Wave propagation in step-index fibers

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Coordinate Systems
 The three simple coordinate systems are
◼ Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system has three
coordinate axis mutually at right angle to each other and call
them as x,y and z axis.
◼ Circular cylindrical coordinates has distance ρ from origin,
angle  between the line from the point to the origin and an
arbitrary radial line taken as  = 0 and distance z of the point
from an arbitrary z = 0 which is perpendicular to the line r = 0
◼ Spherical Coordinate System has distance ‘r’ from the origin to
any point, angle θ between the line from the point to the origin
and z axis and angle  which is same as the angle
 of cylindrical coordinates.

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Del Operator 
 Del operator is defined as vector operator as
  
 = αx + α y + az (Cartesian)
x y z
 1  
 = αr + α + az (Cylindrical )
r r  z

 For details refer to Book Engineering Electromagnetics By William

H. Hayt, being studied in EM-1 Course.
 Fields and waves communication electronics, 2nd edition By Simon
Ramo, J N Whinnery and T V Duzer.

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Del Operator 
 Del operator is defined as vector operator as
  
 = αx + α y + az (Cartesian)
x y z
 1  
 = αr + α + az (Cylindrical )
r r  z

 For details refer to Book Engineering Electromagnetics By William

H. Hayt, being studied in EM-1 Course.
 Fields and waves communication electronics, 2nd edition By Simon
Ramo, J N Whinnery and T V Duzer.

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Need for EM Wave Theory
 Geometrical Optics is useful once

a >> λ

Where a is core radius and λ is operating

wavelength

 Once two (a & λ) are comparable then we

consider electromagnetic wave theory and uses
Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetic waves.
 We consider propagation of light in cylindrical
step index fiber which is dielectric waveguide .

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Study before next lecture
 Maxwell’s equations---- EM theory.
 Susceptibility.
 Polarization.
 Bassel Functions.

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 For above mentioned conditions (non conducting medium without
free charges) Maxwell’s electromagnetic field equations are

B
Curl E =   E = - − − − − − −(1)
t
D
Curl H =   H = − − − − − −(2)
t
div D = .D = 0 − − − − − − − − − (3) (no free charges)
div B = .B = 0 − − − − − − − − − (4) (no free poles)
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Where is vector operator

E is electric field vector

H is magnetic field vector

B ( = μ r μ o H + M ) is magnetic induction vector (corresponding to magnetic flux density)

D ( = ε r ε o E+P) is electric displacement vector (corresponding to electric flux density)

P and M are induced electric and magnetic polarizations, for optical fiber M=0, because
of non magnetic nature of silica glass

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μ o is permeability of free space(is the degree of magnetisation of
a material in response to a magnetic field.)

ε o is permitivity of free space(is a measure of how much a medium

changes to absorb energy when subject to an electric field.)

μ r is relative permeability of medium

ε r is relative permitivity of material

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 •The relation between E and P could be nonlinear , so by Ignoring
nonlinear effects,
• Loss is low

Polarization P is related to E by the relation


P(r , t ) =  0   (r , t − t ' ) E (r , t ' )dt '
−

• ‘  ’ is the Susceptibility (the electric susceptibility is defined

as the ratio of polarization ‘P’ to electric field strength ‘E’ ) .

• Birefringengt – Variation in core shape and local strain

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Non-linear relation ship of E and P
Polarization P is related to E by the relation

P =  0 (  .E + : EE +  : EEE + ...........)
1 2 3

( j)
 ( j = 1, 2......)

• The linear Susceptibility represents the dominent

contribution to P. Its effects are included through the refractive
index ‘n’

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Substituting values of B and D in eq (1) and (2) and taking curl
2E 2P 1 2E  2P
 x ( x E) = − με − o 2 = − 2 2 − o 2
t 2 t c t t
2H
 x ( x H) = − με
t 2
 x ( xE ) =  ( . E) −  2 (E) = −  2 E
this equation hold approximately as long as index changes occur over a lenght
scale much longer than the wavelenght,
if 1) Loss is low
2) 'n' has slow variation with r
3) Non linear effects are ignored
4) Susceptibility is to be scalar
than
 2 E +n 2 (w)k o2 E=0
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 Where  = 2 f is angular frequency and k is wave number
2
( k or ko is used to represent free space wave number such that k = )


