Chapter 4: Binder

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 Chapter 4: Binder
What are Binders?
Binders are substances that are used to bind inorganic and organic particles and fibres to form strong, hard and/or flexible components.

Binder activity
The binding action is generally due to chemical reaction which take place when the binder is heated, mixed with water and/or other materials, or just
exposed to air.

Egg- based tempera Beewax Bitumen

• Straw helping to mechanically bind clay • Liquid binders are added to a dry substance in order to draw it together in such a way that it maintains a uniform consistency.
together as in the building material cob. • Materials like egg, wax, honey or bitumen as binders to mix with pigment in order to hold the pigment particles together in the formation of paint.
• Clay as an adhesive helping to bind straw
together as in natural insulation

Glue made from Horses Gum arabic Gum karaya

• Organic binders are used in the art form of sculpture.
• An organic binder is glue made from animal source or a gum made from a vegetative source.
Cement is the binder in concrete • The glue is often made by the boiling of hoofs, bonds or skin of animals and then mixing the hard gelatinous residue with water. 2
• Gum-based binders are made from alternatively, the boiling of plants
 Chapter 4: Binder
Classification of binders

Binder

Mineral binders Bituminous binders (Chapter 9) Natural binders Synthetic binders

• Asphalts
• Lime (Hydraulic binders)
• Tar
• Gypsum (Non-hydraulic binders)
• Pitch
• Sulfur (Thermoplastic binders)

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Mineral binders

Hydraulic binders, which require water to harden and develop strength.

Non-hydraulic binders, which can only harden in the presence of air.

Thermoplastic binders, which harden on cooling and become soft when heated again.

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Mineral binders
Hydraulic binders, which require water to harden and develop strength.
· The most common hydraulic binder is cement.

· Hydraulic and semi-hydraulic limes are obtained from burning limestone, which contains a large or moderate amount of clay. This can be easily understood,
since limestone and clay are the main raw materials for cement production.

· Pozzolanas , when mixed with non-hydraulic lime, form a hydraulic cement.

· Hydraulic binders are usually available in the form of a fine powder: the finer they are ground (usually in a ball mill), the larger is the specific surface area (of
the sum of the particles) per unit weight. And the larger the surface area, the more effective and complete is the chemical reaction with the water that it
comes into contact with.

· On account of their affinity to water, hydraulic binders must be stored in absolutely dry conditions, to avoid premature setting and hardening. Even humid
air can cause hydration.

Pozzolanas

Pozzolanas & Lime 5

Lime & Clay
 Chapter 4: Binder
Mineral binders
Non-hydraulic binders, which can only harden in the presence of air.
• The most common non-hydraulic binder is clay, which is present in most soils, causing them to harden on drying and soften when wet. Its main uses are in earth constructions and in the manufacture
of burnt clay products.
• Another common non-hydraulic binder is high calcium or magnesium lime. Hardening depends on its combination with CO2 from the air (carbonation), by which it again becomes CaCO3 (limestone).
But limes are rarely used as the only cementitious binder, and more usually react with clay or a pozzolana to form a hydraulic cement.
• Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder which occurs naturally as a soft crystalline rock or sand. The chemical name is calcium sulphate all-hydrate (CaS04.2H20). By gentle heating up to about 160° C,
calcium sulphate hemi-hydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is produced, more commonly known as "Plaster of Paris", which when mixed with water sets in 8 to 10 minutes. Gypsum plaster has successfully been
produced by means of solar energy. Further heating of gypsum, slightly beyond 200° C (not achieved by solar energy) produces anhydrite gypsum (CaSO4), which when mixed with water, sets very
slowly.
• Gypsum is also abundantly available as an industrial by-product from the evaporation of seawater to produce common salt, or from the manufacture of fertilizer from phosphate rock. The latter is
called phosphogypsum, which contains more water than natural gypsum, is more acidic and has more impurities, so that costly processing is required. It is also to some extent radioactive and
therefore not recommended for use in building.
• Gypsum is used as a building material, mainly as a retarder to regulate the setting of various types of hydraulic cements, and in conjunction with a variety of other materials (eg lime, sand, sawdust,
jute, sisal, linseed oil, paper) to produce renders, boards and masonry blocks.

