Unit 2 AC Circuits Topics

Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals
Unit 2
AC Circuits
Topics:
1. Generation of AC Signal
2. Alternating quantities:
a. Instantaneous, RMS and Average values
b. Form Factor and Crest factor
3. Analysis of AC Circuits:
a. Resistive circuit
b. Inductive circuit
c. Capacitive circuit
d. Series R-L circuit
e. Series R-C circuit
f. Series R-L-C circuit
4. Resonant circuit
a. Series resonant circuit
5. Numericals on all of the above topics.
6. Three-Phase AC Signal Generation and Relation between Line and Phase Quantities
1
Unit 2
A.C.FUNDAMENTALS
2.1 : Generation of Alternating Voltage and Current:-
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field as shown in fig. 1(a) or 1(b).
Consider a rectangular coil having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field with an angular velocity
of ω rad/sec in anticlockwise direction as shown in fig. 2. In time t second, this coil rotates through an angle
θ = wt. Maximum flux Φm links the coil when its plane co-insides with the x-axis. In deflected position the
plane of coil is Φ = Φm cos(ωt). Hence, flux total linkages of the coil at any time are NΦ = N Φm cos(ωt).
Equations of the Alternating voltage and current:-

According to faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction the emf induced in the coil is given by the rate of
change of flux linkage of the coil. Hence the value of the induced emf is
𝑑(𝑁∅) 𝑑(𝑁∅𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑒=− 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = − = −𝑁∅𝑚 𝜔(− sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑒 = 𝑁𝜔∅𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ----------(1)
When the coil has turned through 90o i.e. when θ = 90o then sin θ =1, hence e has maximum value say Em.
Then from equation (1) we get
Em =ω N Bm A Volts --- (2).

Where Bm = maximum flux density in wb/m2.
A = area of the coil in m2, f = frequency in rev./sec.
Substitute this value of Em in equations (1), we get
2
e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt --- (3)
Similarly the equations of induced current is I = Im sin ωt------------------------ (4)

Provided the load is resistive, w = 2πf.
2
e = Em sin 2πft = Em sin( )t
T
2
& I = Im sin 2πft = Im sin ( )t
T
where T = time period of a.c. voltage or current.
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in the coil, strength of the
field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
2.2 Parameters of a AC signal:

a. Cycle: -
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one set of positive and negative values is called its time
period T.
For example a 50 Hz A.C. has a time period of ( 1 ) second.

50
b. Frequency ( f ): -
The number cycles / second is called the frequency of the A.C. quantity.
𝑃𝑁
𝑓 = 120 Where N = revolutions in rpm and P = number of poles.
For example an alternator having 20 poles and running at 300 rpm will generate A.C. voltage and current
20  300
whose frequency is f = = 50 Hz & f = 1 .
120 T
c. Instantaneous amplitude v(t): The value of the alternating quantity at a particular instant of time is known
as instantaneous value,
d. Peak Amplitude (Vm): - The maximum value positive or negative of an alternating quantity is known as
its amplitude.
e. Phase (ϴ): - By phase of an A.C. current is meant the fraction of time period of that A.C current which has
elapsed since the current last passed through the zero position of reference.
For example: the phase of current at point A (T/4 sec) , where T is time period in terms of angle it is ϴ=ωt=
=
2𝜋 𝑇
radians (fig. No. 3).
𝑇 4 2
Similarly, the phase of the rotating coil at the instant shown in fig. (4) (a) is θ = ωt which is called its phase
angle.
3
2.3 CONCEPT OF LEADING AND LAGGING AC QUATITIES
Consider three similar single turn coils displaced from each other by angles α and β rotating in a uniform
magnetic field with the same angular velocity fig. 5(a).
In this case the values of induced emf’s in the three coils are the same but there is one important difference,
The emf’s in three phase coils do not reach their maximum or zero value simultaneously but one after another.
The three sinusoidal wave are shown in fig. 5(b). It is seen that curve B and C are displaced from curve A by
angles β and (α + β) respectively.
Hence it means that phase difference between A and B is β and between B and C is α, but between A and C
is (α + β). The statement however, does not give indication as to which emf reaches its maximum value first.
This deficiency is supplied by using the terms ‘lag’ and ‘lead’.
A lagging A.C. quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero value later than taken the other quantity.
For example in fig.5(b) B lags behind A by β & C lags behind A by (α + β) because they reach their maximum
value later . The three equations for the instantaneous induced emf’s are
eA = Em sin ωt ------- reference signal

eB = Em sin (ωt – β)—lagging signal
eC = Em sin [ωt - (α + β) ]
4
In fig. (6), quantity B leads A by angle Φ hence their equations are

eA = Em sin ωt ------- reference
eB = Em sin (ωt + Φ)---leading signal
2.4 VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

The value of alternating voltage and current keeps on changing from instant to instant. Hence the magnitude
of the alternating quantity is expressed in following ways:
a. Peak value
b. Average value
c. Rms or effective value
a. PEAK VALUE:
Peak value is the maximum value of the alternating quantity represented by Vm.
b. AVERAGE VALUE :
The average value Iav of an A.C. current is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any circuit.
It is the arithmetic average of all the values of alternating quantities over one cycle.
MID ORDINATE METHOD:-

i1 + i2 + i3 + ....... + in
From fig. (7) Iav =
n
5
ANALYTICAL METHOD:-
A standard equation of a sinusoidal A.C. current is
I = Im sinθ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
Average value = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

id id
T
Iav = 0 (T − 0) =  ( − 0)
0
1
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑖(𝜃)𝑑𝜃
𝜋
=
Im
 sin d =
Im
− cos 0 =
2 Im
 0  
2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋
Therefore Iav = 0.637Im

Similarly Vav = 0.637Vm
c. ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) Value:-