In medium the optical wavelength is reduced i.e m = and propagation constant
n
is increased i.e  = nK . Since both electric and magnetic field vectors exhibit the
same function relationship so we may write in general
 =  (r ,  ) exp{− j (t −  z )
 2
= =
vp m
β is propagation constant

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Fiber Modes
 An optical mode refers to a specific solution of the wave
equation that satisfies the appropriate boundary conditions and
has the property that its spatial (field) distribution doesn’t
change with propagation.
 The boundary conditions imposed by the fiber is the prescribed
variation of permitivity, ε r (r ) or refractive index n(r)= ε r (r.)
 The solutions are also subject to the requirements that the
fields be finite on the axis and zero at infinity.

i.e

 (0,  )   and  (,  ) = 0

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 propagation constant

 Each mode has unique β value and so each

propagates with its own phase and group
velocities.
 The fiber modes can be classified as guided
modes, leaky modes and radiation modes.
Signal transmission in fiber optic
communication systems takes place through
the guided modes only.

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  In planner waveguide either Ez or Hz is zero so it is
common to have TE or TM modes. In transverse
electric waves or TE mode of propagation where E field
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation and
hence Ez =0. Whereas in transverse magnetic waves or
TM mode of propagation where H field is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation and hence Hz =0.
 When the total field lies in the transverse plane,
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves exist where
both Ez and Hz are zero.TEM waves occur in metallic
conductors (e.g coaxial cables) and seldom found in
optical waveguides.
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Since from Wave Eq
 2 E +n 2 (w)k o2 E=0
For cylindrical homogenous core waveguides, the wave equation
can be written in the cylindrical coordinates  , and z as:
 2 Ez 1 Ez 1  2 Ez  2 Ez
+ + + + n ko Ez = 0 ------------(1)
2 2

 2
   
2 2
z 2

2 
Where k0 is free space wave number, k0 = =
 c
For step index fiber of core radius a, the refractive index n is of the form
n = n1 :   a and n = n 2 :  a ---------------(2)

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Eq (1) is written for the axial component Ez of the electric field vector.
Similar equations can be written for the other five components of E and H.
However it is not necessary to solve all six equations since only two components
out of six are independent. It is customary to choose Ez and H z as the independent
components and obtain E , E , H  and H  in terms of them.
Eq (1) is solved by using the method of separation of variables and writing Ez as
Ez (  ,  , z ) = F (  )( ) Z ( z ) ----------- (3)
By using eq (3) in eq (1) we obtain three ordinary differential equations

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 d 2Z
+  2
Z = 0 --------------------------- (4)
d z2
d 2
+ m 2
 = 0 ---------- -----------------(5)
d 2

d 2F 1 dF  2 2 m 
+ + n k0 −  − 2  F = 0 -------- (6)
2

d2  d    
Eq (4) has a solution of the form Z = exp(i  z ), where 
has the physical significance of propagation constant.
Similarly eq (5) has a solution  = exp(im ), where constant
m is a constant which can take only integer values since the
field must be periodic in  with a period of 2 .

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Eq (6) is the well known differential equation for the Bessel functions.
Its general solution in the core and cladding region is given by
 AJ m ( ) + AYm ( ) :  a 
F ( ) =   ------------- (7)
CK m (γ ) + C I m (γ ):  a 
Where A, A, C and C  are constants and J m ,Ym , K m and I m are different
kinds of Bessel functions , given as under
Jm Bessel function
Ym Neumann function
Km Modified Hankel function
Im Modified Bessel function

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Bessel Function

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Neuman Function

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Modified Bessel Function

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Modified Hankel Function

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 The parameter  (Radial propagation constant)
and γ (Radial damping constant) are defined by
 2 = n12 k02 −  2 --------------(8)
γ =  −n k
2 2 2 2
2 0 --------------(9)
For guided modes
p=  = n12 k02 −  2    n1k0
q= γ =  2 − n22 k02    n2 k0

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 that is :

n2   n1
k0

and  2 + γ 2 = k02 (n12 − n22 )

= k02 ( NA) 2

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Using boundry conditions that the optical field for a guided
mode should be finite at  = 0 and decay to zero at  =  we
have considerable simplification. F (0) can remain finite only
if A = 0. The general solution of eq (1) is thus of the form
 AJ m ( ) exp(im ) exp(i  z ) :   a 
Ez =   ------------(10)
CK m (γ ) exp(im ) exp(i  z ) :   a 

