruptly at the edge of the
passband, the specifications of Figure provide for a band of frequencies over which
the attenuation increases from near 0 dB to Amin.
This transition band extends from the passband edge ωp to the stopband edge ωs.
The ratio ωs/ωp is usually used as a measure of the sharpness of the low-pass filter
response and is called the selectivity factor.
The transmission of a low-pass filter is specified by four parameters:

1. The passband edge ωp
2. The maximum allowed variation in passband transmission Amax
3. The stopband edge ωs
4. The minimum required stopband attenuation Amin
The peak ripple is equal to Amax it is usual to refer to Amax as the passband ripple
and to ωp as the ripple bandwidth.
The Filter Transfer Function
The filter transfer function T(s) can be written as the ratio of two polynomials as
The degree of the denominator, N, is the filter order.
For the filter circuit to be stable, the degree of the numerator must be less than or
equal to that of the denominator: M ≤ N.
The numerator and denominator coefficients, a0, a1, . . . ,aM and b0, b1, . . . ,bN-1,
are real numbers.
The polynomials in the numerator and denominator can be factored, and T(s) can be
expressed in the form
Each transmission zero or pole can be either a real or a complex number. Complex
zeros and poles, however, must occur in conjugate pairs.
For a filter circuit to be stable, all its poles must lie in the left half of the s plane, and
thus p1, p2, . . . ,pN must all have negative real parts.
Now we assumed that this filter is of fifth

order (N = 5).
It has two pairs of complex-conjugate
poles and one real-axis pole, for a total of
five poles.
All the poles lie in the vicinity of the
passband, which is what gives the filter its
high transmission at passband frequencies.
The five transmission zeros are at s=±jωl1,
s=±jωl2, and s=∞.
Thus, the transfer function for this filter is
of the form
Now consider the low-pass filter whose transmission function is depicted in Fig. We
observe that in this case there are no finite values of ω at which the transmission is
zero.
Thus it is possible that all the transmission zeros of this filter are at s=∞. If this is
the case, the filter transfer function takes the form
Such a filter is
known as an
all-pole filter.
Example
Example
Example
Example
First-Order and Second-Order Filter
Functions
• First- and second-order filters can also be cascaded to realize a high-order filter.
• Cascade design is one of the most popular methods for the design of active filters
(those utilizing op amps and RC circuits).
• The filter poles occur in complex-conjugate pairs, a high-order transfer function
T(s) is factored into the product of second-order functions.
• If T(s) is odd, there will also be a first-order function in the factorization. Each of
the second-order functions [and the first-order function when T(s) is odd] is then
realized using one of the op amp–RC circuits and the resulting blocks are placed in
cascade.
• The overall transfer function of the cascade is simply the product of the transfer
functions of the individual blocks, which is the original T(s).
First-Order and Second-Order Filter
Functions
•The general first-order transfer function is given by
•This bilinear transfer function characterizes a first-order filter with a pole at s =

−ω0, a transmission zero at s=−a0/a1, and a high-frequency gain that approaches
a1.
•The numerator coefficients, a0 and a1, determine the type of filter (e.g., low pass,
high pass, etc.).
First-Order Filter
• First Order Low pass Filter
Transfer Function
First-Order Filter
R +
+
VI C VO
_
_
Low pass filter circuit

First-Order Filter
Om Amp-RC Realization
Placing a resistor in parallel with the
feedback capacitor, turns the integrator
into a low-pass filter with gain.
T
First-Order Filter
Circuit Operation
At sufficiently low frequencies,
Where |ZC| » R2, we can ignore ZC compared
with R2 and thus regard the circuit as an
inverting amplifier with gain ∼ −R2/R1 = H0.
For obvious reasons, H0 is called the dc gain.
As shown in Fig., the low-frequency asymptote
of the magnitude Bode plot is a horizontal line
positioned at |H0|dB.
At sufficiently high frequencies,

Where |ZC| « R2, we can ignore R2 compared
with ZC and thus regard the circuit as an
integrator.
As we know, its high-frequency asymptote is a
line with a slope of −20 dB/dec and passing
through the unity-gain frequency ω1 =1/R1C.
First-Order Filter
• First Order High pass Filter
Transfer Function
First-Order Filter
• First Order High Pass Filter
+
C
+
Vi R
_ VO
High Pass Filter

