MODERN PHYSICS

Nuclear Physics - Alpha particles have a

very high ionizing power
Radioactivity
in air
It is the spontaneous - They have low penetrating
disintegration of unstable power and can be stopped
nuclei by emitting alpha by pieces of paper
particles, beta particles and - They cause fluorescence
gamma rays. in some metals e.g. silver
The nuclei of some chloride and Zinc sulphide
elements, like Uranium, - They have a slight effect
Thorium, e.t.c are unstable on photographic plates
and these undergo
Note:During alpha decay,
radioactive decay in order
the mass number
to gain stability. The new
decrease by 4 and
nucleus formed is known as
atomic number
a daughter nucleus
decreases by 2
Alpha particles ( ) Example:
It is a helium atom with a
mass number of 4 and
atomic number of 2. Its Beta particles ( )
properties: Beta particles are electrons
- It is positively charged and their properties are:
- They are deflected by both - They are negatively
magnetic and electric charged
fields - They have a higher
penetrating power

1
 compared with that of
alpha particles
- They have a low ionizing
power
- They are deflected by both
magnetic and electric
fields
- They have a negligible
mass
Note: During beta decay,
mass number is not
affected but the atomic
number increases by
one
Example:
Gamma rays (γ)
These are the
electromagnetic radiations,
wave like in nature and
travelling at the speed of
light
They have the following
properties:
- They carry no charge ,
- They are not reflected by
both magnetic and electric
field,
- They have a high
penetrating power,
- They have a weak
ionization potential.
Note: Atomic number -:
This is a number of
protons in the nucleus of
an atom
Definition of terms:
Atomic Number: It is the
number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Mass number: It is the
number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Neutron number: It is the
number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Any atom X can be written
as ;
2
Where A is mass number
and Z is atomic number ln N = t +C
Neutron number = A – Z
Neutrons + protons = When t = 0, N= N0
Nucleons.
Thus nucleons are the same
as nucleon number.
The Decay Law But
It states that the rate of
disintegration of the nuclei
in a given element at any
given time is proportional Where: N – number of
to the number of atoms atoms present,
present. NO – initial number of
N – Number of atoms atoms,
present – decay constant and
Rate of decay = t – time taken.
Rate of decay ∝ Number of The decay constant: This
atoms present is the fractional number of
atoms that disintegrate per
second.
Half life: This is the time
taken for the number of

3
atoms in a radioactive number of atoms is plotted
element to decay to half the against time to obtain a
original value. decay curve.
Number
of atoms

At half life ,N= NO

2

NO
4
t1 t2 Time

Half life
UNEB Question
1. A sample of
radioactive material
Activity: Activity is the initially contains 1018
rate of disintegration of a atoms. If the half-life of
radioactive substance. the material is 2 days,
Activity is directly calculate the:
proportional to the number i) number of atoms
of atoms present. remaining after 5 days,
A∝N ii) percentage that has
A = λN decayed after 5 days,
The half-life can be iii) activity of the sample
determined by a graphical after 5 days.
method in which the Solution

4
(i) NO = 1018 and = 2 1020 and it half-life is 10
days hours. Calculate the:
i) number of atoms which
decayed in 30 hours.
ii) amount of energy
N = 1018e−03405 × 5 liberated if each
N = 1.7684 x 1017 decaying atoms liberates
(ii) Number of decayed 4 × 10−13J
atoms = NO – N Solution
Fraction decayed = (i) ; N – number of
atoms remaining

N = 7.5033 × 1019 atoms

= 82.32%
Number of atoms decayed
= 6 × 1020 – 7.5033 ×
1019
= 5.2497 × 1020 atoms
(ii) 1 atom that decays
(iii) A = λN
liberates 4 × 10−13J
5.2497 × 1020 atoms
A = 6.127506 ×
liberate
1016 atoms per day
(4 × 10−13× 5.2497 ×
2. The initial number of
1020)
atoms in a source is 6 ×
= 2.0999 × 108J

5
(iii) Activity after 30 But 1 mole = atomic mass;
hours: 1 mole of 60CO contains
A = λN 6.02 × 1023 atoms
60g of 60CO contains 6.02
A = 5.1998 × 1018 atoms × 1023 atoms
per hour 1.1g of 60CO contains
3. A radioisotope of atoms
60
CO decays by emission = 1.104 × 1022
of beta particles and atoms
gamma rays. If its half A = 𝜆N
life is 5.3years, calculate = atoms a
the activity of a source year
containing 1.1g of 60CO A = 1.443 × 1021 atoms
Solution per year.
A = λN
4. A source containing
Use Avogadro’s constant,
10g of 238U has an activity
NA to calculate the number
of
of atoms
5.1 × 1011 atoms per
Avogadro’s constant: This
second. Find the half life
is the number of atoms or
of the source.
molecules in one mole of
Solution
an element.
A = 𝜆N
NA = 6.02 × 1023
From Avogadro,

6
 RADIOACTIVE
1 mole of contains 6.02 DETECTOR
1023molecules Geiger Muller Tube (GMT)
238g contain 6.02
1023molecules
10g contain
atoms

= 2.5294 1022 atoms

Mode of operation
A= The ionizing particles enter
5.1 1011 = 2.5294 the tube through the thin
1022 mica window and argon
molecules are ionized by
= 2.0163 10-11 collision leading to
production of ion pairs
(positive ions and
electrons)
The electrons produced
move towards the anode at
a very high speed because
of the high p.d between the
anode and the cathode.

7
Because of the high kinetic
energy acquired by
electrons, they are capable
of ionizing several other
argon molecules producing
more electrons (gas
amplification).
When the electrons
produced reach the anode,
current flows through the
resistor, R.
The voltage pulse which
results is amplified and it
operates a counter which
records the arrival of the
incoming radiation.
The positive ions move
towards the cathode and the
impact on the cathode
makes it emit some
electrons. These electrons
are supposed to move
towards the anode and
cause current to flow.
However this may interfere
with the original current
produced by ionization.
To avoid this, a quenching
agent such as bromine is
introduced into the tube
which absorbs the energy
of the positive ions before
their impact on the
Cathode.
Note
1) The anode wire must
be thin so that the charge
on it produces an intense
electric field for the
electrons to be
accelerated with high
energy hence producing
more electrons by
collision with the gas
molecules.
2) The counter may be a
scalar or a ratemeter. The
scalar records the number
of pulses if receives in a
given time while a
ratemeter indicates the
8
 rate at which it receives Count
rate

pulses, i.e. it records C

counts per second. B

3) A quenching agent is
inside a GMT which
ensures that only one O
A Applied p.d

pulse is produced by each Main features:

ionising particle that - Between O and A, the
enters the tube. It slows count rate is zero because
down the positive ions there is insufficient gas
preventing them from amplification hence the
colliding with the cathode pulses are not large
hence preventing further enough to be detected.
production of electrons. - Along AB, the applied p.d
4) A GMT has a dead is not large enough to
time and it’s the time attract all the electrons and
taken by the positive ions therefore increasing the
to move for away from applied p.d leads to more
the anode for the electric electrons being attracted
field intensity at the and hence the count rate
anode to return to a increase.
normal value. During this - Along BC (the plateau
time, the tube doesn’t region), the count rate is
respond at all to all the constant because all the
incoming radiation. electrons are able to reach
the anode and hence all
A characteristic curve of
a GMT