RMS value is also known as the effective value of the ac quantity. It is the criterion to measure the
effectiveness of an alternating current (or voltage). The RMS value of an A.C. current is given by that steady
(D.C.) current which when following through a given circuit for a given time does the same work (produces
the same heat) as produced by the A.C. current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
MID ORINATED METHOD: -
In fig no.(7) are shown the positive half cycles for both symmetrical sinusoidal and non- sinusoidal alternating
current.
Divide time base ‘t’ into n equal interval be respectively I1, I2, I3 …….. In, then.
I2 = I12+ I22+ I32 …….. In2
n
I= I12+I22+I32………In2
n
6
Similarly, the RMS value of alternating voltage is given by

V= V12+V22+V32………Vn2
n
Analytical Method:-
The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is I = Im sinwt = Im sinθ
The mean of the square of the instantaneous value of current over one complete cycle is
i 2 d
T
I2 = 0 (T − 0) let T= 2п, the square root is
2 2
i d
I = 
0
2
i =Im sinθ
Hence the rms value of alternating current is

2
Im 2  sin 2d
0
I =
2
1 − cos 2
Now cos2θ = 1- 2sin2 θ because sin2 θ =
2
2
Im 2  (1 − cos 2 )d 2
Im  sin 2 
 − 2 
0
Irms = =
4 4  0
Im 2 Im
Irms =  2 = = 0.707 Im
4 2
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
Hence we find for a symmetrical sine wave
Irms =0.707 Im
It should be noted that the average heating effect produced during one cycle is
2
2
Im R
P = Irms2R =  Im  R =
 2 2
Form Factor:-
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
It is defined as the ratio 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔
0.707 𝐼𝑚
For the sine wave 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
0.637 𝐼𝑚
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Crest or Peak or Amplitude factor:-

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼
It is defined as the ratio 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =𝐼𝑚
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑟𝑚𝑠
Im
For the sine wave Ka = = 2 = 1.41414
Im
2
Note: For sine wave: Form factor = 1.11, Peak factor = 1.414
Example: RMS VALUE OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIED AC CURRENT
Half wave (HW) rectified alternating current is one whose one cycle has been suppressed i.e. one which flows
for half the time during one cycle as shown in fig. (8)
The half wave rectified current equation is given as
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋
=0 , 𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋


Im 2  sin 2d
i 2 d
0 2 =
0
So Irms =
2

Im 2  (1 − cos 2 )d I 2 m  sin 2 

−
4  2  0
0
So Irms = =
4
Im 2 Im 2 Im
So Irms =  = = = 0.5 Im
4 4 2
AVERAGE VALUE OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIED AC CURRENT:

T
1 
T 0
id 1
2 0
Iav = = I m sin d
=
Im
− cos 0 = Im  2
2 2
Im
Iav =

8
FORM FACTOR OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIED AC CURRENT:

Irms Im 2 
FORM FACTOR = = = = 1.57
Iav Im  2
𝐼 𝐼𝑚
PEAK FACTOR = 𝐼 𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 =2
𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
2.5 PHASOR / VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF AC QUANTITY:

A sinusoidal ac signal is represented by 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Another method to represent the sine wave is vector representation of the sine wave.
In vector representation, the alternating voltage/current is represented by a vector rotating counter clockwise
with the same frequency as that of a.c. quantity.
For example:
In fig. 9(a), OP is such a vector which represents 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.
The maximum value of the ac voltage is OP & its angle with X-axis gives its phase.
The projection of OP on y-axis at any instant gives the instantaneous value of ac voltage thereby reproducing
the ac voltage.
OM = OP sin ωt
e = OP sin ωt = Em sin ωt
Fig 9
The line OP represents an ac voltage or current if it satisfies the following conditions.

(1) Its length should be equal to the peak or maximum of the sine wave a.c. current to a suitable scale.
(2) It should be in be in horizontal position at the same instant as the ac quantity is zero and
it is increasing.
(3) Its angular velocity should be such that it completes one revolution in the same time as taken by the ac
quantity to complete one cycle.
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2.6 PHASOR / VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF SINE WAVES OF SAME FREQUENCIES:
Two or more sine waves of same frequency can be shown on the same vector diagram, because the various
vector r/epresenting different waves all rotate counter-clockwise at the same frequency & maintain a fixed
position relative to each other.
Example: e and i are two waveforms with same frequency are shown i(t) =Im sinωt and e = Emsin(ωt+α) and
hence can be shown on the same phasor diagram as shown in fig. 10 a. Also note that phasor e leads the phasor
i by a phase angle α.
2.7 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF PHASORS:
The phasor can be represented mathematically in two ways:
(a) Rectangular form
(b) Polar form
(a) Rectangular form:
Fig. 11
The vector I is resolved into horizontal and vertical components and expressed in complex form
as 𝐼 ̅ = 𝑎 ± 𝑗𝑏
Rectangular form of representation is used for addition and subtraction of multiple ac quantities.
(b) Polar form:
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼|∠ ± 𝜃
𝑏
|𝐼| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎
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Numericals
I. Maximum value, Frequency, Time period, Instantaneous value, Value at a given time,
1. An alternating voltage is represented by v(t) = 141.4sin 377t.
Find (i) maximum value (ii) frequency (iii) time period (iv) instantaneous value of voltage at t = 3
msec.
Ans: (i) 141.4V (ii) 60Hz (iii) 16.67ms (iv) 127.94V
2. An alternating current takes 3.375 msec to reach 15A for the first time after becoming instantaneously
zero. The frequency of current is 40 Hz. Find the maximum value of alternating current.
Ans: 20 A
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3. An alternating voltage of time period 0.02sec has maximum value of 12V. Write the equation for its
instantaneous value. Calculate the instantaneous value of the voltage after 0.002sec, where reference
is taken from the instant of zero voltage and is becoming positive. Also calculate the time required for
the voltage to reach 4V for the first time.
12
4. An alternating current of frequency 60Hz has a maximum of 120A. Write down the equation for its
instantaneous value. Find (i) the instantaneous value after 1/360 from the instant current is zero and
is becoming positive (ii) the time taken to reach 96 A for the first time.
Ans: (i) 103.3A (ii) 0.00245 sec
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II. RMS, Average , Peak factor, Form factor

