UNIT 4

ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Analog Electronics (no mathematical treatment and design) Half and full wave rectifiers,
special purpose diodes -zener regulator, BJT and its applications, amplifier, oscillator,
overview of opto-electronics devices, optocouplers, concepts of transducer, Operational
amplifier (IC-741), Inverting and Non-Inverting, Comparator, Timer (IC-555) and
multivibrators.

WHAT IS ANALOG ELECTRONICS:

Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with a continuously variable signal.
It’s widely used in radio and audio equipment along with other applications where signals are
derived from analog sensors before being converted into digital signals for subsequent storage
and processing. Although digital circuits are considered as a dominant part of today’s
technological world, some of the most fundamental components in a digital system are actually
analog in nature.
DIODE:
What is a Diode?
Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC into
DC. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Even
though they transmit current in a single direction, the way with which they transmit differs.
There are different kinds of diodes and each type has its own applications.

Diode Symbol

A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can see that there
are two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the anode that
represents the direction of the conventional current flow in the forward biased condition. The
other end is the cathode.
V-I Characteristics of Diode:
VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through
the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The
above graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help of the
curve, we can understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:

 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied and
this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.
When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage.
When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For
silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3
V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is non-
linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode
overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as the
external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.
When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
negative terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage.
This results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the
beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction.

ZENER DIODE
A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device
that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the voltage across the terminals of a
Zener diode is reversed and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the junction
breaks down and the current flows in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener
Effect.
The Zener Diode AS A VOLTAGE Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage independent of
the load current, temperature and AC line voltage variations. A Zener diode of break down
voltage is reverse connected to an input voltage source across a load resistance and a series
resistor. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down voltage for all the
values of zener current as long as the current remains in the break down region. Hence a
regulated DC output voltage is obtained across, whenever the input voltage remains within a
minimum and maximum voltage. Basically there are two type of regulations such as:

Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only
input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value.
Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is
varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a
minimum value.

RECTIFIER: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current, which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current, which flows in only one direction. The reverse
operation is performed by the inverter. The process is known as rectification, since it
"straightens" the direction of current.

What is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction
diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversed biased it provides high
resistance. During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is applied
and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half-cycles, the optimum
result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of the
input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a positive half
cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be
decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply will
reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will be
reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated, and we cannot get
power at the load resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse bias
due to minority carriers.
Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Affordable
 Simple connections
 Easy to use as the connections are simple
 Number of components used are less
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Ripple production is more
 Harmonics are generated
 Utilization of the transformer is very low
 The efficiency of rectification is low
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:
 Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power
rectification as powering equipment.
 Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
 Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.
What is Full Wave Rectifier?
Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current which is
purely DC. The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that such as
the average output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in full-
wave rectifier when compared to the half-wave rectifier.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n junction is forward
biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is reverse biased it gives high resistance.
The circuit is designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is forward biased
then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
 The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
 The power loss is very low
 Number of ripples generated are less
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier
 Very expensive
Applications of Full Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:
 Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this
bridge rectifiers are used.
 Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.

What is a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)?

A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of two p-n
junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The
three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter. A signal of a small
amplitude applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the collector of the transistor.
This is the amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of
DC power supply to carry out the amplification process.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Symbol

Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT is a semiconductor device that is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor Regions i.e.
Base, Collector & Emitter separated by 2 p-n Junctions. Bipolar transistors are manufactured
in two types, PNP and NPN, and are available as separate components, usually in large
quantities. The prime use or function of this type of transistor is to amplify current. This makes
them useful as switches or amplifiers. They have a wide application in electronic devices like
mobile phones, televisions, radio transmitters, and industrial control.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:

 Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.

 Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and operates as a switch
such that collector current is equal to the saturation current.
 Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and collector current is
equal to zero.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:

 PNP bipolar junction transistor

 NPN bipolar junction transistor

PNP BJT
In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-type semiconductors.
The two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the n-type
semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below.
The current enters the transistor through the emitter such that the emitter-base junction is
forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

NPN BJT
In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type semiconductors.
The two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the p-type
semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below.

Current entering the emitter, base, and collector has the sign convention of positive while the
current that leaves the transistor has the sign convention of negative.