9
 the pulses produced are 3)A ratemeter indicates
detectable. the rate at which it
- Beyond C, the count rate receives pulses and
increase rapidly because
registers it in counts
the quenching process
becomes ineffective and per second.
eventually a continuous The diffusion cloud
discharge occurs which chamber
might damage the tube.
Note:
1)A is called the
threshold voltage and it
is defined as the
minimum p.d applied A metal base is maintained
to the anode of a GMT at very low temperatures by
below which no pulse solid carbondioxide below
can be detected due to it. Air at the top of the
insufficient gas chamber is at room
amplification. temperature and this causes
a temperature gradient
2)A scale registers the
between the top and bottom
number of pulses it of the chamber.
receives while it’s
The air in the chamber is
switched on.
saturated downwards into

10
the cooler regions and it is The Wilson cloud
cooled. chamber
A radioactive source Light
Camera

produces radiations which

ionize air molecules in the S
chamber and the vapour
condenses on the ions Pad soaked in
alcohol a
formed to form water Piston

droplets around the ions.

When these are illuminated, Mode of operation
the path of the ionizing When the piston is quickly
radiation can be traced by moved downwards, the air
observation. in the chamber which is
NB: Alpha particles saturated with alcohol
produce a thick, straight vapour undergoes an
and continuous path adiabatic expansion and it
Beta particles produce cools.
non straight but The dust particles are
continuous path carried away leaving
Gamma rays produce a behind air which is dust
cloudy path. free. This is then subjected
to controlled expansions
making it super saturated.
It is then simultaneously
subjected to ionizing
radiations from a source, S.
The vapour condenses on

11
the ions formed to form The electrons move
water droplets around the towards the anode at a high
ions. speed due to the high p.d
These are then illuminated between the anode and
and then photographed by a cathode.
camera and the nature of The movement of electrons
the path formed reveals the cause an ionization current
type of ionising agent. to flow which is detected
The ionization chamber by the microammeter.
Wire gauze
The size of the current
Air or gas at low
pressure
Metal Cathode
depends on the nature of
Thin wire anode
the radiation.
EHT Battery
Experiment to determine
the half life on a material
1. Short-lived material
A material whose half life
is to be determined is
placed infront of the
Mode of operation: ionization chamber.
Radiations enter the Radiations from the
chamber through a thin material enter the chamber
wire gauze, and the and when they ionise gas
radiations ionise gas molecules, a current I,
molecules in the chamber flows which is detected by
to form ion pairs. the microammeters.

12
At successive intervals of
time t, measurements of
current, I are taken and the
results are tabulated.
Note: The current is
proportional to the
activity of the source
i.e I ∝ A
And from A = AOe-λt
I = IOe-λt
ln I = ln IOe-λt
OR
The half life can also be
determined using a GMT .
A sample is placed at a
given distance from a GMT
and the activity of the
sample is measured at
regular time intervals.
The results are tabulated
and a graph of (ln A)
against time, (t) is plotted.
ln A

ln I = ln IO + ln e-λt
ln I = −λt + ln IO , of
the form y = mx + c.
A graph of ln I is plotted t

against t and the slope, m is ln A = λt + lnAO

−

obtained. y = mx + c
ln I Slope, m = − λ
From

Examples
t
1. A GMT is placed 10
m= λ− cm from 1.0 g of 222Ra. If
it records a count rate of
Since
75 counts per second and

13
 its window has an area of
5 cm2, calculate the:
(i) total activity of the
source
(ii) the half life of the
source
Solution
d
A = 75 counts per second
second
Activity recorded by the
GMT is a fraction of total
activity
Activity recorded
Total area = 4πd2 (Area of
sphere in which
radioactivity occurs)
Area of GMT window = 5
Activity recorded = 75
∴ Total activity = 18849.56
counts per second
(ii) A = λN;
N = number of atoms in
1g of 222Ra
1 mole of 222Ra contains
6.02 × 1023 atoms
222g of 222Ra contains
6.02 × 1023 atoms
1g of 222Ra contains
atoms
= 2.7117 ×
1021 atoms
A = λN;
18849.56 = λ × 2.7117 ×
1021
λ = 6.9512 × 10-18 S-1
= 9.97 × 1016 seconds
2. A point source of alpha
particles which is a tiny
mass of the nuclei is
mounted 7cm infront of a
GM tube whose mica
window has an area of
3.0cm2. The counter
linked to the GM tube
records 5.4 × 104 counts
per minute. Calculate the:
14
 i) number disintegrations 𝜆 = 4.8 × 10-11S-1
per second within the
source N = 3.8485 × 1015 atoms
ii) number of atoms in the
source Artificial radioactivity
(Decay constant λ = 4.8 × Radioactivity occurs
10-11 S-1) naturally under normal
Solution circumstances in elements
Source 3.0cm2 like Uranium, However,
artificial radioisotopes can
be produced by:
- bombarding the nucleus
75 cm of a stable element with
(i) Activity recorded by neutrons in the nuclear
the window reactor or
- bombarding the nucleus
of a stable element with
charged particles e.g.
∴ Total activity = 1.1084 alpha and beta particles.
× 107 counts per minute
= 1.8473 × 105 Radioisotope is an element
counts per which can undergo
second (Bq) radioactive decay by
∴ A = 1.8473 × 105 Bq emitting alpha, beta and
Bq = Becquerels = counts gamma rays
per second Uses of Radioisotopes and
(ii) A = λN; Radioactivity
A = 1.8473 × 10 Bq
5