1. Find the following parameters of the given voltage v(t) = 200 sin 314 t.
(i) Frequency (ii) Form factor (iii) crest factor
Ans: (i) 50 Hz (ii) Form factor = 1.11 (iii) Crest factor = 1.41
2. A non sinusoidal volatage is having form factor as 1.2 and peak factor as 1.5. If the average value of
the voltage is 10V. Calculate (i) rms value (ii) maximum value
Ans: Vrms = 12V Vm = 18V
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3. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 c/s has an rms value of 20A. Write
down the equation for the instantaneous value and find this value at (i) 0.0025 sec (ii) 0.0125 sec after
passing through zero and increasing positively (iii) at what time measured from zero will the value of
the instantaneous current be 14.14A ?
15
4. Compute the average and effective values of the square voltage wave shown in figure.
Ans: Vavg = 6.67V , Vrms = 11.5V
16
5. Find the average value of the waveform shown in figure.
Ans: Vavg = 6.366V
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6. Find (i) rms value (ii) form factor for a symmetric triangular waveform shown in Fig
Ans: Vrms = 5.77V
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Vrms = 5.77V
19
7. A full rectified wave is clipped at 70.7% of its maximum value as shown in figure. Find its average
and rms value.
20
21
8. Find the average and rms value of current given by i(t) = 10 + 10sinθ.
22
9. Find the rms and average value of the waveform shown below.
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ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS:
The resistance , inductance and capacitance are the basic elements of any electrical network. In order to
analyse any electrical circuit, it is necessary to understand the following three cases:
a. AC through pure resistor circuit
b. AC through pure inductive circuit
c. AC through pure capacitive circuit
2.8 A.C. ANALYSIS OF A RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:
The circuit diagram for resistive circuit with ac source v(t) = Vm sinωt is shown in fig. 12(a) where R=
resistance.
The alternating voltage causes an alternating current i(t) to flow through the circuit given as:
𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 , where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅
i(t) is the instantaneous value

Im is the maximum value of the ac current.
The waveform for i(t) and v(t) is as shown below:
Instantaneous power of resistive circuit:

Power consumed by the circuit at any instant is given as the product of the voltage and current at that instant.
Instantaneous power is given as:
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
Where, 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
24
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡)
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃(𝑡) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
2 2
The instantaneous power consists of two components
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
a. Power consist of dc component and
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
b. a fluctuating part of frequency
2
Fig. 13 Plot of instantaneous power
Average power consumed by a resistive circuit:

The instantaneous power consumed by the resistive circuit is
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃(𝑡) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
2 2
The average power over one complete cycle is given as
2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= 1 ∫ 𝑃(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0
Substituting P(t) and solving the integration,

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Avg power = RMS power 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Power factor = (Avg Power/RMS power)
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = . = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
√2 √2
Vrms = rms value of the applied voltage v(t)

Irms = rms value of the circuit current i(t)
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Phasor diagram:
The applied voltage and resultant circuit current for a purely resistive circuit are given by equation:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
The waveform of i(t) and v(t) is given below:
The phasor diagram is shown below:
I V
It is clear from the equation that the applied voltage and resultant current are in phase with each other.
1. Power factor of purely resistive circuit = 1
2. There is no phase difference between the voltage and current hence phase difference between 𝑉̅ and 𝐼 ̅
is φ = 0.
3. Power factor of the circuit is : PF=cos Φ
4. Power consumed is given as :
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 1 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2.9 A.C . ANALYSIS OF A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit with an ac source applied to a pure inductor of value L Henrys.
Fig. 14 : Purely inductive circuit
The applied ac voltage is given as 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

As a result of the applied voltage , an alternating current i(t) flows through the circuit.
This alternating current sets up a alternating magnetic field around the inductance.
The changing flux links the coil and an emf is induced in it.
This emf is called as self induced emf ( e=L di/dt).
The self induced emf is also called as back emf.
The back emf at every step opposes the rise or fall of current through the coil.
26
As there is no ohmic voltage drop, the applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only. So at any
instant the self-induced emf is equal and opposite to the applied voltage
di
v (t) = L
dt
Vm
L 
Therefore, i = sin wtdt
Since, applied voltage v (t) = Vmsinωt

Vm Vm
So i = (− cos wt ) = − cos wt [ constant = 0]
wL wL
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
So 𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿
Series RL circuit:
Applied voltage: v (t) = Vmsinωt
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Resultant current in a series RL circuit is 𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝑋𝐿
𝜋
The value of i(t) is maximum when sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) = 1
𝑉𝑚
Maximum current: 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝑚
Substituting 𝐼𝑚 = , we get
𝑋𝐿
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 −
)
2
Therefore for a purely inductive circuit the applied voltage and the resultant current are given as :
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − )
2
𝑉𝑚
Where, 𝐼𝑚 = is the maximum / peak current
𝑋𝐿
Phasor diagram:
The applied voltage and resultant current for a purely inductive circuit is given as:
Applied voltage: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current : 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
From the above equations, it is seen that the for a purely inductive circuit current lags behind the voltage
by π/2.
27
.
Fig. 15: Waveforms of v(t) and i(t)
Phasor diagram (RL circuit):
Applied voltage: 𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0𝑜
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚
Resultant current : 𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠−90𝑜 , where 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = , 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 and 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (for sinusoidal ac source).
𝑋𝐿 √2
𝑉̅
Slide 27 𝐼̅
𝑉̅
Clearly, The current lags behind the applied voltage by quarter cycle (90o).
Average power consumed by an inductive circuit:
Instantaneous power
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
𝜋
Where, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝜋
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
= −𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃(𝑡) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 -----Instantaneous power
2
Average power consumed by pure inductive circuit over one cycle is given as:
1 2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑃(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
2𝜋 0 2
28
Average power consumed by a purely inductive circuit is 0.