First-Order Filter
• First Order High Pass Filter
Placing a capacitor in series with the input
resistor turns the differentiator into a
high-pass filter with gain.
T
First-Order Filter
• General
Transfer Function
First-Order Filter
• General
First-Order Filter
• Wideband Band Pass Filter
Low pass and High pass filters are merged to give a band pass filter
lTl
T
First-Order Filter
• All Pass Filter
First-Order Filter
• All Pass Filter
Second-Order Filter
The general second-order (or biquadratic) filter transfer function is usually
expressed in the standard form
Figure shows the location of the pair of

complex-conjugate poles in the s plane. Observe
that the radial distance of the natural modes (from
the origin) is equal to ω0, which is known as the
pole frequency.
Second-Order Filter
The parameter Q is called the pole quality factor, or simply pole Q.
The parameter Q determines the distance of the poles from the jω axis:
The higher the value of Q, the closer the poles are to the jω axis, and the more
selective the filter response becomes.
An infinite value for Q locates the poles on the jω axis and can yield sustained
oscillations in the circuit realization.
A negative value of Q implies that the poles are in the right half of the s plane,
which certainly produces oscillations.
The transmission zeros of the second-order filter are

determined by the numerator coefficients, a0, a1, and
a2.
It follows that the numerator coefficients determine the
type of second-order filter function (i.e., LP, HP, etc.).
Second-Order Filter
All seven special second-order filters have a pair of complex-conjugate natural
modes characterized by a frequency ω0 and a quality factor Q.
Low pass Filter Case:

All second-order low-pass functions can be put in the standard form
T( jω) = H0LPTLP( jω), where H0LP is a suitable constant referred to as the dc gain,
and
T
Second-Order Filter
T
T
T T
T
Second-Order Filter
In the frequency region near ω/ω0 = 1we now have a family of curves, depending
on the value of Q.
Contrast this with the first-order case, where only one curve was possible.
Second-Order Filter
In actual applications, Q may range from as low as 0.5 to as high as 100, with values
near unity being by far the most common.
Note that for low Qs the transition from one asymptote to the other is very gradual,
while for high Qs there is a range of frequencies in the vicinity of ω/ω0 = 1 where
|TLP|>1, a phenomenon referred to as peaking.
The largest Q before the onset of peaking is Q = 1/ √2 = 0.707.

The corresponding curve is said to be maximally flat and is also referred to as the
Butterworth response.
Second-Order Filter
In the case of peaked responses, or Q >1/ √2, the frequency at which |TLP| is
maximized and the corresponding maximum are
T
Second-Order Filter
High pass Filter Case:
The standard form of all second-order high-pass functions is T( jω) = H0HPTHP( jω),
where H0HP is called the high-frequency gain, and
The function HHP( jω/ω0) can be obtained

from HLP( jω/ω0) by replacing ( jω/ω0)
with 1/( jω/ω0).
Second-Order Filter
Band pass Filter Case:
The standard form of all second-order band-pass functions is H( jω) = H0BPTBP( jω),
where H0BP is the called the resonance gain, and
T T
T
Second-Order Filter
T
T T
T
T
Second-Order Filter
T
Second-Order Filter
Figure indicates that all curves peak at 0 dB.