Function of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJTs are of two types namely NPN and PNP based on doping types of the three main
terminals. An NPN transistor consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin p-doped
anode region and PNP transistor also consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin
n- doped cathode region.
The flow of charge in a Bipolar transistor is due to the diffusion of charge carriers between the
two regions belonging to different charge concentrations. Regions of BJT are known as the
base, collector, and emitter.
The emitter region is highly doped when compared to other layers. Both collector and base
layers have the same charge carrier concentrations. Among these junctions, the base-emitter
junction is forward biased, and the base-collector junction is reverse biased. Forward biased
means p-doped region has more potential than the n-doped side.
What is an amplifier?
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting, and in audio equipment of
all kinds. They can be categorized as either weak-signal amplifiers or power amplifiers.

In electronic circuits, we use an electronic device called operational amplifier (Op-Amp). The
operational amplifier is a high-gain multistage differential amplifier. It has two inputs and one
output, where the input terminals are named as inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal.
The inverting terminal of the Op-Amp is marked with positive (+) polarity, whereas the
noninverting represents the negative (-) polarity terminal.
Depending on the circuit configuration, the operational amplifier has two terminals, Inverting
and Non-inverting:
 Inverting: The input signal is applied at the negative (called inverting) terminal of the
amplifier. An operational amplifier (or Op-Amp) which is designed to produce an output
signal that is 180° out of phase with the applied input signal is called an inverting
amplifier.
  Non-Inverting: the input signal is applied at the positive (called non-inverting) terminal.
A type of operational amplifier in which the input signal and the amplified output signal
have the similar phase, then the amplifier is known as non-inverting amplifier.
OSCILLATOR
An oscillator is a type of circuit that controls the repetitive discharge of a signal, and there are
two main types of oscillator; a relaxation, or a harmonic oscillator. This signal is often used
in devices that require a measured, continual motion that can be used for some other purpose.
An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous, repeated, alternating waveform without
any input. Oscillators basically convert unidirectional current flow from a DC source into an
alternating waveform which is of the desired frequency, as decided by its circuit components.
The basic principle behind the working of oscillators can be understood by analyzing the
behavior of an LC tank circuit shown in Figure 1 below, which employs an inductor L and a
completely pre-charged capacitor C as its components. Here, at first, the capacitor starts to
discharge via the inductor, which results in the conversion of its electrical energy into the
electromagnetic field, which can be stored in the inductor. Once the capacitor discharges
completely, there will be no current flow in the circuit.

What is a Colpitts Oscillator?

A Colpitts Oscillator is a type of LC oscillator. Colpitts oscillators were invented by American
engineer Edwin H. Colpitts in 1918. Like other LC oscillators, Colpitts oscillators use a
combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) to produce an oscillation at a certain frequency.
The distinguishing feature of the Colpitts oscillator is that the feedback for the active device is
taken from a voltage divider made of two capacitors in series across the inductor.
 OPTO-ELECTRONICS DEVICES
Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which includes the study,
design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light
into energy through semiconductors. This device is made from solid crystalline materials which
are lighter than metals and heavier than insulators. Optoelectronics device is basically an
electronic device involving light. This device can be found in many optoelectronics
applications like military services, telecommunications, automatic access control systems and
medical equipments.
Types of Optoelectronics Devices
Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as
 Photodiode
 Solar Cells
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Optical Fiber
 Laser Diodes

Photo Diode
A photo diode is a semiconductor light sensor that generates a voltage or current when light
falls on the junction. It consists of an active P-N junction, which is operated in reverse bias.
When a photon with plenty of energy strikes the semiconductor, an electron or hole pair is
created. The electrons diffuse to the junction to form an electric field.
This electric field across the depletion zone is equal to a negative voltage across the unbiased
diode. This method is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. This device can be used in
three modes: photovoltaic as a solar cell, forward biased as an LED and reverse biased as
a photo detector. Photodiodes are used in many types of circuits and different applications such
as cameras, medical instruments, safety equipment’s, industries, communication devices and
industrial equipment’s.
Solar Cells
A solar cell or photo-voltaic cell is an electronic device that directly converts sun’s energy into
electricity. When sunlight falls on a solar cell, it produces both a current and a voltage to
produce electric power. Sunlight, which is composed of photons, radiates from the sun. When
photons hit the silicon atoms of the solar cell, they transfer their energy to lose electrons; and
then, these high-energy electron flow to an external circuit.