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 E field in the core  E field in the cladding

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In order to have propagation for core , k 0 n12 − β 2  0
or k 0 n12  β 2 and for cladding k 0 n 22 − β 2  0 or k 0 n12  β 2
For guided modes
k 0 n 2  β  k 0 n1  radially osc waves in core & damped waves in cladding
For Leaky modes
k 0 n 2  k 0 n1  β  damped waves everywhere
For Radiation modes
β  k 0 n 2  k 0 n1  osc waves in core osc waves in cladding

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 The same method can be used to obtain H z which also satisfies
eq (1). The solution is same as for Ez but with different constants
B and D, that is,
 BJ m ( ) exp(im ) exp(i  z ) :   a 
Hz =   -------------- (11)
 DK m (γ ) exp(im ) exp(i  z ) :   a 
The other four components E , E , H  and H can be expressed in
terms of Ez and H z by using maxwell's equations. In the core we
obtain
i  Ez  H z 
E =  + μ ------------ (12)
 2   0
  

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 i   E z H z 
E = 2  − μ 0  - - - - - - - - - - (13)
     

i  H z 2  E z 
H  = 2   + ε0n  - - - - - - - - (14)
     

i   H z E z 
H  = 2  − ε0n 
2
 - - - - - - - - (15)
     
The same equations can be used in the cladding region after

replacing  2 by - γ 2 .
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Equations 10-15 express the electromagnetic field in the core and cladding
of an optical fiber in terms of four constants A,B,C and D. These constants
are determined by applying the boundry conditions that the tangetial components
of E and H (Ez , E , H z and H ) be continous across the core-cladding interface
( = a). We obtain set of four homogenous equations satisfied by A,B,C and D.
After detailed working this leads to the eigenvalue equation.

 J m ( a) K m (γa)   J m ( a) n22 K m (γa)  m 2  1 1   1 n22 1 

 +  + 2  = 2  2 + 2   2 + 2 2  ----- (16)
 kJ m ( a) γK m (γa)   kJ m ( a) n1 γK m (γa)  a   γ    n1 γ 

.
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 For a given set of the parameters k 0 , a, n1 and n 2 , the eigenvalue
equation (16) can be solved numerically to determine the propagation
constant . It may have multiple solutions for each integer value of m.
We enumerate these solutions in descending numerical order and denote
one possible mode by mn for a given m (n = 1,2,......). Each value mn
corresponds to one possible mode of propagation of the optical field
whose spatial distribution is obtained from equations 10-15. The field
distribution doesn't change with propagation . it is an optical mode
of the fiber.

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 In general, both Ez and Hz are non zero (except for m = 0),
therefore fiber modes are referred as hybrid modes and are
denoted by HEmn or EHmn depending on whether Hz or Ez
dominates, respectively.
 In special case m = 0, HEon or EHon are also denoted by
TE0n and Tm0n respectively, since they correspond to TE(Ez
= 0) or TM(Hz = 0) modes of propagation.
 A different notation LPmn (Linearly polarized) is also used
for weakly guiding fibers for which both Ez and Hz are
nearly zero.

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 A mode is uniquely determined by its propagation constant 
 Each fiber mode propagates with an refractive index
whose value lies in the range n1  n  n2 , Where n is
β
mode index or effective index, n =
k0

 A mode ceases to be guided when n  n2

 The optical field of guided modes decays exponentially
inside the cladding layer.(remember modified Hankel
function)

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Normalized Frequency
 From eq (8)
1
k = K 0 (n12 − n22 ) 2
when γ = 0

 We define another parameter to determine cutoff

condition, i.e V ,called as “Normalized frequency”.
 The normalized frequency is also called as V
parameter.

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V 2 = a 2 (2 + γ 2 )
Putting values of  and γ from eq (8) and (9)
V 2 = a 2 k 02 (n12 − n 22 )
V 2 = k 02 a 2 (n12 − n 22 )
1
V = k 0 a(n − n )
2
1
2
2
2

V  k 0 an1 2 (refer to lecture on NA)

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 Number of modes in a fiber depends upon value of V .
A fiber with large value of V support many modes.
Number of guided modes in multimode step index fiber

V2
are roughly given by M s = .
2
For graded index fiber, number of guided modes are given

  
by Mg =  (n1k0 a) 
2

 + 2 

   V 
2
Mg =   
  + 2  2 
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 Where  is the profile parameter and gives the characterstics
refractive index profile of the fiber core.
For step index profile  = 
For triangular profile  = 1
For parabolic profile  = 2

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 Example.