15
Industrial uses:
(i) In food manufacturing
industries, gamma rays
are used in sterilizing
food such as meat so that
it can stay fresh for a
long time.
(ii) Radioisotopes are used
in detecting leakages in
underground pipes (iv) Determining the rate of
carrying water or oil. A
little radioactive solution
is added to the liquid
being pumped at the
source. The point of
leakage is found by
monitoring the soil
surrounding the pipe
presence of a leakage
creates temporary
radioactivity in the soil
surrounding the leak and
this can be detected.
(iii) Beta particles in the
paper industry are used to
determine the thickness
of paper. This is done by Medical uses:
having a beta source
below the paper and a
GMT with a counter
above it. Any change in
thickness of paper
produces a corresponding
change in the number of
counts detected by the
counter.
wear in piston rings. A
piston ring is irradiated
so that it becomes
radioactive. The mass of
the piston ring and its
initial activity are
determined. The ring is
then installed in the
engine oil and the engine
is run continuously for
same time. After this
time, the activity of the
oil is then determined
using a GMT. This
activity is due to mass of
the piston worn off.
16
(i) Gamma rays are
replacing X-rays in the
treatment of cancer
(ii) Radioisotopes are used
as tracers for diseases like
brain tumours
(iii) Sterilising medial
equipments like needles,
syringes, surgical knives
before packaging.
(iv) Radioactivity can be
used to assess the blood
volume of a patient. A
little of a patient’s blood
is removed and put in a
solution containing a
radioactive element. A
carefully measured
quantity is reintroduced
into the patient’s body.
After a certain time, it’s
assumed that the blood in
the body is thoroughly
mixed and it’s now
radioactive. A sample is
then removed and tested
using a GMT. High
concentration of the
radioactive element in
blood reveals that the
blood volume is low
while a low concentration
reveals the body volume
is high.
Agricultural uses:
Radioactive elements are
used to measure the rate
of uptakes and
distribution of fertilizers
within plants
Archaeological uses
Radioisotopes mainly C14
(carbon – 14) are used to
study the age of fossils
and rocks. This process is
called carbon dating
Carbon dating
In the atmosphere there are
cosmic rays which knock
out neutrons from the air
nuclei. These nuclei then
collide with 14N to form
17
carbon – 14 which is
radioactive in nature.
Carbon – 14 is the isotope
found in the carbondioxide
which is taken by living
plants and used for
photosynthesis and later
taken in by animals in from
of food. When an animal or
plant dies, no more carbon-
14 is taken in. A proportion
of carbon -14 in dead plants
or animals decreases as the
carbon disintegrates. The
activity of a sample fossil is
measured using a GMT and
is compared to the original
activity which is the
activity of the same plant or
animal still living.
Using At = AOe-λt, the time, t
since the plant or animal
died can be estimated since
the half life of carbon is
known.
AO – activity of the
living sample
At – activity after a
time t
t – time taken (age of
fossil)
Health hazards of
radioactivity
(i) It can cause cancer
(ii) It can cause
deformation of offspring
(birth defects) due to
cumulative genetic
damage.
(iii) Possible sterility
(barrenness) or infertility
if the area exposed to
radiation is reproductive.
(iv) Can cause possible
damage to the eye sight.
(v) Radiations can also
cause mutations.
Safety precautions:
(i) Radioactive substances
should be stored in rooms
18
 having thick concrete Solution
walls and in lead boxes. At = AOe−
(ii) Avoid unnecessary At = 10Bq, t – age
exposure to radiations. AO = 19 Bq, of
And in case it’s carbon = 5600 years
necessary the exposure
should be limited.
(iii) Radioactive wastes
should be buried deep
under the ground.
(iv) Radioactive substances
should be held using
forces or tongs but not t = 5186.7 years
with bare hands 2. A radioisotopes of half
(v) Workers in radiology life 1 hour and initial
labs should wear badges activity 6.4 × 107
containing films sensitive disintegrations per hour is
to radiations. introduced into the patient
six hours later, 1.5cm3 of
Examples
the blood is withdrawn
1. The activity of a dead
and found to have an
sample of wood is 10Bq
activity of 300
while the activity of a
disintegrations per hour.
living plant from the same
Estimate the blood
species is 19 Bq. If the
volume of the patient.
half life of carbon is 5600
Solution
years, find the age of the
wood sample.

19
 AO = 6.4 × 107
disintegrations per hour
1.5cm3 of blood has 300
disintegrations per hour
= 1 hr
Total activity of blood after
6 hours:
At = AOe−𝜆t
= 6.4 × 107 e-0.693 × 6
AO = 1.00088 × 106
disintegrations per hour
1.5 cm3 has an activity of
300 disintegrations/hour
x cm3 has an activity of
1.0 × 106
∴ 5000 cm is the blood
3
volume of the patient
3. Lanthanum has a stable
isotope 139
La and
radioactive isotope 138
La
of half life 1.1 × 10 10
years whose atoms are
0.1% of those of the
stable isotope. Estimate
the rate of decay or
activity of 138La with 1kg
of 139La. (assume the
Avogadro constant = 6 ×
1023 mol-1)
Solution
Decay rate,
.................................... (1)
Where λ – decay constant
and
N – number of atoms in
138
La
Number of atoms in 1kg
(1000g) of 139La = ?
1 mole of 139La contains
6.02 × 1023 atoms
139g of La contains 6.0 ×
1023 atoms
1000g of La contains
But 138La atoms are 0.1%
of 139La
∴ number of atoms in
138
La,
N=
= atoms
20
 From ∴ Number of
disintegrations per second
From Eqn(1),
=
= 2.67 × 105.
4. At a certain instant, a (ii) N = 104, NO = 1012
piece radioactive material N = NOe-λt
contains 1012 atoms. The 104 = 1012e-λt
half life of the material is 10-8 = e-λt
30days. Taking ln on both sides,
(i) Calculate the ln10-8 = ln e-λt
number of -18.42068074 = -λt
disintegrations in the -18.42068074 =
first second
(ii) How long will
elapse before 104 t= days
atoms remain? t = 797 days
(iii) What’s the count
rate at this time? (iii) From ,
Solution Number of disintegrations
(i) N = NOe-λt per hour =
= 9.6
When N = 1012, 5. How would you use a
GMT to determine the
S -1
half-life of a radioactive
sample? (UNEB 2005)

21
Solution
oThe background count rate Solution
is measured 1 mole of 139X contains
oThis is then subtracted 6.02 × 1023 atoms
from the measured count 139g contain 6.02 x
rate of the source to find 1023atoms
the time activity of the 1kg (1000g) contains
source. atoms
oThe time activity is = 4.33 × 1024
recorded at time intervals atoms
of say 30 seconds.
oA graph of time activity Number 123
X atoms
against time is plotted. (radioactive) is 0.1% of
oThe time taken by the 139
X atom.
original activity to reduce Number of 138X atoms is
to half its original value is
the half life of the atoms
radioactive sample.
= 4.33 x 1021
6. An element X has
stable isotopes 139X and A = λN
radioisotope 138X of half
life 1.1 × 1010 year; whose
atoms are 0.1% of those
of a stable isotope. A = 2.7279 × 1011
Estimate the rate of decay atoms per year
of 1kg of 139X.