 The main advantages of gypsum are the low energy input during burning to produce gypsum plaster; rapid drying and hardening, with negligible shrinkage (needing no form-work);
good adhesion to fibrous and other materials; good fire resistance; good sound reflection (if made dense and hard); superior surface finish; resistance to insects and rodents.

 The principle drawback of gypsum plaster is its solubility in water (2 g gypsum per litre of water). Humid air can also soften gypsum plaster. Frost and sudden temperature changes
can also cause damage. On account of this drawback, gypsum should not be used on external surfaces in humid climatic zones, unless it is well protected by wide overhanging
roofs and a water resisting coating (e.g. hot linseed oil).

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Clay High calcium or magnesium lime (Dolomite) Gypsum
 Chapter 4: Binder
Mineral binders

Thermoplastic binders, which harden on cooling and become soft when heated again.

· Thermoplastic materials require heat in order to be processed, and harden on cooling. Their properties remain
unchanged on reheating and cooling, so that they can be reclaimed and reprocessed numerous times.

· Probably the only thermoplastic mineral binder used for building is sulphur.

City sewer collectors biocorrosion

Cent. Eur. J. Eng. • 4(4) • 2014 • 398-407
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Special sulfur binder
 Chapter 4: Binder

Bituminous binders
· Bitumens are mechanical mixtures of different hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and a few other substances, and is obtained as a residue in the distillation of
crude oil, either in petroleum refineries or in nature (in pores of rocks or in the form of lakes, close to petroleum deposits). Bitumens are generally dark black, oily, fluorescent
thermoplastic substances, which are highly viscous to almost solid at normal temperatures. Compounds consisting of at least 40 % of heavy hydrocarbons are called bitumens.

· Asphalts are defined as mixtures containing bitumen and a substantial proportion of inert mineral matter (sand, gravel, etc.). In the USA, bitumen is called asphalt, thus causing
some confusion.

· Tar is the thick black substance produced by the destructive distillation (or carbonisation) of organic matter, such as wood or coal.

· Pitch is the residue after distilling tar from coal.

· Bitumen is not affected by either light, air or water individually, but in combination they can make it brittle, porous and susceptible to oxidation, forming blisters and cracks. It
becomes soft at temperatures between 30° and 100° C (no sharp melting point),and therefore must be protected from exposure to heat. It is insoluble in water and fairly resistant to
most acids. Although bitumen is combustible, composite products, such as mastic asphalt, are not readily ignited. Bitumen and coal tar products may be poisonous, hence contact
with drinking water should be avoided.

· Bituminous products can be used as waterproofing materials (in soil stabilization, as paints, damp-proof membranes, roofing felt, joint fillers, etc.), as paving materials (roads and
floors) and as adhesives (for wood block flooring, insulating linings and felts).

· When bitumen is used, it must be either heated; or mixed with solvents (eg gasoline, kerosene or naphta), which is called "bitumen cutback"; or dispersed in water, which is called
"bitumen emulsion"

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Asphalts Tar Pitch
 Chapter 4: Binder
Natural binders

· A variety of binders are obtained from plants and animals, and can be used in their natural form or after processing.

· Examples of natural binders are plant juices (eg juice of banana leaves; latex of certain trees; sisal juice; coconut
cotton and linseed oils), animal excrete (eg cow dung; horse urine) and other animal products (eg bull's blood;
animal glues from horn, bone, hooves and hide; casein or whey, made from milk).

· Natural birders have played an important role in traditional constructions since prehistoric times, but nowadays face
low social acceptance. However, research today is giving such materials increasing importance, especially with a view
to Cost effectiveness and environmental acceptability.

Linseed oils Glues from horn, bone, hooves and hide Casein or whey, made from milk
Sisal juice

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Synthetic binders
· These binders are generally produced by industrial processes and, therefore, often expensive. Some synthetic binders are toxic.

· They can either be used as admixtures, as adhesives or as surface coatings and are either applied hot, or as an emulsion, or with a solvent.

· Synthetic admixtures which bond loose particles together are mainly resins derived from plant materials or mineral oil. The variety of commercial
products is very large and their use depends on the required performance (strength development, waterproofing, elasticity etc.).

· Adhesives are used to stick larger particles, components, membranes, sheets, boards, tiles, etc. on another surface. Some adhesives are designed
specifically for one job, whilst others can be used for a number of applications. Adhesives can have one or two components. Some adhesives are
thermoplastic and retain their properties when reheated and cooled.