A multimode step index fiber with core diameter of 80 μm and relative

index diference,  of 1.5% is operating at a wavelengt h of 0.85 μm. If
the core refractive index is 1.48, estimate : (a) the normalized frequency V
for fiber, (b) the number of guided modes.
Sol

2π 1 2  40 10 −6 1.48 1
V= an1 (2) =2
(2  0.015) 2
= 75.8
λ 0.85 10 -6

V 2 (75.8) 2 2745.6
Ms = = = = 2873
2 2 2

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Normalized Propagation Constant
Normalized propagation constant b is defined as
 k0 − n2 n − n2
b= =
n1 − n 2 n1 − n 2

if;
n1 = 1.50, n 2 = 1.49

Find out approximate values of 'b'

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Single Mode Fibers
 The core size of single mode fibers is small. The core size (diameter) is typically
around 8 to 10 micrometers.
 A fiber core of this size allows only the fundamental or lowest order mode to
propagate.
 Single mode fibers propagate only one mode, because the core size approaches the
operational wavelength (λ).
 The normalized frequency V is a dimensionless parameter that relates in a very
useful manner the core radius a, the numerical aperture and the operating
wavelength.

 In single mode fibers, V is less than or equal to 2.405. When V ≤ 2.405, single
mode fibers propagate the fundamental mode down the fiber core, while high-order
modes are lost in the cladding.
 For low V values (≤ 1.0), most of the power is propagated in the cladding material.
Power transmitted by the cladding is easily lost at fiber bends. The value of V should
remain near 2.405.
 The advantage of the propagation of a single mode within an optical fiber is that the
signal dispersion caused by the delay differences, between different modes in a
multimode fiber may be avoided. Single mode fibers currently exhibit the greatest
transmission bandwidths and the lowest losses of the fiber transmission media.
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Wave
 Waves are defined as disturbances which are
periodic in time and space. In order to be a wave,
a quantity must satisfy the wave equation. In
general, waves
◼ Exhibit no net transport of material,
◼ Transport energy,
◼ Have characteristic waveforms,
◼ Propagate at uniform waveform- independent
speed,
◼ Have speeds dependent on medium.

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Angular frequency
 Angular frequency gives the frequency with which phase changes. In
terms of the usual frequency f, , w=2πf
 The frequency of a wave, oscillation, etc. is the rate at which it
repeats.

Dielectric ?

Non-metallic and, therefore, non-conductive. Glass fibers are considered

dielectric. A dielectric cable contains no metallic components

Nonconductor of electricity. The ability of a material to resist the flow of

an electrical current

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Maxwell's equations
The fact that the electric field was described in terms of
stationary charges, while the magnetic field was described in
terms of moving charges led people to suspect that some
relationship existed between the two fields. This was confirmed
when it was found that an electric current could be generated
by changing the magnetic field. In the mid-1800's, the theories
of electricity and magnetism were finally united by James Clerk
Maxwell in four equations now known as Maxwell's
equations.

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Tensor
In mathematics, a tensor is a certain kind of geometrical entity which
generalizes the concepts of scalar, vector (spatial) and linear operator in
a way that is independent of any chosen frame of reference. Tensors are
of importance in physics and engineering.

While tensors can be represented by multi-dimensional arrays of

components, the point of having a tensor theory is to explain the further
implications of saying that a quantity is a tensor, beyond that specifying
it requires a number of indexed components. In particular, tensors
behave in special ways under coordinate transformations.

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Permittivity
In electromagnetism, permittivity ε is a measure of how much a
medium changes to absorb energy when subject to an electric field. It
is defined as the ratio D / E where D is the electric displacement by the
medium and E is the electric field strength.

In SI units, the displacement D is usually given in units of coulombs

per square metre (C/m2), while the electric field E is given as volts per
metre (V/m). Permittivity is then specified in farads per metre (F/m).