22
7. A steel piston ring 15g of contain
contains 15g of atoms
radioactive iron . The = 1.672 × 1023 atoms
activity of is 3.75 × Now A = λN,
10 disintegrations per
5
3.7 × 105 = λ(1.672 ×
second. After 100 days of 1023)
continuous use, the crank λ = 2.213 × 10-18 s-1
case oil was found to
have a total activity of
1.23 × 103 disintegrations s
per second. Find the: (iii) All the iron worn off
(i) half life of accumulates in oil.
(ii) average mass of The activity of oil is
iron warn off the ring due to iron worn off
per day assuming that A = λN'
all the metal removed Where N' = number of
from the ring iron atoms in oil
accumulates in the oil. 1.23 × 103 = 2.2 × 10-18N'
Solution N ' = 5.59 × 1020 atoms
(i) 15g of have an But 6.02 × 1023 atoms are
activity of 3.75 × 105 contained in 54g of
dis/sec 6.02 × 1023 atoms weigh
From A = λN, 54g
Number of atoms in 15g 5.59 × 1020 atoms weigh
of × 5.59 × 1020g
54g of contain 6.02 = 0.050g
× 1023 atoms

23
 Mass worn off per day = 1 mole of 12C contains 6.02
g × 1023 atoms
= 5 × 10-4g 12g of 12C contains 6.02 ×
Einstein’s mass energy 1023 atoms
relations 1 atom of 12C weighs
Einstein showed that if g
some matter of a given
mass was destroyed, energy But 1U is th
of an atom of
would be released. The
12
C
energy released is given by
E = mc2, where m is the 1U = 1.66113 × 10-24g
change in mass and c is the 1U = 1.66 × 10-27kg
speed of light in air. From E = mc2;
Einstein suggested that, m = 1U(1.66 × 10-27kg)
mass and energy are E = 1.494 × 10-10J
equivalent and 1U = 1.494 × 10-10J
interchangeable. Therefore 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19J
a single unit can be used to 1.6 × 10-19J = 1 eV
express both mass and
energy. This unit is called 1U = 9.338 × 108 eV
the unified atomic mass (U) Into meV;
By definition, unified
1U = meV
atomic mass is a twelve th
1U = 934 meV
of the mass of an atom of a
carbon – 12 isotope. UNEB Questions

24
1. Given that the mass of
= 209.992U, = = 209.992U – 209.984U
205.964U; = 4.02U
and 1U = 934 meV,
(i) State whether it is
possible for to
undergo an alpha
decay.
(ii) Calculate the mass
defect of the reaction
(iii) Find the total
energy released in the
above reaction
Solution
(i)
209.992 205.964
4.02
Total mass on RHS =
205.992 U + 4.02U
= 209.984U
Since there is a loss in
mass, the reaction is
possible and the loss in
mass is the energy
released
(ii) Mass defect (loss in
mass)
= 0.008U
(iii) Energy relased =
0.008U
1U = 934 meV
0.008U = (0.008 ×
934)meV
= 7.472 meV
2. Consider the following
nuclear reaction:
+
energy
Calculate the energy
released in the reaction
above given that 235U =
235.04U, 1U = 933 meV,
144
Ba = 140.91U, Kr =
49.14U and = 1.01U
Solution
Mass defect
= (235.04 + 1.01)U –
(140.91 + 49.14 + 3 ×
1.01)U
= 236.05U – 193.08U
= 42.97U

25
 But 1U = 933 meV = 3.1208 × 10-28kg
42.97U = (42.97 × E = mc2
933) meV = (3.1208 × 10-28) (3 ×
= 40091.01 meV 108)2
= 2.80872 × 10-11
E = 2.81 × 10-11J
3. When a fast moving 1mole of contains 6.02
neutron hits uranium, , × 1023 atoms
the nucleus breaks up into 235g contain 6.02 × 1023
, , 2 neutrons and 7 atoms
electrons. Calculate the
energy released by 10 10g contain
grams of uranium in this atoms
reaction[ = 235.044U, = 2.562 × 1022
= 94.906U, = atoms
138.906U, = 1.009U, But 1 atom releases 2.81
= 0.005U, 1U = 1.66 × × 10-11J
10-27kg]. ∴ 2.56 × 1022 atoms
Solution release (2.81×10-11×2.562
× 1022)J
Mass defect = 7.1936 ×
= (235.044 + 1.009)U – 1011J
(94.906 + 138.906 + 2 × 4. Given that =
1.009 + 7 × 0.005)U 238.12492U, =
= 0.188 234.1165U, =
Mass defect = (0.188 × 4.0038U, 1U = 933 meV.
1.66 × 10-27) kg

26
(i) Show that the nucleus (iii) Q – total energy
of uranium can released
disintegrate by Q = K.ETh + K.Eα
releasing an alpha ................
particle. ....... (1)
(ii) Calculate the From conservation of
energy released in the linear momentum;
process Initial momentum =
(iii) Calculate the final momentum
kinetic energy gained 0 = mThvTh + m𝛼 v𝛼
by the alpha particle. −
mThvTh = m𝛼 v𝛼
Solution
......................
Total mass on the RHS = ........... (2)
234.1165 + 4.0038 Substitute Eqn (2) into
= 238.1203U Eqn (1);
Since there is a loss in
mass, the reaction is
possible and the loss in Factorise ;
energy released
(ii) Energy released =
(238.12492 – 238.1203)U
= 0.00462
1U = 933 meV Thus the K.E gained by
0.00462U = (933 × the alpha particle;
0.00462) meV
= 4.31046 meV

27
 K.E gained by alpha zone. disintegration
particle = 4.238 meV produces new isotopes
which are closer to the
NUCLEAR STABILITY
stability zone than the
The nuclear stability original isotope.
depends on the number of
neutrons and protons. The mode of decay
Stability in light nuclei -Unstable isotopes above
prefers an equal number of the stability zone become
protons and neutrons. more stable by increasing
Examples of stable nuclei their atomic number. This
are: , , , is done by Beta emission.
Examples of unstable -Unstable isotopes which
nuclei are: , , . are below the stability
Stability in heavy nuclei zone decay in such a way
prefers much more neutrons that the atomic number
than protons, e.g. decreases and the neutron
A graph of the number of to proton ration increases.
neutrons against the The above conditions are
number of protons shows only satisfied if light
the stability zone. unstable nuclei undergo
Number of N=P pistron decay. A pistron is
neutrons
a positive electron which
Stability zone is emitted when a proton
in the nucleus changes into
Number of protons
a neutron.
Unstable isotopes are found
below and above stability