· Surface coatings can be used as a protective film, as a decoration or even to achieve a surface bonding. Here again the variety of products is too
large to be dealt with here.

AAC/ALC Concrete Additives – a type of Multifunctional Weberset Flex White Improved Tile Adhesive Ground Decoration Flooring Surface Coating 10
Chemical Admixtures for Antoclaved Lightweight Concrete
 Chapter 4: Binder

Lime
• Lime is a white caustic alkaline substance which is mainly composed of calcium oxide (CaO).
• Lime deposits are generally found mixed with impurities such as CO2, Fe2O3 and MgCO3
• Depending on the impurities, lime deposits acquire different colors

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Classification of lime
Commercial lime is classified into 3 groups:
1/ Quick lime (Caustic lime)
Quicklime is also called Fat lime, Rich lime, Pure lime.
It contains greater than 93% of CaO by weight, remaining being MgO and very little clay.
It is produced by calcining (burning) the purest available CaCO3. Give out considerable
heat.

> 900o C
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
The purest Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide Carbon dioxide
(Limestone) (Quick lime)

• Swells two to three times of its original volume upon addition of water
• Takes much time in hardening
• Is used for plastering and white washing
• Is not suitable for being used as mortar because of its poor strength and slow
hardening
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 Chapter 4: Binder
Classification of lime
Commercial lime is classified into 3 groups:
2/ Hydrated lime (Slaked lime)
The quicklime is highly reactive and reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime:

CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + heat

Calcium oxide Calcium hydroxide
(Quicklime) (Hydrated or Slaked lime)

Depending on the amount of water added during the slaking process, three forms of hydrated lime are commonly
produced:

• Dry hydrate, a dry, fine powder, formed by adding just enough water to slake the lime (Dry-Slaking), which is dried
by the heat evolved.
• Milk of lime, made by slaking quicklime with a large excess of water (Wet-Slaking) and agitating well, forming a
milky suspension.
• Lime putty, a viscous mass, formed by the settling of the solids in the milk of lime. 13
 Chapter 4: Binder
Classification of lime
Commercial lime is classified into 3 groups:
3/ Hydraulic lime
• It is different in chemical composition form fat lime in that it contains a definite amount of clay
in addition to CaO, clay content in hydraulic lime may range from 10 to 30% by weight.
• This clay plus lime composition gives the hydraulic lime a property of hydraulicity
• Is prepared by burning impure limestone that contains clay, producing compounds similar to
those present in Portland cement.
• It is stronger but less fat or plastic than non-hydraulic lime.
• Hydraulic lime is manufactured in the same way as quick lime, although a somewhat higher
temperature is required in burning

2CaCO3 + Al2O3.SiO2 = CaO · SiO2 + CaO + Al2O3 + 2CO2

Production of hydraulic lime

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Setting and hardening of lime
Slake lime hardens or sets by gradually losing the water through evaporation and absorbing carbon dioxide from the air.
Thus changing back from Ca(OH)2 to CaCO3

The lime circle

Limestone
CaCO3
+ CO2 + Heat
(Drying) (Calcining or Burning)

Ca(OH)2 CaO
Slakelime Quicklime

+ H2 O
(Slaking)
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 Chapter 4: Binder
A correct use of the technical names of lime products

In the chemical language, the term lime is applied only to calcium oxide (formula CaO).
To avoid misunderstanding, other members of the family of materials derived from CaO
exhibiting quite different properties are listed in the following table:

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 Chapter 4: Binder

Use of lime
1/ Lime is used in construction material:
• As mortar (lime mortar) mixed with sand.
• Lime is used in cement mortar to make it more workable.
• As plaster (lime plaster).
• As a whitewash, when it gives a sparkling white finished at a very low cost.
• As lime concrete similar to cement concrete made by mixing lime, sand and
coarse aggregate in proper proportions
• As stabilizers in soil constructions with clayey soils.
• As sand-lime bricks which are quite popular in many countries. Lime mortar Lime plaster

2/ Lime is used in industrial material: lime has many applications in industry:

• As a flux in the metallurgical industry.
• As a refractory material for lining metallurgical furnaces.
• As a raw material for the manufacture of glasses.