Those corresponding to low Qs are broad, but those corresponding to high Qs are
narrow, indicating a higher degree of selectivity.
Second-Order Filter
To express selectivity quantitatively, we use bandwidth
where ωL and ωH are the −3-dB frequencies, that is, the frequencies at which the
response is 3 dB below its maximum
The resonance frequency ω0 is the geometric mean of ωL and ωH, indicating that
on a logarithmic scale ω0 appears halfway between ωL and ωH.
It is apparent that the narrower the bandwidth, the more selective the filter.
A proper measure of
selectivity is the ratio ω0/BW.
Second-Order Filter
The Notch Response
If the transmission zeros are located on the jω axis, at the complex-conjugate
locations ±jωn, then the magnitude response exhibits zero transmission at ω = ωn.
Thus a notch in the magnitude response occurs at ω = ωn, and ωn is known as the
notch frequency.
Second-Order Filter
The Notch Response
Three cases of the second-order notch filter are possible:
The regular notch, obtained when ωn = ω0
The low-pass notch, obtained when ωn >ω0
The high-pass notch, obtained when ωn < ω0
Second-Order Filter
The Notch Response
The low-pass notch, obtained when ωn >ω0
Second-Order Filter
The Notch Response
The high-pass notch, obtained when ωn < ω0
Second-Order LCR Resonator
The Resonator Natural Modes
The natural modes or poles of the parallel resonance circuit of Figure can be
determined by applying an excitation that does not change the natural structure of the
circuit.
Two possible ways of exciting the RLC circuit
1. In Figure the resonator is excited with a current source I connected in parallel.
The voltage Vo across the resonator as the response and thus obtain the response
function Vo/I = Z,
where Z is the impedance of the parallel resonance circuit.
However, because of the parallel structure of the circuit it is more convenient to
work in terms of the admittance Y
Two possible ways of exciting the RLC circuit
2. In Figure the resonator is excited with a voltage source
Here, node x of inductor L has been disconnected from ground and connected to an
ideal voltage source Vi.
Realization of GIC based OpAmp based Filters
Figure shows the Antoniou inductance-simulation circuit.
If the circuit is fed at its input (node 1) with a voltage source V1 and the input
current is denoted I1, then for ideal op amps the input impedance can be shown to be
Analysis
(V2-V1)/R3
The design of this circuit is usually based on selecting R1 =R2 =R3 =R5 =R and C4 =C, which
leads to L = CR².
Convenient values are then selected for C and R to yield the desired inductance value L
Figure shows the LCR resonator
Replacing the
inductor L with a
simulated inductance
realized by the
Antoniou circuit
results in the op
amp–RC resonator
The pole Q factor can be obtained
C = C6 and R = R6;
Q = ω0 C6 R6.
Realization of the Various Filter Types
We observe that the transmission zeros are the values of s at which Z2(s) is zero,
provided Z1(s) is not simultaneously zero, and the values of s at which Z1(s) is
infinite, provided Z2(s) is not simultaneously infinite.
This statement makes physical sense: The output will be zero either when Z2(s)
behaves as a short circuit or when Z1(s) behaves as an open circuit.
If there is a value of s at which both Z1 and Z2 are zero, then Vo/Vi will be finite and
no transmission zero is obtained.
Similarly, if there is a value of s at which both Z1 and Z2 are infinite, then Vo/Vi will
be finite and no transmission zero is realized.
Realization of Low pass
To realize a low-pass function, node x is disconnected from ground and connected to
Vi, as shown in Figure.
The transmission zeros of this circuit will be at the value of s for which the series
impedance becomes infinite (sL becomes infinite at s=∞) and the value of s at which
the shunt impedance becomes zero (1/[sC +(1/R)] becomes zero at s=∞).
Thus this circuit has two transmission zeros at s=∞, as a second-order LP is
supposed to.
The transfer function can be written either by inspection or by using the voltage
divider rule.
Realization of Low pass
Realization of High pass
To realize the second-order high-pass function, node y is disconnected from ground
and connected to Vi, as shown in Figure.
Here the series capacitor introduces a transmission zero at s = 0 (dc), and the shunt
inductor introduces another transmission zero at s = 0 (dc).
The value of a2 can be determined from the circuit by observing that as s

