ENERGY AUDIT

Unit – 2

ECE-2
IV-II
 Syllabus
Heat Transfer Theory
Heat – Heat content – Rate of heat transfer – Heat transfer
coefficient - Conduction – Convention and radiation. Thermal
insulation & its importance - space heating – HVAC system –
Heating of Buildings – District heating – Factors & affecting the
choice of district heating.

Text Books:
1. Energy management by W.R. Murphy & G. Mckay Butter worth, Elsevier publications. 2012
2. Hand Book of Energy Audit by Sonal Desai- Tata McGraw hill.
Course Objectives:
To understand energy efficiency, scope, conservation and technologies.

To understand energy conservation in HVAC systems

To design energy efficient lighting systems.
To estimate/calculate power factor of systems and propose suitable
compensation techniques.
To calculate life cycle costing analysis and return on investment on
energy efficient technologies.
Course Outcomes:
After the completion of the course the student should be able to:
 Explain energy efficiency, conservation and various technologies.
 Explain energy conservation in HVAC systems.
 Design energy efficient lighting systems.
 Calculate power factor of systems and propose suitable
compensation techniques.
 Calculate life cycle costing analysis and return on investment on
energy efficient technologies
 What is Heat Transfer?
 Heat transfer is the movement of heat energy from one
substance to another.
 Heat transfer is a dynamic process in which heat is transferred
spontaneously from one body to another cooler body.
 The rate of heat transfer depends upon the differences in
temperature between the bodies, the greater the difference in
temperature, the greater the rate of heat transfer.
 The heat passing from one body to another travels through
some medium which in general offers resistance to the heat
flow.
Rate of heat transfer = temperature difference/heat flow
resistance of medium

Heat can be transferred in three ways:

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
Figure: Conduction, Convection and Radiation all happening concurrently.
Heat transfer coefficient: The heat transfer coefficient is the
heat transferred per unit area per kelvin.
• Newton found, experimentally, that the rate of cooling of the
surface of a solid, immersed in a colder fluid, was proportional
to the difference between the temperature of the surface of the
solid and the temperature of the cooling fluid.

• This is known as Newton's Law of Cooling, and it can be

expressed by the equation,
 Where, hs is called the surface heat-transfer coefficient, Ta is the
temperature of the cooling fluid and Ts is the temperature at the surface
of the solid.

 The surface heat-transfer coefficient can be regarded as the conductance

of a hypothetical surface film of the cooling medium of thickness xf such
that hs = kf/xf , where kf is the thermal conductivity of the cooling
medium.

 The heat transfer coefficient is not a constant quantity but depends on the
geometrical, hydrodynamic and thermal characteristics of a considered
system.
Thermal insulation:

Thermal insulation is the process of reduction of heat transfer between

objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence.

It consists of low thermal conductivity materials combined to achieve an

even lower system thermal conductivity.

Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or

processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.

Heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of

different temperature.
 Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in
which thermal conduction is reduced, creating a thermal
break or thermal barrier, or thermal radiation is reflected rather
than absorbed by the lower-temperature body.

 Thermal insulation is a great solution to reduce energy

consumption by preventing heat gain or loss through the
building envelope.

 This reduction of unwanted temperature changes decreases

the energy demand of heating and cooling systems.
Advantages of Thermal Insulation:

Thermal insulation keeps the room cool in summer and hot in

winter.

Due to thermal insulation the demand of heating in winter and

refrigeration in summer, is considerably reduced. This results in lot of
fuel saving and maintenance cost.

Use of thermal insulating material inside a room results in prevention

of condensation on interior walls and ceiling etc.

The use of thermal insulating materials further reduces the risk of

water freezing in case of pipes and heat loss in case of hot water
systems.
List of Thermal Insulation Materials

The various types of thermal insulation materials and some of

the most important and useful are described below:

Slab or Block Insulation

Blanket Insulation
Batt Insulating Materials
Loose Fill Insulation
Insulating Boards
Reflective sheet Materials
Light weight Materials
 Slab insulation is most commonly made
from glass wool, mineral wool or sheep's wool.
Instead of being molded into rolls, the material is
formed into rigid slabs which makes them easier to
install. They fit neatly between joints and battens in
loft spaces and ceilings, as well as fitting snugly into
walls.