Whitewash Sand-lime bricks

3/ Lime is used in agriculture:

• Lime is used for improving the productive qualities of soils.
• It is added to the poor soils to enrich their lime content.
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 Chapter 4: Binder
Distinguish Quicklime from Hydraulic lime
Properties Quicklime Hydraulic lime
Colour White Greyish white
Composition CaO with subordinate amount of clay CaO with 10-30% clay
Slaking qualities - Slakes vigorously - Slakes gently
tróc - Enough heat is liberated that creates hissing and cracking - Not much heat is liberated, so no hissing sounds
sounds - Expands 1-2 times
- Expands 2-3 times - Slaking time 24-48 hours
- Slaking time 3-4 hours
Setting Setting involves absorption of carbon dioxide from Has double setting action. CaO content may set as fat
atmosphere resulting in calcium carbonate. lime and clay forms hydrated aluminates and silicates of
It cannot set under water as it does not have property of calcium similar to cement on setting.
hydraulicity. It can set under water as it has property of hydraulicity.
Strength Not very strong in mortar so may not be used where high Quite strong mortars so can be used in foundation and
strength binders are required wall in place of Portland cement.
Uses White-washing, plastering, making mortars. Use for making mortar in load bearing construction for
Use as a flux in industry and for soil improvement. underground and over-ground superstructures.

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 Chapter 4: Binder

The Gypsum

• Gypsum is a soft white or grey mineral consisting of calcium sulphate dihydrate

(CaSO4.2H2O)
• It is a mineral that occurs in many areas of the world.
• It is a by-product of flue gas desulphurisation, which is the process used at thermal power
stations to reduce the amount of acid rain that they cause.
• Gypsum is also as a by-product of titanium dioxide production .

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 Chapter 4: Binder
The Gypsum cycle
When gypsum is heated, it will calcine to produce hemihydrate (stucco) and water:
Stucco is the material used for plaster and plasterboard (drywall or wallboard).
When mixed with water, stucco will revert back to gypsum, that is, the plaster will set.
It can also be used for block manufacture (for internal use), and floor screeds.

2CaSO4.2H2O  2CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3H2O

Gypsum Hemihydrate (stucco, Plaster of paris)

Hemihydrate can be calcined further to produce anhydrite:

Gypsum is added to cement during manufacture to prevent flash set.
Many producers aim to add a mixture of gypsum and anhydrite.

2CaSO4.1/2H2O  2CaSO4 + H2O

Hemihydrate (stucco) Anhydrite

The lost water of crystallization can be regained under favourable damp or moist conditions.

2CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3H2O  2CaSO4.2H2O

Hemihydrate Gypsum

CaSO4 + 2H2O  CaSO4.2H2O

Anhydrite Gypsum
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 Chapter 4: Binder
Use of gypsum

It is used for
• finishing for wall and ceilings.
• manufacturing of wallboard cement
plaster of paris. Finishing for wall and ceilings Manufacturing of wallboard Ornamentel and decoration purpose
• ornamentel and decoration purpose. cement plaster of paris
• jointing the tiles.
• very fine finishing walls.
• dry wall.
• production of plaster of paris.
• manufacturing of Portland cement.
• toothpastes and hair production. Jointing the tiles Very fine finishing walls Dry wall

• giving color to cosmetics and drugs.

• surgical appliances. CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.1/2H2O
heat

Production of plaster of paris 21

 Chapter 4: Binder

Classification of gypsum

Low burning variety High burning variety

• manufactured by heating
dehydrated Gypsum to a
temperature of about 160°C.
• Ex: building and extra strong
Gypsums.
• obtained by burning
dehydrated Gypsum at
700°C–1000°C, when the
chemically bound water is
lost totally.

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Plaster of Paris
• It is produced by incompletely dehydrating pure finely ground gypsum at a temperature some what lower than 185°C.

• The setting of plaster of paris is attributed to the formation of gypsum crystals from a supersaturated aqueous solution. When substances of
colloidal nature (for example glue) are mixed with the plaster the formation of crystals is hindered and the time of set retarded.

• In hardening, Plaster of Paris first shrinks then expands. The latter property makes the material suitable for making casts, since a sharp
impression of the mould can be secured.