That is demand of power from the supply for a complete cycle is zero.
During the positive half cycle the applied voltage, power is positive and flows from source to inductor and
build up the magnetic field around inductor. That is energy supplied by source is stored in form of magnetic
field of inductor.
During the negative half cycle power is negative and power flows from inductor to source, that is as current
falls the magnetic field collapses and returns the stored energy back to source.
Hence the resultant power over one complete cycle of applied voltage = 0.
That is pure inductor consumes no power.
Reactive power: When power is positive, energy is put into the circuit to build the magnetic field around the
inductor. When power is negative, magnetic energy is returned to the supply.
Since power supplied is equal to the power returned, net power consumed is zero. The power circulates in the
circuit and is called REACTIVE POWER.
Power factor of purely inductive circuit = 0
Power factor: PF=cos Φ
where φ is the phase difference between the applied voltage and the resultant current.
Φ=90o
PF=cos 90o = 0
Power consumed is given as : 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0 = 0
Power consumed by an inductive circuit =0.
2.10 AC ANALYSIS OF PURE CAPACITOR
Fig. 16: Pure Capacitor circuit

Consider the circuit with an alternating voltage source connected to capacitor C Farad shown in Fig. 16.
The applied voltage is given as 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.
As a result of the applied voltage, an alternating current i(t) will flow through the circuit.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is charged first in one direction
and then in the opposite direction.
Charge on capacitor, q = C. v(t)
29
v = p.d. developed between plates at any instant,

q = charge on plate at that instant,
The current i(t) flowing through the capacitive circuit is given by the rate of change of charge per unit time
i.e.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝐶. 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑 (𝐶. 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑑𝑣
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑑 (𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 1
𝑖(𝑡) = sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ), Where 𝑋𝑐 =
𝑋𝑐 𝜔𝐶
𝜋 𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 ), where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑋𝑐
𝑋𝑐 is known as capacitive reactance and is in ohms if C is in Farad and ω is in radians/sec.
Series RC circuit:
Applied voltage: v (t) = Vmsinωt
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Resultant current in a series RC circuit is 𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
𝑋𝑐 2
Hence the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle ( π/2) as shown in fig. (17).
Fig. 18: Waveform of voltage and current for pure capacitor circuit
Power:-
Instantaneous power 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
𝜋
Where, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
30
𝜋
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡----------instantaneous power
2
Average power consumed by pure inductive circuit over one cycle is given as:
1 2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑃(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Therefore, the average power consumed by a capacitor = 0
When voltage rises across the plates of a capacitor, energy is supplied by the source and is stored in the
capacitor in the form of electrostatic field energy. As the voltage falls , the electrostatic field collapses and
returns the stored energy to the source.
Since the power supplied during positive half of ac voltage is equal to the power returned during the negative
half cycle of the ac voltage, the net power consumed by the pure capacitive circuit is zero.
Phasor diagram:
Applied voltage: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
For purely capacitive circuit current leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees.
𝐼̅
𝑉̅
Power factor of purely capacitive circuit = 0

Applied voltage: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
The phase difference between the applied voltage and resultant current is φ=90o.
Power factor for pure capacitive circuit: PF =cos Φ
PF = cos (90o) = 0
Power consumed is given as: 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0 = 0
Power consumed by a capacitive circuit =0.
31
Numerical on AC analysis of pure R, pure L and pure C circuit

1. A 50 Hz alternating voltage of 150 V is applied independently to (i) resistance of 10 Ω (ii) inductance
of 0.2 H and (iii) capacitance of 50μF. Find the expression for the instantaneous current in each case.
32
33
2.11 SERIES RL AC CIRCUITS
Fig. 19: Circuit diagram of series RL circuit

Consider a series circuit of a pure resistor R and a pure inductive coil L are shown in fig. 19,
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current,
Z = Impedance of the circuit
Phasor diagram:
The applied ac voltage V results in flow of ac current I through the circuit which creates a voltage drop across
resistor R and inductor L
VR = I.R ---- where the voltage drop across R is in phase with current I
VL = I.XL -----where voltage drop across coil L leads the current I by 900
The phasor diagram of series RL circuit is shown in fig 20 with current I as the reference. The voltage V R is
in phase with I and VL leads the current I by 90o.
Fig. 20: Phasor diagram for series RL circuit
Voltage Triangle:
From the circuit diagram it is seen that the applied voltage 𝑉̅ is vector sum of ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝐿
Applied voltage:
𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝐿 = |𝑉|∠𝜑
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝐼 ̅ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2

𝑉𝐿
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅
34
Resultant current:
𝑉̅ 𝑉∠0𝑜 𝑉
𝐼̅ = = = ∠ − ∅𝑜
𝑍 ̅ |𝑍| ∠∅ |𝑍|
𝑉 𝑉 𝑋
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼| ∠ − ∅, where |𝐼| = |𝑍|
and, ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑉𝐿) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑅𝐿)
𝐿
Hence if the applied voltage is 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

In other words, current I lags behind the applied voltage V by an angle Ф.
𝑉𝑚
Then current equation is 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑚 = |𝑍|
Fig. 21: Waveform of applied voltage and resultant current
Fig. 22: Phasor diagram of applied voltage and resultant current
Impedance Triangle:
Fig. 23: Impedance triangle of series RL circuit

Circuit Impedance:
𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = (|𝑍|∠𝜑 ) Ω
𝑋𝐿
|𝑍| = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 Ω , 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
35
Power: -
Instantaneous power consumed by series RL circuit is given as
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
Where, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑))
𝑃(𝑡) =
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑃(𝑡) = −
2 2
This power consists of two parts :
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
(1) Real power : A constant part 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡−𝜑)
(2) A pulsating component: which has a frequency twice that of the
2
voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power, since its average value over a complete cycle is
zero.
Average power consumed : =𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2
The average power consumed by the current is given by the product of V and that component of the current
I which is in phase with V. So
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ.
The term cosФ is called the power factor (p.f.) of the circuit.
True Power W= Vrms.Irms cosФ (Watts)
It should be noted that power consumed is due to ohmic resistance only because pure reactance does not
consume any active power.
Power Factor :
Power factor = PF = cos φ
From phasor diagram : PF = cosФ= R/Z,
Therefore, average power consumed by the series RL circuit is
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ = Vrms.Irms .(R/Z)
= (V/Z). (I.R)
P = I2R where, I = V/Z
Power triangle (Active, Reactive and Apparent Power ):-
Fig.24: Power triangle for series RL circuit