The solar cell is composed of two layers which are struck together. The first layer is loaded
with electrons, so these electrons are ready to jump from the first layer to the second layer. The
second layer has some electrons taken away, and therefore, it is ready to take more electrons.
The advantages of solar cells are that, there is no fuel supply and cost problem. These are very
dependable and require little maintenance.
The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, ocean
navigation aids, electric power generation system in space and remote monitoring and control
systems.
The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, ocean
navigation aids, and electric power generation in space and remote monitoring and control
systems and also used in different solar energy based projects such as
 Solar Energy Measurement System
 Arduino based Solar Street Light
 Solar Powered Auto Irrigation System
 Solar Power Charge Controller
 Sun Tracking Solar Panel

Light-Emitting Diodes

Light-emitting diode is a P-N semiconductor diode in which the recombination of electrons

and holes yields a photon. When the diode is electrically biased in the forward direction, it
emits incoherent narrow spectrum light. When a voltage is applied to the leads of the LED, the
electrons recombine with the holes within the device and release energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called as electroluminescence. It is the conversion of electrical energy into light.
The color of the light is decided by the energy band gap of the material.
 Light Emitting Diode
The usage of LED is advantageous as it consumes less power and produces less heat. LEDs
last longer than incandescent lamps. LEDs could become the next generation of lighting and
used anywhere like in indication lights, computer components, medical devices, watches,
instrument panels, switches, fiber-optic communication, consumer electronics, household
appliances, etc.

What is a Transducer?
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. The process
of converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction.

Some common examples of transducers include loudspeakers, microphones, thermometers and

LEDs.

Why do we need a transducer?

To determine the exact magnitude of physical forces such as temperature and pressure is
difficult. But, if these physical forces are converted into an electrical signal, then their values
can be easily determined using a meter. The primary function of transducers is to convert a
physical force into an electrical signal so that it can be easily handled and transmitted for
measurement.
Advantages of converting a physical quantity into an electrical signal
Here, we have listed the various advantages of converting a physical quantity into an electrical
signal:
  Electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.
 Electrical signals process less friction error.
 Small power is needed to control the electrical systems.
 Amplification and attenuation of electrical signals are easy.
 The measuring instrument used for measuring the electrical signal is very compact and
accurate.

OPTO-COUPLER
An optocoupler (also called optoisolator) is a semiconductor device that allows an electrical
signal to be transmitted between two isolated circuits. Two parts are used in an optocoupler:
an LED that emits infrared light and a photosensitive device that detects light from the LED.
Both parts are contained within a black box with pins for connectivity. The input circuit takes
the incoming signal, whether the signal is AC or DC, and uses the signal to turn on the LED.
The photosensor is the output circuit that detects the light and depending on the type of output
circuit, the output will be AC or DC. Current is first applied to the optocoupler, making the
LED emit an infrared light proportional to the current going through the device. When the light
hits the photosensor a current is conducted, and it is switched on. When the current flowing
through the LED is interrupted, the IR beam is cut-off, causing the photosensor to stop
conducting.

COMPARATOR:
A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs that are applied to it and
produces an output. The output value of the comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater
or lesser. Please note that comparator falls under non-linear applications of ICs.
An op-amp consists of two input terminals and hence an op-amp based comparator compares
the two inputs that are applied to it and produces the result of comparison as the output. This
chapter discusses about op-amp based comparators.
Types of Comparators
Comparators are of two types: Inverting and Non-inverting. This section discusses about
these two types in detail.
Inverting Comparator
An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is
applied to its non-inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its inverting terminal.
This comparator is called as inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be
compared is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp.
The circuit diagram of an inverting comparator is shown in the following figure.

Non-Inverting Comparator
A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is
applied to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal.
This op-amp based comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input
voltage, which has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following figure
MULTIVIBRATOR
A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It generates non-sinusoidal waves
such as Square waves, Rectangular waves and Saw tooth waves etc. Multivibrators are used as
frequency generators, frequency dividers and generators of time delays and also as memory
elements in computers etc.
A Transistor basically functions as an amplifier in its linear region. If a transistor amplifier
output stage is joined with the previous amplifier stage, such a connection is said to be coupled.
If a resistor is used in coupling two stages of such an amplifier circuit, it is called as Resistance
coupled amplifier. For more details, refer to the AMPLIFIERS tutorial.
According to the definition, A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled amplifier with
positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of the other.
Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state of the other. Hence the
ON and OFF states of the whole circuit, and the time periods for which the transistors are
driven into saturation or cut off are controlled by the conditions of the circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of a Multivibrator.