Blanket insulation is the most common

and widely available type of insulation. It comes in the
form of batts or rolls. It consists of flexible fibers,
most commonly fiberglass. We also can find batts and
rolls made from mineral (rock and slag) wool, plastic
fibers, and natural fibers, such as cotton and sheep's
wool.
 Batt (felted material) insulation is made of fiberglass or mineral wool
(also called rock wool).

Batt insulation was traditionally manufactured in rolls but is now manufactured and precut
into industry-standard sizes.

Batt insulation is installed with facing or without facing.

Loose-fill insulation consists

of small particles of fiber, foam, or other
materials. The most common types of materials
used for loose-fill insulation include cellulose,
glass wool, and rock wool.
Insulation Boards
PIR insulation boards
Polyisocyanurate insulation - have a wide applicability and are perfectly suited to insulate a
flat roof or a cavity wall.

PUR insulation boards

Polyurethane (PUR) - most efficient insulation materials on the market

XPS insulation boards - applied to insulate basements, overlay roofs,

EPS insulation boards - are made of polystyrene.

Supple glass wool insulation boards - can be very useful in case of uneven surfaces, such
as a gable roof.
 Reflective insulation (also
known as foil insulation) is essentially a
barrier usually made from aluminum foil or
aluminized polyester.

Fiberglass, Mineral Wool, Cellulose, Polyurethane Foam, Polystyrene are

some of the lightest insulating materials but from these materials, Fiberglass is the
lightest.
Space Heating:
 Space heating systems are designed to satisfy the thermal comfort
requirements of building occupants.

 The interaction of the heating system with the fabric of the building is
critical to the comfort achieved and the energy efficient operation of the
system.

 The design of the heating system is based on the steady state heat loss of
the building, or the heat output required to maintain comfort conditions
within the building with an accepted external design temperature.
Types of Heating Equipments used for Space Heating:
High Temperature Radiators: The high temperature radiator essentially
consists of a high resistance element wound on porcelain mounted into
decorative frames.

 Resistance elements get heated to high temperature (1,400°C to

1,600°C) due to flow of electric current through them and 50% to 70% of
heat so produced is dissipated by radiation and remaining by convection.

 Advantages of this type of heater are that it is portable, cheap in initial

cost, simple in construction and attains its highest temperature quickly.
Panel Heaters:
Panel heaters are also known as convection heaters because they heat entirely by
convection.

Hot metal elements inside the heater body warm the air as it circulates around the
room.

The warm air then transfers its heat to the people in the room.

Convection heat provides fast and effective room heating. However, convection
heat is less efficient than radiated heat.

Convected heat requires two transfers of energy: 1) the heater heats the air which
in turn heats the occupants of the room where, energy is inevitably lost as the warm
air escapes through draughts and opened doors.
2) Radiated heat, meanwhile, heats objects directly, requiring only one
energy transfer ------This means that panel heaters are more expensive to
run than electric radiators.

The heat produced is utilised in the form of convection or radiations. This

system of heating of buildings is advantageous from the decoration point of
view and gives a uniform distribution of heat.
Underfloor Heating:
 An electric under floor heating system has heating cables
embedded in the floor. Current flows through a conductive heating
material, supplied either directly from the line voltage (120 or 240
volts) or at low voltage from a transformer.
 This is one of the systems that may be installed in a building whilst
it is being built.
 In this system a number of heating cables are embedded in the floor
of a room or otherwise contained in the floor space.
 Thus, heat is given to the concrete or other floor material slowly and
heat from the floor is used in warming the air in the room, and in
warming the walls and the furniture.
 The electrical power intake is controlled by thermostat fixed on the
room wall in a suitable position.
Thermal Storage System:

 Roughly this system is similar to well-known central-heating system

employing a “coal or coke – fired” boiler except that the heat is
supplied to the storage tank electrically.