36
The series R-L circuit draw a current of I when an alternating voltage of rms value V is applied to it.
For series RL circuit the resultant current lags behind the applied voltage by Ф.
The applied power VI is consumed by the resistor and inductor.
The powers drawn by the circuit are as under:
1). Apparent power (S):- It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and circuit and circuit
current.
S = Vrms.Irms = (Irms.Z). Irms = Irms 2.Z volt-amperes (VA).
2). Active power (P or W): - It is the power, which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance.
P = Irms 2R = Vrms Irms cosФ watts.
3). Reactive Power (Q): - It is the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit.
Q = Irms. Irms.XL = Irms 2Z.sinФ = Irms.( Irms.Z).sinФ
= Vrms. Irms sinФ volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
These three powers are shown in the power triangle of fig. 24.,
from where it can be seen that S2 = P2 + Q2 or S = (P2 + R2)1/2
Numericals of RL circuit
1.
Solution:
2.
37
Solution:
3.
Solution:
38
2.12 A.C. analysis of RC circuit
Fig. 25. Series connected RC circuit

The circuit diagram of a series connected resistor R (Ω) and capacitor C (Farad) is shown in Fig. 25.
Phasor diagram:
The applied voltage V results in flow of current I through the circuit which creates a voltage drop across
resistor R and capacitor C
VR = I.R ---- where the voltage drop across R is in phase with current I
Vc = I.Xc -----where voltage drop across capacitor C lags the current I by 900
The phasor diagram of series RC circuit is shown in fig 26 with current I as the reference. The voltage VR is
in phase with I and Vc lags the current I by 90o.
Voltage Triangle:
From the circuit diagram it is seen that the applied voltage 𝑉̅ is vector sum of ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝑐
Applied voltage:
𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝑐 = |𝑉|∠𝜑
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 − 𝐼 ̅ 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑐2
𝑉𝐶
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅
Resultant current:
𝑉̅ 𝑉∠0𝑜 𝑉
𝐼̅ = = = ∠+∅
𝑍 ̅ |𝑍| ∠ − ∅ |𝑍|
𝑉 𝑉 𝑋
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼| ∠ + ∅, where |𝐼| = |𝑍| and ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑉𝑐 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑅𝑐)
𝑅
39
Hence if the applied voltage is 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

In other words, current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle Ф.
𝑉𝑚
Then current equation is 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑚 = |𝑍|
Impedance Triangle:
Circuit Impedance:
𝑍̅ = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 = (|𝑍|∠ − 𝜑 ) Ω
𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐2 Ω , 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
Power: -
Instantaneous power consumed by series RL circuit is given as
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
Where, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑))
𝑃(𝑡) =
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑃(𝑡) = −
2 2
This power consists of two parts:
(1) Real power : A constant part 2
𝑉 𝐼 cos(2𝜔𝑡+𝜑)
(2) A pulsating component: 𝑚 𝑚 2 which has a frequency twice that of the
Voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power, since its average value over a complete cycle is
zero.
40
Average power consumed : =𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2
The average power consumed by the current is given by the product of V and that component of the current
I which is in phase with V. So
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ.
The term cosФ is called the power factor (p.f.) of the circuit.
True Power W= Vrms.Irms cosФ (Watts)
It should be noted that power consumed is due to ohmic resistance only because pure reactance does not
consume any active power.
Power Factor :
Power factor = PF = cos φ
From phasor diagram : PF = cosФ= VR / V = R/Z.
Therefore, average power consumed by the series RC circuit is
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ = Vrms.Irms .(R/Z)
= (V/Z). (I.R)
P = I2R where, I = V/Z
Active, Reactive and Apparent Power:-
Power triangle:
Fig.26: Power triangle for series RC circuit

The series R-C circuit draw a current of I when an alternating voltage of rms value V is applied to it.
For series RC circuit the resultant current lags behind the applied voltage by Ф.
The powers drawn by the circuit are as under:
1). Apparent power (S):- It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and circuit and circuit
current.
S = Vrms.Irms = (Irms.Z). Irms = Irms 2.Z volt-amperes (VA).
2). Active power (P or W): - It is the power, which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance.
P = Irms 2R = Vrms Irms cosФ watts.
3). Reactive Power (Q): - It is the power developed in the capacitive reactance of the circuit.
Q = Irms. Irms.XL = Irms 2Z.sinФ = Irms.( Irms.Z).sinФ
= Vrms. Irms sinФ volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
These three powers are shown in the power triangle of fig. 24.,
from where it can be seen that S2 = P2 + Q2 or S = (P2 + R2)1/2
41
Numericals of RC circuit
Q.1)
The voltage applied to a circuit is e = 100 sin(wt+30) and current flowing in the circuit is
i = 15sin(wt+60). Determine the impedence, resistance, reactance, power and power factor.
Q.2)
A series circuit consumes 2000W at 0.5 leading power factor, when connected to 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
Calculate i) kVA ii) kVAR iii) Current
Solution:
42
Q.3)
2.13 SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Fig. 27 Series RLC circuit

Consider the circuit consisting of resistor R (Ω), inductor L (H) and capacitor C (F) connected in series to an
ac source.
Let VR = IR = voltage drop across R- in phase with I

VL = IXL = voltage drop across L – leading I by 900
VC = IXC = voltage drop across C – lagging I by 900
1
Where, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 and 𝑋𝑐 = .
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
43
From the circuit diagram it is seen that: 𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅

𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝐿 + 𝑉̅𝑐
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ ( 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
Where, 𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐
𝑍̅ = |𝑍| ∠𝜑
As frequency varies the value of XL and Xc varies resulting in the following cases:
Case (i) XL > Xc
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼̅ (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼̅ 𝑋 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
Voltage triangle:
𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝐿 + 𝑉̅𝑐
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )
𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 + 𝑗 (𝑉̅𝐿 − 𝑉̅𝑐 )
𝑉̅ = |𝑉| ∠𝜑
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶
|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 and ∠𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅
If , v(t) = Vm Sin wt ; i(t)= Im Sin (wt - ф)

i.e I lags V by angle ф
For series RLC circuit with XL > Xc , the circuit is inductive circuit and the resultant current lags the applied
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
voltage by an angle 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅 𝑅
Impedance triangle:
𝑍̅ = |𝑍| ∠𝜑
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
44
Phase angle Ф is given by

tanФ = (XL – XC) / R = X / R
Power factor cosФ = R / Z
R R
cos = =
R 2 + (X L − X C ) R2 + X 2
2
Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Case(ii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc
So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such a case, the circuit is purely
resistive in nature.
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅
Circuit is purely resistive and hence applied voltage and resultant current are in phase.
Power factor cosФ = R / Z=R/R=1