28
-Heavy nuclei can also Mass defect =
undergo alpha decay to 20×1.07849U +
attain stability. 20×1.00874U – 39.96U
Binding Energy = 41.7446U – 39.96U
Binding energy of a = 1.7846U
nucleus is the energy ∴ Binding energy = (1.7846
required to break a nucleus × 932) meV
into its constituent neutrons = 1663.247 meV
and protons. It is also the Binding energy is divided
energy released in forming by the mass number to get
a nucleus from its the binding energy per
constituent nucleons. nucleon.
Given that = 39.96U, Binding energy per nucleon
= 1.07849U, = 1.00874U is defined as the ratio of
and 1U = 932 meV, write energy required to break a
down the equation for the nucleus into free neutrons
formation of calcium and protons to the mass
nucleus and hence calculate number;
the binding energy for
i.e. Binding energy per
calcium.
Solution nucleon =
Example
+ Binding Given that = 55.93494U,
energy = 1.0072U, = 1.00864U
and 1U = 934 meV,

29
calculate the binding Sufficient excitation energy
energy per nucleon of iron. for the nucleus to split may
Solution be provided by particle
+ Binding bombardment of the
energy nucleus with protons,
neutrons, electrons, e.t.c.
Mass defect=
Example of a nuclear
55.93494U– fission reaction
(26×1.0072U+30×
1.00865U) Neutrons are preferred as
= 55.93494U – bombarding particles in
56.446U nuclear fission since they
= 0.51176U carry no charge, therefore
∴ Binding energy = they can penetrate deeper
(0.51176 × 934) meV into the nucleus. The
electrons will be repelled
= 477.98384 meV
by the electron cloud
Binding energy per nucleon around the nucleus while
= the positively charged
= 8.535 meV protons will be repelled by
the positive charge on the
Nuclear Fission nucleus.
This is the splitting of a
Uses of nuclear fission
heavy nucleus into two
1. The energy given out
lighter nuclei accompanied
can be changed to
by the release of energy.
electricity at power
stations.

30
2. The energy can be used
in the manufacture of
atomic bombs.
Nuclear Fussion
It is the union two lighter
nuclei to produce a heavier
nucleus of higher binding
energy per nucleon
accompanied by the release
of energy
e.g
Nuclear fussion takes place
at extremely high
temperatures because the
nuclei need a lot of kinetic
energy to overcome their
electrostatic repulsion and
this is only possible under
high temperatures.
Note: The Uses of nuclear
fission are the same as
for nuclear fussion.
A sketch graph of binding
energy per Nucleon
against Mass Number
Binding energy
per nucleon 16O
12C 238
U
56 Mass number
The graph shows that the
nuclei in the middle have
the highest binding energy
per nucleon and are thus
more stable.
Elements with high mass
numbers have a tendency to
disintegrate because of the
relatively small value of
binding energy nucleon.
The mass of the lighter
nuclei formed is less than
the mass of the heavy
parent nucleus and the mass
difference accounts for the
energy released during
nuclear fission.
Elements with low mass
numbers have smaller
values of binding energy
per nucleon. These light
nuclei combine to form a
31
heavier nucleus of higher = 9.131 × 10-13
binding energy (nuclear per second
fussion). The mass of the
resulting nucleus is lower
(less than the total mass of = 7.589 × 10 11

the lighter nuclei, and the seconds

mass difference accounts 2. The silver isotope
for the energy released. has a half life of 2.4
minutes. Initially, the
Examples sample contains 2.0 × 106
1. A radioactive source nuclei. Find the number
contains 1.0 mg of of radioactive nuclei left
plutonium, mass number after 1.2 minutes
239. If the source emits (Assume N = NO e - ).
2300 α-particles per Solution
second. Calculate the half NO = 2.0 × 106, = 2.4
life of plutonium. minutes, N = ?, t = 1.2
Solution min.
N – number of atoms in
1.0mg of plutonium 239
239g contain 6.02 × 10 23 λ = 0.28875 min -1
.
atoms N = NOe
λt

1.0 × 10 -6
contain = 2.0 × 10 6
× e -0.28875 × 1.2

= 1.414 × 106
atoms 3. In the fussion reaction,
= 2.5188 × 10 15
, how much
atoms energy in joules is
But A = λN released? (mass of =

32
 3.345 × 10-27kg, = 5.008
Incident radiation
Clean zinc plate
× 10 kg, = 6.647 × 10
-27 -
27
kg, = 1.675 × 10-27kg, Negatively charged
electroscope

speed of light c = 3.0 × Gold leaf

108 ms-1) -A freshly cleaned zinc

Solution plate is placed on top of a
Mass defect = mL.H.S – mL.H.S negatively charged gold
= (3.345×10-27 + 5.008×10- leaf electroscope.
27
)kg – (6.647×10-27 + -When ultraviolet
1.675×10-27) radiation/light is directed
= 3.1 × 10-29kg onto the zinc plate, the leaf
E = mc2 gradually falls/collapses.
= 3.1 × 10-29 × 3.0 × -This shows that the
108)2 electroscope and the zinc
= 2.79 × 10-12 Joules plate have both lost charge
and this charge is due to
Photo-electric Emission electrons hence
This is the process of photoelectric emission.
emission of electrons by a
Note: If the electroscope is
metal surface when
charged positively, the
exposed to an
emitted electrons will
electromagnetic radiation
be attracted back by the
of high enough frequency.
positive charge on the
Experiment to gold leaf electroscope
Demonstrate and therefore leaf
Photoelectric Emission doesn’t collapse.

33
Laws/ characters/ nature
of photoelectric emission
1. Every metal surface
has a minimum frequency
of the incident radiation
below which no
photoelectric emission
occurs.
2. Photoelectrons are
emitted with variable
kinetic energy ranging
from zero to a maximum
and the kinetic energy
increases with the
frequency of the incident
radiation and independent
of the intensity.
3. The number of
photoelectrons emitted
per second is proportional
to the intensity of the
incident radiation.
4. There is no time lag
between irradiation and
emission of electrons
from a metal surface.
The quantum Theory of
Photoelectric Emission
The theory states that,
“light energy is emitted
and absorbed in discrete
packets of energy known
as photons”. Each photon
has an energy, hf where, h
is Planks constant and f is
frequency of the incident
radiation.
When light is incident on a
metal surface, each photon
interacts with a single
electron on the metal
surface giving it all its
energy. The photon is
absorbed if its energy is
greater than the work
function. And if it is less,
the photon is rejected. The
energy in a photon is partly
used to overcome the
nuclear attraction of the
electron (work function)
and the remainder appears
34
as kinetic energy of the Where: c is speed of
emitted electron. light and
Einstein’s equation of λO is the threshold
photoelectric emission wavelength.
Threshold wavelength is
Where: the maximum wavelength
h – Planks’ constant, of the incident radiation
f – frequency of below which photoelectric
incident radiation, emission cannot occur.
w0 – work function, Threshold Frequency: is
m – mass of an the minimum frequency of
electron, and the incident radiation below
v – velocity of the which photoelectric
emitted electron. emission cannot occur.
Work function (WO or Ø) Examples
It is the minimum amount
1. Light of frequency 6 ×
of energy required to
1014 Hz is incident on a
liberate an electron from a
metal surface and the
metal surface. This energy
emitted electrons have a
is used to overcome the
kinetic energy of 2 × 10-
nuclear attraction of the 29
J. Calculate:
electron.
(i) work function of
wO = hf0 where
the metal,
fO = is the threshold
(ii) threshold
frequency
frequency of the metal
,