Permittivity in media
In the common case of an isotropic medium, D and E are parallel vectors
and ε is a scalar, but in more general anisotropic media this is not the
case and ε is a rank-2 tensor (causing birefringence).

The permittivity ε and magnetic permeability μ of a medium together

determine the velocity v of electromagnetic radiation through that
medium:
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Vacuum permittivity
The permittivity of a material is usually given relative to that of
vacuum, as a relative permittivity, (also called dielectric
constant in some cases). The actual permittivity is then
calculated by multiplying the relative permittivty by :

Vacuum permittivity ("the permittivity of free space") is the

ratio D/E in vacuum. It also appears in Coulomb's law as a part
of the Coulomb force constant, , which expresses the
attraction between two unit charges in vacuum.
,
where c is the speed of light and μ0 is the permeability of
vacuum. All three of these constants are exactly defined in SI
units
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Permeability
Permeability has several meanings:

In electromagnetism, permeability is the degree of magnetisation of a

material in response to a magnetic field.
In geology, permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to
transmit fluids through it. See also permeability tensor for materials that
are not isotropic.

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 Isotropy
Isotropy (the opposite of anisotropy) is the property of being independent of
direction. Isotropic radiation has the same intensity regardless of the direction of
measurement, and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the
test particle is oriented.
Mathematics: Isotropy is also a concept in mathematics. Some manifolds are
isotropic, meaning that the geometry on the manifold is the same regardless of
direction. A similar concept is homogeneousness. A manifold can be homogeneous
but not isotropic.
Radio broadcasting: In radio, an isotropic antenna is an imaginary "device", used as
a reference; an antenna that broadcasts power equally (calculated by the poynting
vector) in all directions. An antenna's gain along its primary axis is usually reported
in Decibels relative to an isotropic antenna, and is expressed as dBi or dB(i).

Materials: In the study of mechanical properties of materials, "isotropic" means

having identical values of a property in all crystallographic directions.

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Anisotropy
Anisotropy (the opposite of isotropy) is the property of being directionally
dependent.

In the field of computer graphics, an anisotropic surface will change in

appearance as it is rotated about its geometric normal, as is the case with
velvet. Anisotropic scaling occurs when something is scaled by different
amounts in different directions. An example is stretching a 64×64-pixel
texture to cover a 12×34-pixel rectangle; this is anisotropic filtering.

An anisotropic filter, on the other hand, is a filter with increasingly smaller

interstitial spaces in the direction of filtration so that the proximal regions
filter out larger particles and distal regions increasingly remove smaller
particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration.

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Birefringence
Birefringence, or double refraction, is the division of a ray of
light into two rays (the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray)
when it passes through certain types of material, such as calcite
crystals, depending on the polarization of the light. This is
explained by assigning two different refractive indices to the
material for different polarizations. The birefringence is quantified
by:
Δn = ne − no
where no is the refractive index for the ordinary ray and ne is the
refractive index for the extraordinary ray.

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Plane wave
 A plane wave satisfies the one-dimensional wave
equation in Cartesian coordinates.

 To obtain plane waves, the position vector must

remain perpendicular to a give plane. Pick a point
on the plane . In order for the wave to be
planar,

 The wave then satisfies the generalization of the

one-dimension equation,

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 Eigenvalues
 The word eigenvalue comes from the German Eigenwert which means "proper or
characteristic value."

 Eigenvalues And Eigenvectors Are Properties Of The Equations That Simulate The
Behavior Of A Real Structure.

 In mathematics, a number is called an eigenvalue of a matrix if there exists a

nonzero vector such that the matrix times the vector is equal to the same vector
multiplied by the eigenvalue. This vector is then called the eigenvector associated
with the eigenvalue.

 Eigenvalues are a special set of scalars associated with a linear system of equations (i.e., a
matrix equation) that are sometimes also known as characteristic roots, proper values, or
latent roots.

 The determination of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a system is extremely important in

physics and engineering, where it is equivalent to matrix diagonalization and arises in such
common applications as stability analysis, the physics of rotating bodies, and small
oscillations of vibrating systems, to name only a few. Each eigenvalue is paired with a
corresponding so-called eigenvector (or, in general, a corresponding right eigenvector and a
corresponding left eigenvector; there is no analogous distinction between left and right for
eigenvalues).

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