 Hot water is circulated through the heating pipes and radiators

situated throughout the building.

 It must be noted that in electrical heating system the tank and

piping must be lagged to prevent loss of heat, a feature which is
usually omitted with fuel-fired systems, since with such systems the
efficiency is so low that the additional loss due to lack of lagging is
relatively insignificant.
 There are two types of heaters used in this system-the immersion
heater for a load up to 100 to 200 kW and the electrode boiler type
for loads exceeding 200 kW.

 The advantage of this system is that the water can be heated during
night (off-peak periods) and is supplied through-out the day, thus
use of cheap power available during off-peak period can be
made.

 This system of heating also provides hot water service for the
building.
HVAC System
Block Diagram of DX System
Chiller System:
This is the system that uses water to cool the air, in
other words the water is cooled via the heat exchanger
Which swaps the hot water with the coolant from the
evaporator.
Block Diagram of Chillar System
Block Diagram of Cooling Tower System
 Heating of Buildings
Heating in buildings is necessary to:

Create comfortable conditions for occupants.

To prevent condensation.
For activities such as drying and cooking.
For industrial processes.

 In commercial buildings, heating for comfort might be

provided alongside other building services in heating,
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.
 Heat sources
Examples of fuels and heat sources include:

Solid fuel – timber, coal, peat, biomass.

Liquid – oil, liquid petroleum gas (LPG).
Gas - natural gas, biogas.
Electricity - grid, wind turbines, hydroelectricity, photovoltaics.
Water – solar thermal, geothermal, ground source, water source.
Internal heat loads - heat generated by people and equipment.
 Heating systems differ in their distribution system.
 In centralised systems the heat generator delivers the total
heat for the building.
 This heat has to be transported by a distribution system to the
individual rooms.
 Decentralised systems consist of several heat generators,
which provide heat for each room or apartment separately.
 In this case, it is necessary to distribute the fuel or the energy
source to the single heating locations.
District heating:

 District heating is an underground infrastructure asset where

thermal energy is provided to multiple buildings from a central
energy plant or plants.

 Steam or hot water produced at the plant is transmitted 24/7

through highly insulated underground thermal piping networks.
How does district heating system work?

 Through a district heating network, the heat-producing plant

pumps heated supply water to consumers where it is used as
room/floor-heating and to generate domestic hot water.

 The domestic hot water gets heated in a heat exchanger in which

the heated supply water transfers its heat to the water coming out
of the taps.
District heating systems can vary in size:

 Some systems cover entire cities.

 Some district heating schemes might only be sized to meet the

needs of a small village or area of a city.

 Some schemes may be designed to serve only a limited number of

dwellings, of about 20 to 50 houses.
3D View of In-House Heating System control
Advantages and Disadvantages (Factors affecting DHS):

District heating has various advantages compared to individual heating

systems.
 Usually district heating is more energy efficient, due to
simultaneous production of heat and electricity in combined heat
and power generation plants.

 This has the added benefit of reducing greenhouse gas

emissions. The larger combustion units also have a more
advanced flue gas cleaning than single boiler systems. In the case
of surplus heat from industries, district heating systems do not use
additional fuel because they recover heat which would otherwise be
dispersed to the environment.
 District heating requires a long-term financial commitment that
fits poorly with a focus on short-term returns on investment.

 Benefits to the community include avoided costs of energy through

the use of surplus and wasted heat energy, and reduced
investment in individual household or building heating equipment.
Disadvantages:

 District heating networks, heat-only boiler stations, and co-generation

plants require high initial capital expenditure and financing.

 District heating is less attractive for areas with low population

densities, as the investment per household is considerably higher.

 Also, it is less attractive in areas of many small buildings.

Example:
1. detached houses than in areas with a fewer larger buildings.
2. blocks of flats, because each connection to a single-family house is
quite expensive.