35
 (Plank’s constant, h = 3. A photoemissive metal
6.63 × 10-34Js-1) has a threshold
Solution wavelength of 0.45 μm.
Calculate the kinetic
energy of the emitted
wO = 3.978 × 10-19J electrons when light of
wavelength 0.35μm falls
(ii) wO = hfO
on this metal. (c = 3 × 108
ms-1, h = 6.63 × 10-34 Js)
fO = 6 × 1014 Hz Solution
2. Calculate the
maximum speed of
photoelectrons emitted by
a caesium surface when = 5.682857 × 10-19 –
irradiated with light of 4.42 × 10-19
wavelength 484 nm, if the = 1.263 × 10-19J
work function of caesium Experiment to verify
is 3 × 10-19J. Einstein’s Equation
(c = 3 × 108 ms-1, h = 6.63 (measurement of Plank’s
× 10-34 Js constant and the stopping
me = 9.1 x 10-31) potential)
Solution :

36
 Photo-emissive
cathode
Incident radiation
Anode
the incident radiation and
the corresponding stopping
Micro
ammeter
potential, Vs, is recorded.
-A graph of stopping
+ − potential against frequency
Variable p.d is plotted.
V Voltmeter Theory
Procedure: From ;
-A radiation of known
frequency, f is made hf = wO + eVs
incident on the eVs = hf – wO
photocathode.
-This causes a current to Vs

flow in the circuit and is

detected by the micro-
fO f
ammeter.
-A p.d V is applied and
To determine h, the slope ,
varied from zero until the
m is obtained
photocurrent measured by
the micro ammeter is zero.
-The p.d (reading of the h = me
voltmeter) is recorded as To determine work
the stopping potential. function, w0, the y-intercept
-To measure Planks’ c is obtained
constant, h, the experiment
is repeated with other w0 = ce
known frequencies, f, of Note:

37
 1. Changing the target
metal as the cathode Vs = stopping potential
gives a graph with the hf = wO + eVs
same gradient but
different intercepts.
2. For verifying
Einstein’s equation, wO = 7.556 × 10-19J
since a graph of 2. Sodium has a work
stopping potential function of 2.3 eV.
against frequency gives Calculate the:
a straight line, then the (i) threshold
equation is true. frequency
Stopping potential is (ii) stopping potential
defined as the minimum when it is illuminated
potential applied between by light of wavelength
electrodes to reduce the 5 × 10-7m
photocurrent in the circuit (1eV=1.6×10-19J)
to zero. Solution
1. A copper surface is (i) wO = 2.3 eV
irradiated by light of = 2.3 × 1.6 × 10-19 J
wavelength 2.5 × 10-7m
wO = 3.68 × 10-19J
and has a stopping
potential of 0.25V. But wO = hfO
Calculate the work = 5.55 ×
function. 1014Hz
Solution (ii)

38
 hf = hfO + eVs 404.7 1.13
eVs = h(f – fO) 435.8 0.93
= 491.6 0.62
= 2.9835 × 10-20 579.1 0.36
Vs = 0.186V 607.3 0.15
Plot a suitable graph to
determine the work
function and Plank’s
constant.

3. The following results Explanation of the laws of

were obtained in an photoelectric emission
experiment on using the quantum theory
photoelectric effect. The quantum theory states
that “light is emitted and
(i) Frequency Stopping absorbed in discrete
(Hz) potential
packets of energy called
1.20 1.20
photons”.
0.84 1.60
When light is incident on a
0.70 1.00 metal surface, each photon
0.65 0.35 interacts with a single
electron giving it all its
(ii Wavelength(n Stoppin energy. The photon is
) m) g absorbed if its energy is
potentia greater than the work
l

39
function and if it is less, the
photon is rejected.
Increasing the intensity of
light increases the number
of photons striking the
metal surface per second.
Therefore more electrons
are emitted per second
hence the photocurrent
increases with intensity.
Increasing the frequency of
the incident radiation
increases the energy of
each photon and therefore
the maximum kinetic
energy of the liberated
electrons increases with the
frequency of the incident
radiation.
Increasing the intensity of
light only increases the
number of photons but not
the energy in each photon.
Hence kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons is
independent of the intensity
of the incident radiation.
Applications of
photoelectric effect
Photo-emissive cell
Anode
μA
Photo-emissive
cathode
If light of frequency is
greater than the threshold
frequency of the cathode
coating is incident on the
cathode, electrons are
emitted and they move
towards the anode. A
current flows in the
external circuit.
If the light beam is
interrupted the current flow
stops. And when the device
is used with a suitable
magnetic circuit, it can be
used as a security alarm or
it can be used to open
doors.
When used as a security
alarm, the intruder
40
intercepts the ultra violet
beam falling on the cathode
hence cutting off the flow Number of photons striking
of current. This sets the caesium surface per second
alarm on.
=
Example
= 2.02 × 1017
A 100 mW beam of light of
photons
wavelength 4.0 × 10-7m
falls on a caesium surface (ii) 80% of the photons:
of a photocell.
(i) How many photons = 1.616 × 1017
strike the caesium photons
surface per second? Photo-current, I = n'e
(ii) If 80% of the photons = 1.616 × 1017 ×
emit photo-electrons, 1.6 × 10-19
find the resulting
= 0.026 A
photocurrent.
(iii) Calculate the kinetic I ≈ 25.86 mA
energy of each photo (iii)
electron if the work K.E = hf – wO
function is 2.15eV = 4.95 × 10-19 – (2.15 ×
(UNEB 1999 Nov/Dec) 1.6 × 10-19)
Solution = 1.51 × 10-19J
(i) Power = 100 mW = 100 = 0.944 eV
mJS-1; λ = 4.0 × 10-7 m
Energy of each photon = hf