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Case(iii): XL < Xc
When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc
Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said to be capacitive in nature Form
voltage triangle:
Power factor cosФ = R / Z

R R
cos = =
R + (X C − X L ) R + X2
2 2 2
Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Impedance:
In general, for RLC series circuit impedance is given by,
Z=R+jX
X = XL – Xc = Total reactance of the circuit
45
If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive

If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
tan ф = [(XL - Xc )∕R]
cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc ) 2)
Power and power triangle:

The average power consumed by circuit is,
Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power consumed by L) + (Average power

consumed by C)
Average power consumed by inductor and capacitor = 0.
Pavg = Power taken by R = I2R = I(IR) = VI
V = V Cos ф
P = VI Cos ф
Thus, for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < Xc General power can be expressed as
P = Voltage x Current component in phase with voltage
Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = I2Z = VI
P = Real or True power = VI Cos ф = Active power
Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф
46
Q.1) A R-L-C series circuit has a current which lags the applied voltage by 450 . The voltage across the
inductance has maximum value equal to twice the maximum value of voltage across the capacitor. Voltage
across the inductance is 300 sin(1000t) and R = 20Ω. Find the value of inductance and capacitance.
47
Q.2)
48
Q.3)
49
2.14 SERIES RLC RESONANT CIRCUIT

Consider the series RLC circuit shown in figure:
Let 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, ∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅)
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Also, 𝑉 𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝐼 𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 ) ⟹ 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋---(1)
When inductive reactance XL is equal to capacitive reactance XC, the net reactance X of the circuit is zero.
Hence the circuit is behaving as purely resistive circuit.
Therefore, net reactance of the circuit 𝑋 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 = 0
1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ⟹ 𝜔0 𝐿 = 𝜔 ⟹ 𝜔02 = 𝐿𝐶 ⟹ 𝜔0 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓0 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 ---(2)
0𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
From equation (2) it is evident that when net reactance of the circuit is zero, the circuit selects a particular
frequency f0. The ability of a series RLC circuit to select a particular frequency is called resonance and the
circuit is said to be working at resonance condition. The frequency at resonance is called resonance frequency.
The condition 𝑋 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 (i.e., zero net reactance of the circuit or inductive reactance equals capacitive
reactance) is called resonance condition.
Variation of impedance z with frequency:
At resonant frequency: Supply frequency f = fo, the circuit is at resonance and resistive, Z = R
At high frequencies: Supply frequency f > fo, XL > XC, the circuit is inductive and Z = R + j X
At low frequencies: Supply frequency f < fo, XL < XC, the circuit is capacitive and Z = R – j X
Resonance Curve:
The curve between current versus frequency is known as resonance curve or frequency response of the current
I. It has low value on both sides of resonant frequency (for f > fo and f < fo, , I = V/Z , where 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2
and Z is large). At resonant frequency f = fo current is maximum (I0 = V / R) as shown by the peaked curve.
Hence, maximum power is dissipated under resonant conditions.
50
The shape of the resonance curve depends on the value of resistor R. For circuits with low values of R the
resonance curve is sharply peaked and such a circuit is said to be sharply resonant or highly selective. On the
other hand, circuits with high value of R have flat resonance curve and are said to have poor selectivity.
Half Power Frequencies and Bandwidth:

As evident from the resonance curve, near resonance point current through the circuit is,
𝐼0 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= ⟹𝑍= ⟹ 𝑍 = √2𝑅---(3)
√2 √2𝑅
Also, from equation (3)

√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √2𝑅 ⟹ 𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = 2𝑅 2 ⟹ 𝑅 2 = (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ⟹ 𝑅 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ---(4)
1 𝑅 1
∴ 𝑅 = 𝜔𝐿 − ⟹ 𝜔𝐶𝑅 = 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 − 1 ⟹ 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 − 𝜔𝐶𝑅 − 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜔2 − 𝜔 ( ) − = 0 {∵ 𝐿𝐶 ≠ 0}
𝜔𝐶 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
Solving above quadratic equation for ω we get,
−𝑅 𝑅 2 1 𝑅 𝑅 2 1
𝜔1 = + √ ( ) + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 = + √ ( ) +
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
−𝑅 1 𝑅 2 1 𝑅 1 𝑅 2 1
𝑜𝑟 𝑓1 = 4𝜋𝐿 + 2𝜋 √(2𝐿) + 𝐿𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 = 4𝜋𝐿 + 2𝜋 √(2𝐿) + 𝐿𝐶---(5)
An arithmetic difference of frequencies 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 is called bandwidth of the series RLC circuit, which gives
range of frequencies in which almost maximum current flows through the circuit.
𝑅 𝑅
∴ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ,△ 𝜔 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑓 = 2𝜋𝐿---(6)
𝐿
1 𝑅 2
Also, from equation (5) for 𝐿𝐶 ≫ (2𝐿)
−𝑅 1 ∆𝜔 𝑅 1 ∆𝜔
𝜔1 ≈ + = 𝜔0 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 ≈ + = 𝜔0 +
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶 2 2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶 2
−𝑅 1 ∆𝑓 𝑅 1 ∆𝑓
𝑜𝑟 𝑓1 ≈ 4𝜋𝐿 + 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 = 𝑓0 − 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 ≈ 4𝜋𝐿 + 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 = 𝑓0 + 2
---(7)
𝐼02 𝑅 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The power P at points of frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 , 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅 = =
2 2
51
Therefore, the points at frequencies 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are called half power points and the frequencies are called half
power frequencies.
Q-Factor of the Series RLC Circuit:
The Quality factor Q of a series RLC resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage across a coil or
capacitor to the applied voltage.
𝑉𝐿 𝐼0 𝑋𝐿 𝜔0 𝐿 2𝜋𝑓0 𝐿 𝑉𝐶 𝐼0 𝑋𝐶 1 1
∴𝑄= = = = 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = = = =
𝑉 𝐼0 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑉 𝐼0 𝑅 𝜔0 𝐶𝑅 2𝜋𝑓0 𝐶𝑅
𝜔0 𝐿 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑄 = = = =
𝑅 𝑅 ∆𝜔 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝐿
Therefore, quality factor of the series RLC circuit is also defined as the ratio of resonance frequency to the
bandwidth.
Now, Voltage across the capacitor at resonance
I0 V L
VC = I0XC = = =V Q
0C R C
Similarly, Voltage across the inductor at resonance is:
1 L
VL = I0XL = = V Q
R C
Therefor at resonance: VL = VC = V.Q, where Q is the voltage magnification factor / quality factor. So, in
series RLC circuit at resonance point there is a magnification of voltage by a factor of Q.
Summary:
1. Net reactance X=XL – XC = 0
2. Net impedance is minimum Z=R ohm
3. The current in the circuit is maximum 𝐼 = 𝑉⁄𝑍 = 𝑉⁄𝑅
4. Since current is maximum , power absorbed by the circuit will also be maximum
5. VL =I.XL and VC = I.XC and the two voltage drops are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase. Hence,
they cancel out each other. The two reactance’s taken together act as short circuit since no voltage
develops across them. The applied voltage V drops entirely across R so that V = VR as shown in figure
below.
6. Power factor at resonance =1.
52
Numericals on Series RLC Resonance Circuit