• For the same reason it forms an excellent material for filling cracks, holes in the plastered surfaces and also on the wooden surfaces before
painting/polishing.

• Owing to the rapidity of set and difficulty in working, its use in structures is limited to ornamental works.

• Being unstable in water it should be used for indoor works only

Properties
1. White in colour
2. Setting time is 5 to 10 minutes
3. Specific gravity is 2.57.

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Gypsum wall plasters
Gypsum wall plasters are divided into following four categories

Gypsum neat plaster is 60.5 % or more of calcined gypsum (plaster of paris) with material added to control workability, time of set and cohesiveness.

Gypsum wood fibre plaster is 60.5 % or more of calcined gypsum and, wood fibre 1.0 % or more to increase cohesiveness, and the remaining
material to control workability and time of set.

Calcined gypsum is used for finishing coat. It may or may not carry a retardent. Calcined gypsum may be white or grey.

Gypsum ready sanded plaster consists of cementing material, predominantly calcined gypsum, which has been mixed at the mill with the proper
proportions of sand and other desirable constituents. It is prepared for use simply by adding water. There are two grades of Gypsum Ready Sanded
Plaster, the scratch or first coat (containing 2 sand to 1 cementing material by weight) and the browning or second coat (containing 3 sand to 1
cementing material by weight). The cementing material carries at least 60.5 % by weight of calcined gypsum and other ingredients to control set and
workability.

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 Chapter 4: Binder
Hard finish plaster
• When gypsum is burnt at considerably high temperature than that for calcining of cement plaster, and treated with certain
solutions like alum and Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4), the plasters so produced show slow setting but ultimately become very hard.

• Such plasters may be polished to form a smooth surface and make a very satisfactory finish for interior walls.

• Often walls of these plasters are marked to imitate tiling with pleasing effects.

• Two commercial hard finish plaster cements are available.

Mack's cement is made by burning gypsum at a very high temperature and adding about 0.4 % of burnt
Glauber’s salt or potassium sulphate.

It is said to form unusually hard, dense and durable surface which will take paint very well.

Keene's cement is made by burning a very pure rock gypsum at a red heat (700°C), cooling, and then adding
1.0 % of potassium and aluminium sulphates to accelerate the set.

Subsequently the material is ground so that 90 per cent or more passes No. 100 sieve. It is pure CaSO4 of
pure white colour.

Keene’s cement is not injured by storage and mortars of it may be retempered. Set occurs between 20
minutes to 6 hours. At 7 days the tensile strength is 3.16 N/mm2.
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It is used as a finish plaster only where a greater resistance to moisture and surface abrasion is required
 Chapter 4: Binder
Gypsum plaster boards
• It is a gypsum product of recent origin made of thin layers of card board or wood cemented together with wall plaster, used for lining walls and ceiling
of buildings.

• The boards may be strengthened by incorporating fibers as fibrous gypsum plaster boards. Sisal or coconut fibers are generally used. They are very
light weight and have high fire resisting properties.

They are classified as

Gypsum wall boards
Gypsum wall board with reduced water absorption rate
Gypsum wall boards with improved core cohesion at high temperature
Gypsum plaster base board
Gypsum plaster base board with improved cohesion at high temperature
Fire resistant gypsum wall boards
It has a face to which decoration may be applied.
These boards have additives in the core and/or the paper liners to reduce
water absorption rate.
These boards have mineral fibers and/or other additives in the gypsum
core to improve core cohesion at high temperature. These have a face
suitable for direct direction.
These boards have a face suitable to receive gypsum plaster and may be
perforated during primary manufacturing.
It is a combination of the above two.
These boards have cores containing special mineral materials.

Gypsum wall boards Gypsum board with increased water and Fire resistant gypsum plasterboard Gypsum plaster base board Fire resistant gypsum wall boards 26
moisture resistance drywall system
 Chapter 4: Binder

Non – load bearing gypsum partition blocks

These can be solid or hollow, rectangular with straight and square edges and true surfaces.

The compressive strength of these partition blocks should not be less than 50 N/m2 on gross area.

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 Chapter 4: Binder

Pyrocell

• It is finely ground powder containing an admixture, forms a gas on being mixed with water and
expands the mixture to 3 or 4 times its volume.

• This inflated paste hardens into a light, cellular, fire resistant mass possessing good acoustical and
insulating properties.

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