41
X- RAYS
These are short wavelength
electromagnetic radiations
produced when fast moving
electrons are stopped by a
metal target.
Production of X-rays in
an x-ray tube
The filament is heated by a
low voltage source and it
emits electrons.
The emitted electrons are
focused to the tungsten
target by a concave
reflector and accelerated to
the anode by the E.H.T
battery.
When the electrons strike
the metal target, much of
their kinetic energy is
wasted as heat energy and a
small percentage is
converted to x-rays. The
heat generated at the target
is removed by cooling fins.
Little or no energy is lost
by electrons on their speedy
way to the target due to the
presence of a vacuum.
Note: The intensity of the
x-ray beam increases
with the number of
electrons hitting the
metal target and
therefore increases with
the filament current.
The intensity also
increases when the p.d
between the anode and
cathode increases.
The penetrating power
(quality) of x-rays increases
with the p.d across the tube.
X-rays with a low
penetrating power are
called soft x-rays and are
widely used in hospitals,
while those with high
penetrating power are
called hard x-rays and are
widely used in industries.
Properties of x-rays
42
- They travel in straight
lines at the speed of light
- They carry no charge and
not deflected by both
magnetic and electric
fields.
- They penetrate matter.
- They are capable of
ionizing gases.
- They can produce
fluorescence.
- They can be diffracted.
- They can be reflected
only at very large angles
of incidence.
Examples:
1. In an x-ray tube, the
current through the tube
is 0.1mA and the
accelerating p.d is 15KV.
Calculate the:
(i) The number electrons
striking the anode per
second
(ii) The speed of
electrons striking the
anode
(iii) The rate at which
cooling fluid at 100C
must circulate through
the tube if the anode is
to be maintained at
35°C
(Assume all electrical
energy is converted to
heat energy and S.H.C of
fluid is 2000Jkg-1k-1)
Solution
(i) I = n'e n' –
electrons per second
0.1 × 10-3 = n'(1.6 × 10-
19
)
n' = 6.25 × 1014
electrons
(ii) eV = mv2
1.6 × 10-19 × 1.5 × 103
= (1.1 × 10-31)v2
v2 = 5.275 × 1015
v = 7.26 × 107 ms-1
(iii) Electrical energy =
Heat energy
IVt = mc(𝜃2 – 𝜃1)
IV = c(𝜃2 – 𝜃1)
43
 IV = m'c(𝜃2 – 𝜃1) (ii) I = n'en' – electrons
m' – rate of flow per second.
0.1 × 10-3 × 15 × 103 = 0.011 = n'(1.6 × 10-19)
m'(2000) × (35 – 10) n' = 6.875 × 1016
m' = 3 × 10-5 kgs-1 electrons.
2. In an X-ray tube, 90% 3. The p.d between the
of the electrical power cathode and anode is 5 ×
supplied is dissipated as 104V. If only 0.4% of the
heat. If the accelerating kinetic energy of the
potential difference electrons is converted to
across the tube is 75 kV X-rays and the rest is
and 742.5W is dissipated dissipated as heat energy
as heat, calculate the: in the target at a rate of
(i) current in the tube 600W, find the:
(ii) number of (i) current that flow
electrons arriving at the (ii) speed of the
target per second. electrons striking the
Solution target.
(i) P = IV, V = 75 Solution
kV (i) 0.4% - X-rays
90% of IV = heat lost 99.6% - Heat
per second
IV = Heat energy
× IV = 742.5
× I × 5 × 10 4
= 600
× I × 75 × 10 =3
I = 0.012A
742.5 (ii) eV = mv2
I = 0.011A since work done = K.E

44
 1.6 × 10-19 × 5 × 104 = (i) Let n' – number of
× (9.1 × 10-31)v2 electrons.
v = 1.33 × 108 ms-1 I = n'e
4. The current in a water-
cooled X-ray tube n' = 1.875 × 1017
operating at 60 kV is 30 electrons.
mA. 99% of the energy (ii) rate at which energy
supplied to the tube is is supplied to the tube
converted into heat which = Average power
is removed by water developed
flowing at a rate of 0.06 P = IV
kgs-1. Calculate the: = 30 × 10-3 × 60 × 103
(i) number of electrons P = 1800 W
(ii) rate at which (iii) 99% of IV = heat
energy is being energy per second
supplied to the tube IV= m'c∆θ m' –
(iii) rate of change in rate of flow
temperature of the
× 30 × 10-3 × 60 ×
cooling water.
103
Solution
= 0.06 × 4200 × ∆θ
V = 60 kV, I = 30 × 10-
3 ∆θ = 7.07°Cs-1
99%IV = heat energy
Heat energy = X-Ray Diffraction
The wave nature of X-rays
= 1782 J can be confirmed by their
diffraction with crystals.

45
Experiment a sharp reflected X-ray
beam.
Crystal Photographic
Lead slits plate

For constructive
Narrow beam Diffracted X-rays
interference, the path
X-rays difference between waves
A narrow beam of reflected from
monochromatic X-rays is neighbouring atomic planes
incident on a crystal behind is equal to a whole number
which a photographic plate of the wavelength.
is placed. Analysis of the From the diagram, path
plate shows that there is a difference = BC + CD
central dark spot
But BC = CD = d sin 𝜃.
surrounded by a pattern of
other smaller dark spots. Path difference = 2d sin 𝜃
But for constructive
Bragg’s Law interference, path
Incident X-
rays difference = nλ
A ∴ - This is Bragg’s
d B
θ θ
d D Atomic planes law
in crystal
C
Where: d – inter atomic
spacing,
The X-rays are diffracted at λ – wavelength of X-
each layer in the crystal. In rays,
areas where constructive 𝜃 – glancing angle, and
interference occurs, the n – order of diffraction.
diffracted X-rays appear as Examples

46
1. A second order n = 1, 𝜃 = 10.2°, λ = 1 ×
diffraction image is 10-10
obtained by reflection of
X-rays at atomic planes
of a crystal in sodium d = 2.824 × 10-10m
chloride at a glancing 3. X-rays of wavelength
angle of 11°. Calculate 1.55 × 1010m are incident
the atomic spacing of the on a copper crystal of
planes if the wavelength atomic spacing 4.25 × 10-
of X-rays is 4 × 10-11m. 10