Q.1)
53
Q.2)
Q.3)
54
Q.4)
55
Three-Phase Connections:
A. Three-Phase Star or Wye (Y) Connection:
In this method of interconnection, the similar ends say, ‘star’ ends of three coils (it could be ‘finishing’ ends
also) are joined together at point N as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
Fig. 1
The point N is known as star point or neutral point. The three conductors meeting at point N are replaced by
a single conductor known as neutral conductor as shown in Fig. 1 (b). Such an interconnected system is
known as four-wire, 3-phase system and is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 1 (b). If this three-phase voltage
system is applied across a balanced symmetrical load, the neutral wire will be carrying three currents which
are exactly equal in magnitude but are 120° out of phase with each other. Hence, their vector sum is zero.
i.e. IR + IY + IB = 0 ... vectorially
The neutral wire, in that case, may be omitted although its retention is useful for supplying lighting loads at
low voltages. The p.d. between any terminal (or line) and neutral (or star) point gives the phase or star voltage.
But the p.d. between any two lines gives the line-to-line voltage or simply line voltage.
Values of Phase Current:

When considering the distribution of current in a 3-phase system, it is extremely important to bear in mind
that : (i) The arrow placed alongside the currents IR IY and IB flowing in the three phases [Fig. 1(b)] indicate
the directions of currents when they are assumed to be positive and not the directions at a particular instant. It
should be clearly understood that at no instant will all the three currents flow in the same direction either
outwards or inwards. The three arrows indicate that first the current flows outwards in phase R, then after a
phase-time of 120°, it will flow outwards from phase Y and after a further 120°, outwards from phase B.
(ii) The current flowing outwards in one or two conductors is always equal to that flowing inwards in the
remaining conductor or conductors. In other words, each conductor in turn, provides a return path for the
currents of the other conductors.
56
Fig. 2
In Fig. 2 are shown the three phase currents, having the same peak value of 20 A but displaced from each
other by 120°. At instant ‘a’, the currents in phases R and B are each + 10 A (i.e. flowing outwards) whereas
the current in phase Y is – 20A (i.e. flowing inwards). In other words, at the instant ‘a’, phase Y is acting as
return path for the currents in phases R and B. At instant b, IR = +15 A and IY = +5 A but IB = –20A which
means that now phase B is providing the return path. At instant c, IY = +15 A and IB = +5A and IR = – 20A.
Hence, now phase R carries current inwards whereas Y and B carry current outwards. Similarly at point d, IR
= 0, IB = 17.3 A and IY = – 17.3 A. In other words, current is flowing outwards from phase B and returning via
phase Y.
In addition, it may be noted that although the distribution of currents between the three lines is continuously
changing, yet at any instant the algebraic sum of the instantaneous values of the three currents is zero i.e. iR
+ iY + iB = 0 – algebraically.
Voltages and Currents in Y-Connection
Fig. 3
57
The voltage induced in each winding is called the phase voltage and current in each winding is likewise known
as phase current. However, the voltage available between any pair of terminals (or outers) is called line voltage
(VL) and the current flowing in each line is called line current (IL). As seen from Fig. 3 (a), in this form of
interconnection, there are two phase windings between each pair of terminals but since their similar ends have
been joined together, they are in opposition. Obviously, the instantaneous value of p.d. between any two
terminals is the arithmetic difference of the two phase e.m.fs. concerned. However, the r.m.s. value of this
p.d. is given by the vector difference of the two phase e.m.fs.
The vector diagram for phase voltages and currents in a star connection is shown in Fig. 3 (b) where a balanced
system has been assumed. It means that ER = EY = Eph (phase e.m.f.).
Line voltage VRY between line 1 and line 2 is the vector difference of ER and EY.
Line voltage VYB between line 2 and line 3 is the vector difference of EY and EB.
Line voltage VBR between line 3 and line 1 is the vector difference of EB and ER.
(a) Line Voltages and Phase Voltages
In star connection VL = √3 ⋅Eph