approaches ∞, the capacitor approaches a short circuit and Vo approaches Vi,
resulting in a2 = 1.
Realization of High pass
Realization of Band Pass
The bandpass function is realized by disconnecting node z from ground and
connecting it to Vi, as shown in Fig.
Here the series impedance is resistive and thus does not introduce any transmission
zeros.
These are obtained as follows: One zero at s = 0 is realized by the shunt inductor,
and one zero at s=∞ is realized by the shunt capacitor.
At the centre frequency ω0, the parallel LC-tuned circuit exhibits an infinite
impedance, and thus no current flows in the circuit.
Realization of Band Pass
Realization of the Notch Functions
To obtain a pair of transmission zeros on the jω axis, we use a parallel resonance
circuit in the series arm, as shown in Figure.
Observe that this circuit is obtained by disconnecting both nodes x and y from
ground and connecting them together to Vi.
The impedance of the LC circuit becomes infinite at ω =ω0 =1/ √(LC) thus causing
zero transmission at this frequency.
The shunt impedance is resistive and thus does not introduce transmission zeros.
To obtain a notch-filter realization in which the notch frequency ωn is arbitrarily
placed relative to ω0.
We use a parallel LC circuit in the series branch, where L1 and C1 are selected so
that
Thus the L1C1 tank circuit will

introduce a pair of transmission zeros
at ±jωn
the values of L2 and C2 must be selected

to ensure that the natural modes have not
been altered; thus
In other words, when Vi is replaced
by a short circuit, the circuit should
reduce to the original LCR resonator.
Realization of the Low Pass Notch (LPN) Function
The LPN and HPN filter realizations are special cases of the general notch circuit
This condition can be satisfied with L2

eliminated (i.e., L2 =∞and L1 = L), resulting in
the LPN circuit
Realization of the High Pass Notch (HPN) Function
For HPN realization ωn <ω0 to obtain
which can be satisfied while selecting C2

=0 (i.e., C1 =C).
Realization of the High Pass Notch (HPN) Function
Realization of the All pass
The second term on the right-hand side is a bandpass function with a

center-frequency gain of 2.
We already have a bandpass circuit , but with a center-frequency gain of unity.
We shall therefore attempt an all-pass realization with a flat gain of 0.5, that is,
This function can be realized using a voltage divider with a transmission ratio of 0.5
together with the bandpass circuit
To effect the subtraction, the output of the all-pass circuit is taken between the output
terminal of the voltage divider and that of the bandpass filter, as shown in Figure
2nd-Order Active Filters Based on the
Two-Integrator-Loop Topology
The circuits are based on the use of two integrators connected in cascade in an
overall feedback loop and are thus known as two-integrator-loop circuits.
Derivation of the Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad

To derive the two-integrator-loop biquadratic circuit, or biquad as it is commonly
known, consider the second-order high-pass transfer function
where K is the high-frequency gain.

Cross-multiplying and dividing both sides of the above equation by s² gives
In above equation we observe that the signal (ω0/s)Vhp can be obtained by

passing Vhp through an integrator with a time constant equal to 1/ω0.
Furthermore, passing the resulting signal through another identical integrator
results in the third signal involving Vhp namely, (ω0²/s²)Vhp.
Note that in anticipation of the use of the inverting op-amp Miller integrator
circuit to implement each integrator, the integrator blocks have been assigned
negative signs.
In the realization of above figure, Vhp, obtained at the output of the summer,
realizes the high-pass transfer function Thp ≡ Vhp/Vi.
The signal at the output of the first integrator is –(ω0/s)Vhp, which is a bandpass
function,
The transfer function realized at the output of the second integrator is the low-pass
function,
We conclude that the two-integrator-loop biquad shown in block diagram form in

Figure realizes the three basic second-order filtering functions, LP, BP, and HP,
simultaneously.
Circuit Implementation
To obtain an op-amp circuit implementation of the two-integrator-loop biquad
filter.
We replace each integrator with a Miller integrator circuit having CR = 1/ω0, and
we replace the summer block with an op-amp summing circuit that is capable of
assigning both positive and negative weights to its inputs.
The resulting circuit, known as the Kerwin–Huelsman–Newcomb or KHN biquad.

Circuit Implementation
We select suitably practical values for the components C and R of the integrators so
that CR=1/ω0.
To determine the values of the resistors associated with the summer, we first use
superposition to express the output of the summer Vhp in terms of its inputs, Vi,
Vbp, and Vlp as
Compare above two equations
which implies that we can select arbitrary but practically convenient equal
values for R1 and Rf
Now equating the second-to-last terms on the right-hand side of above equations
and setting R1 = Rf yields the ratio R3/R2 required to realize a given Q as
Thus an arbitrary but convenient value can be selected for either R2 or R3, and the
value of the other resistance can be determined using above Eq.
Finally, equating the coefficients of Vi in above Eqs. and substituting Rf = R1 and

results in
Thus the gain parameter K is fixed to this value.