(b) Line Currents and Phase Currents
It is seen from Fig. 3 (a) that each line is in series with its individual phase winding, hence the line current in
each line is the same as the current in the phase winding to which the line is connected.
Current in line 1 = IR; Current in line 2 = IY; Current in line 3 = IB
Since IR = IY = IB = say, Iph – the phase current
∴ line current IL = Iph
(c) Power
The total active or true power in the circuit is the sum of the three phase powers. Hence, total active power
= 3 × phase power or P = 3 × Vph Iph cos ∅
Now Vph = VL / √3 and Iph = IL
Hence, in terms of line values, the above expression becomes
It should be particularly noted that ∅ is the angle between phase voltage and phase current and not between
the line voltage and line current.
Similarly, total reactive power is given by Q = √3VL IL sin ∅
By convention, reactive power of a coil is taken as positive and that of a capacitor as negative.
The total apparent power of the three phases is
58
B. Three-Phase Delta (Δ) or Mesh Connection:
Fig. 1
In this form, of interconnection the dissimilar ends of the three phase winding are joined together i.e. the
‘starting’ end of one phase is joined to the ‘finishing’ end of the other phase and so on as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
In other words, the three windings are joined in series to form a closed mesh as shown in Fig. 1 (b).
Three leads are taken out from the three junctions as shown as outward directions are taken as positive.
It might look as if this sort of interconnection results in short-circuiting the three windings. However, if the
system is balanced then sum of the three voltages round the closed mesh is zero, hence no current of
fundamental frequency can flow around the mesh when the terminals are open. It should be clearly understood
that at any instant, the e.m.f. in one phase is equal and opposite to the resultant of those in the other two
phases. This type of connection is also referred to as 3-phase, 3-wire system.
(i) Line Voltages and Phase Voltages
It is seen from Fig. 1 (b) that there is only one phase winding completely included between any pair of
terminals. Hence, in Δ-connection, the voltage between any pair of lines is equal to the phase voltage of the
phase winding connected between the two lines considered. Since phase sequence is R Y B, the voltage having
its positive direction from R to Y leads by 120° on that having its positive direction from Y to B. Calling the
voltage between lines 1 and 2 as VRY and that between lines 2 and 3 as VYB, we find that VRY lead VYB by 120°.
Similarly, VYB leads VBR by 120º. Let VRY = VYB = VBR = line voltage VL. Then, it is seen that VL = Vph.
(ii) Line Currents and Phase Currents
The line current in delta connection is given by the following equation
∴ IL = √3 Iph
(iii) Power
Power/phase = VphIph cos ∅ ; Total power = 3 × VphIph cos ∅ . However, Vph = VL and Iph = IL/√3
Hence, in terms of line values, the above expression for power becomes
where ∅ is the phase power factor angle.

59
Numerical Examples
1) Given a balanced 3−φ, 3-wire system with Y-connected load for which line voltage is 230 V and
impedance of each phase is (6 + J8) ohm. Find the line current and power absorbed by each phase.
2) Three equal star-connected inductors take 8 kW at a power factor 0.8 when connected across a 460 V, 3-
phase, 3-phase, 3-wire supply. Find the circuit constants of the load per phase.
3) A star-connected alternator supplies a delta connected load. The impedance of the load branch is (8 + j6)
ohm/phase. The line voltage is 230 V. Determine (a) current in the load branch, (b) power consumed by
the load, (c) power factor of load, (d) reactive power of the load.
4) A 220-V, 3- φ voltage is applied to a balanced delta-connected 3- φ load of phase impedance (15 + j20)Ω
(a) Find the phasor current in each line. (b) What is the power consumed per phase? (c) What is the phasor
sum of the three line currents? Why does it have this value?
60
5) A Δ -connected balanced 3-phase load is supplied from a 3-phase, 400-V supply. The line current is 20A
and the power taken by the load is 10,000 W. Find (i) impedance in each branch (ii) the line current,
power factor and power consumed if the same load is connected in star.
61

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Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.1 : Generation of Alternating Voltage and Current:-

Equations of the Alternating voltage and current:-

Em =ω N Bm A Volts --- (2).

e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt --- (3)

Similarly the equations of induced current is I = Im sin ωt------------------------ (4)

2.2 Parameters of a AC signal:

For example a 50 Hz A.C. has a time period of ( 1 ) second.

2.3 CONCEPT OF LEADING AND LAGGING AC QUATITIES

eA = Em sin ωt ------- reference signal

In fig. (6), quantity B leads A by angle Φ hence their equations are

2.4 VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

MID ORDINATE METHOD:-

Therefore Iav = 0.637Im

c. ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) Value:-

Similarly, the RMS value of alternating voltage is given by

Hence the rms value of alternating current is

Crest or Peak or Amplitude factor:-

Example: RMS VALUE OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIED AC CURRENT

AVERAGE VALUE OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIED AC CURRENT:

FORM FACTOR OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIED AC CURRENT:

2.5 PHASOR / VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF AC QUANTITY:

The line OP represents an ac voltage or current if it satisfies the following conditions.

2.6 PHASOR / VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF SINE WAVES OF SAME FREQUENCIES:

(a) Rectangular form:

II. RMS, Average , Peak factor, Form factor

Ans: Vavg = 6.67V , Vrms = 11.5V

5. Find the average value of the waveform shown in figure.

Ans: Vavg = 6.366V

Ans: Vrms = 5.77V

i(t) is the instantaneous value

Instantaneous power of resistive circuit:

Fig. 13 Plot of instantaneous power

Average power consumed by a resistive circuit:

Substituting P(t) and solving the integration,

Vrms = rms value of the applied voltage v(t)

The phasor diagram is shown below:

2.9 A.C . ANALYSIS OF A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Fig. 14 : Purely inductive circuit

The applied ac voltage is given as 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Since, applied voltage v (t) = Vmsinωt

= −𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡

Average power consumed by a purely inductive circuit is 0.

2.10 AC ANALYSIS OF PURE CAPACITOR

Fig. 16: Pure Capacitor circuit

v = p.d. developed between plates at any instant,

𝑋𝑐 is known as capacitive reactance and is in ohms if C is in Farad and ω is in radians/sec.

Power factor of purely capacitive circuit = 0

Numerical on AC analysis of pure R, pure L and pure C circuit

2.11 SERIES RL AC CIRCUITS

Fig. 19: Circuit diagram of series RL circuit

Fig. 20: Phasor diagram for series RL circuit

|𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2

Hence if the applied voltage is 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

Fig. 21: Waveform of applied voltage and resultant current

Fig. 22: Phasor diagram of applied voltage and resultant current

Fig. 23: Impedance triangle of series RL circuit