The KHN biquad can be used to realize notch and all-pass functions by summing
weighted versions of the three outputs, LP, BP, and HP.
Such an op-amp summer is shown in Figure
Substituting for Thp, Tbp, and Tlp

Tow–Thomas biquad
An alternative two-integrator-loop biquad circuit in which all three op amps are
used in a single-ended mode can be developed as follows: Rather than using the
input summer to add signals with positive and negative coefficients.
Now we can introduce an additional inverter, as shown in Figure.
Now all the coefficients of the summer have the same sign, and we can dispense
with the summing amplifier altogether and perform the summation at the
virtual-ground input of the first integrator.
Tow–Thomas biquad
Observe that the summing weights of 1, 1/Q, and K are realized by using
resistances of R, QR, and R/K, respectively
Tow–Thomas biquad
Rather than using a fourth op amp to realize the finite transmission zeros required
for the notch and all-pass functions, as was done with the KHN biquad, an
economical feedforward scheme can be employed with the Tow–Thomas circuit.
Specifically, the virtual ground available at the input of each of the three op amps
in the Tow–Thomas circuit permits the input signal to be fed to all three op amps,.
Tow–Thomas biquad
Vo is taken at the output of the damped integrator, straightforward analysis yields
the filter transfer function
Tow–Thomas biquad

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Logarithmic Amplifier

On the other hand, when a logarithmic PN junction obtained from a transistor is

Its voltage-current relationship is thus defined by

where Is is the emitter saturation current and

This problem could be eliminated by employing two transistors Q1 and Q2,

The output Vo2 is

The output VL of the antilog amplifier is fed

The base to emitter voltage of transistors Q1

Normally, Vref is internally set

The output of the multiplier is not saturated.

This method is applicable only to positive values of Vx and Vy.

Among the various configurations,

The mention GIC in figure, which

Find the resulting current I, and then we let Z =

Summing currents at the node common to Z2

V2 = (Z4 V +Z5 V)/Z5

In above equation we put the value of V2

By Eliminating V1 and V2, and solving for the

The circuit now simulates a grounded

The D element can be adjusted by varying one

For good results, use metal-film resistors and

Such filters work well at high frequencies; however, in low-frequency applications

Now we study about inductorless filters or active-RC filters,

For large-volume production, such technologies do not yield the economies

The magnitude of transmission is often expressed in decibels in terms of the gain

in terms of the attenuation function

The range of frequencies from 0 to higher cut-off frequency fH is called passband

However, the specifications require the stopband signals to be attenuated by at least

The transmission of a low-pass filter is specified by four parameters:

The degree of the denominator, N, is the filter order.

Now we assumed that this filter is of fifth

•This bilinear transfer function characterizes a first-order filter with a pole at s =

Low pass filter circuit

At sufficiently high frequencies,

High Pass Filter

Figure shows the location of the pair of

The transmission zeros of the second-order filter are

Low pass Filter Case:

The largest Q before the onset of peaking is Q = 1/ √2 = 0.707.

The function HHP( jω/ω0) can be obtained

Figure indicates that all curves peak at 0 dB.

The value of a2 can be determined from the circuit by observing that as s

Thus the L1C1 tank circuit will

the values of L2 and C2 must be selected

This condition can be satisfied with L2

which can be satisfied while selecting C2

The second term on the right-hand side is a bandpass function with a

Derivation of the Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad

where K is the high-frequency gain.

In above equation we observe that the signal (ω0/s)Vhp can be obtained by

We conclude that the two-integrator-loop biquad shown in block diagram form in

The resulting circuit, known as the Kerwin–Huelsman–Newcomb or KHN biquad.

Compare above two equations

Finally, equating the coefficients of Vi in above Eqs. and substituting Rf = R1 and

Thus the gain parameter K is fixed to this value.

Substituting for Thp, Tbp, and Tlp

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