Solution (i) Calculate the smallest

n = 2, 𝜃 = 11°, λ = 4 × 10- glancing angle at
11
which radiation will be
first reflected
d = 2.096 × 10-10m (ii) If the temperature
2. A beam of X-ray of of the crystal is
wavelength 1 x 10 m is
-10 increased by 600 0
,
incident on a set of cubic calculate the change in
planes in a crystal. The angle that will be
first order diffraction obtained. (the
beam is obtained at a coefficient of linear
grazing angle of 10.20. expansion of copper is
Find the spacing between 1.7 × 10 k )
-5 -1

the consecutive planes of Solution

the crystal.
Solution 𝜃 = 10.5°

47
(ii) C𝜃 = CO(1 + 𝛼𝜃) The density of
(ii)

dθ = dO(1+ 𝛼𝜃) potassium chloride if

= 4.25 × 10-10(1 + 1.7 × the RFM is 75.5grams
10-5 × 600) Solution
dθ = 4.29335 × 10-10m
(ii)

𝜃' = 10.4° (ii) For the two ions in

Change in angle = θ – KCl,
V = 2d3
θ'
= 2 × (3.152 × 10-10)3
= 10.5° - 10.4° V = 6.263 × 10-29 m3
= 0.1° R.F.M of KCl is 75.5g
= 6I 1 mole of KCl weighs
4. A monochromatic 75.5g
beam of X-rays of 6.02 × 1023 molecules of
wavelength 2 × 10-10m is KCl weigh 75.5g
incident on a set of cubic 1 molecule of KCl weighs
planes in a potassium g
chloride crystal. First = 1.254 ×
order diffraction is 10-22g
observed at a glancing
angle 18.50. Calculate:
(i) The inter-atomic

spacing on potassium
chloride

48
X-Ray Emission energy as an X-ray photon
Spectrum in a single encounter with
Intensity L K
the target atoms. The
wavelength of the X-rays at
Line spectrum

Continuous spectrum
this point is known as the
cut-off wavelength. At cut-
Cut off Wavelength
off wavelength, energy in
The spectrum consists of an X-ray photon equals to
two major components, i.e. kinetic energy of electrons.
the continuous Energy in X-ray photon =
(background) spectrum and kinetic energy of electron
the very sharp line hf = eV
spectrum superimposed
onto the background where V – p.d
spectrum. The line spectrum
The continuous spectrum: At high tube voltages, the
This is produced when bombarding electrons
electrons make multiple penetrate deep into the
collisions with the target target atoms and knock out
atoms in which case they electrons from the inner
are decelerated. shell. The knocked out
electrons occupy vacant
At each deceleration, X-
spaces in higher unfilled
rays of differing
shells. This puts an atom in
wavelengths are produced.
an excited state and it
The shortest wavelength X- becomes unstable. Electron
rays are produced when transition from this higher
electrons lose all their

49
energy level to a lower
energy level results in an
emission on an X-ray
photon of energy which is
equal to the difference
between the energy levels.
If the transition ends in the
K-shell, it results into the K
series and if the transition
ends in the L-shell, it
results into the L series.
Examples
1. An X-ray tube is
operated at 30kv and has
a current of 20ma through
it. Find the shortest
wavelength of the X-rays
produced.
Solution
hf = eV
2. (a) Sketch a graph of
intensity versus
wavelength of X-rays
from an x-ray tube and
describe its much
features. (UNEB 2005
No. 5)
(b) Calculate the
maximum frequency of
x-rays emitted by an x-
ray tube operating at
34kV.
Solution
See notes
(b) hf = eV
hfmax = eV
Positive Rays
These are streams of fast
moving positive ions
remaining parts of atoms
that have lost electrons.
Properties of positive rays
-They carry a positive
charge.
-They are less deflected
than cathode rays in
electric and magnetic
50
 fields since they are molecules in the discharge
heavier. tube to form positive ions
-They move at different and electrons. The positive
speeds unlike electrons ions produced are
which move at the same accelerated to acquire a
speed. very high speed away from
-They have different the anode and the resulting
specific charges streams of positive ions are
-They cannot produce X- known as positive rays.
rays in an x-rays tube Measurement of Isotopic
-They cause fluorescence in Masses by a Bain Bridge
certain salts. Mass Spectrometer
Production of Positive Isotopes are elements of the
Rays same element with the
Positive rays are produced same atomic number but
in a discharge tube.
Cathode Positive rays
different mass number.
rays
An isotope is an atom of
the same atomic number
but different mass number
with other atoms of the
Anode
+ − Perforated cathode same element. s
High voltage

The cathode is heated by a

high voltage source to emit Stream of
positive rays
electrons. These electrons Slit S1

from the cathode ionize gas -

0
S2 0+ Photographic
plate

51
 Beyond slit, S3 the ions
S3 enter a region where a
uniform magnetic field is
applied (momentum
selector region).
The ions describe a circular
A stream of positive ions is path and strike the
directed through a narrow photographic plate.
slit, Sl to obtain a narrow In this region, Centripetal
beam. The positive ions force = Magnetic force
enter a region of
perpendicularly crossed
magnetic and electric fields
between slits S2 and S3 But
Magnetic force = Electric
force
Regions
between S2
and S3 is the If B1 = B2 = B,
velocity
selector m∝r
Only ions with velocity Since mass is proportional
will pass through the to the radius, isotopes of
velocity selector region un different masses strike the
deflected and enter through photographic plate at
slit, S3 different positions and
hence can be distinguished.

52
Note: The spectrometer can (i) What is the
also be used to velocity of the ions that
determine the specific go through the velocity
charge on ions. selector region un
deflected
Since ,
(ii) If the ions cover a
radius of 0.190m along
the photographic plate,
Ionic separation is obtained find the mass of the
by: ions (assume they are
singly charged.

Where r1 – r2 = Ionic
separation
Examples
1. In a mass spectrometer,
the magnetic flux density
in both regions is 0.6T
and the velocity selector
has an electric field
intensity of 2 × 104 Vm-1.
A stream of positive ions
is introduced into this
spectrometer

53
Solution: 2.
The magnesium ions
26
Mg 2+
, 24
Mg 2+
are
(i) Electric force =
deflected in a circular
magnetic force
path by a uniform
Eq = Bqv magnetic field. Find:
(i) ratio of the specific
V= charge of the ions
(ii) if the radius of the
V=
path of the lighter ions
V = is 0.36m, find the
radius of the heavier
ion
(ii) Momentum selection Solution
Magnetic force = Specific charge =
Centripetal force
Ratio of specific charges
=
=

NB: To calculate mass

number M=m x NA (ii)
NA = 6.02 X 1023

54
 Vacuum Diode
(Thermionic Diode)
A diode is a device
designed to conduct
electricity in one direction
and negligible current in
the opposite direction. It
consists of two electrodes,
i.e. the anode and cathode
= enclosed in an evacuated
bulb.
Thermionic Emission
The Cathode produces
This is a process by which
electrons in one direction
electrons are ejected from a
while the anode receives
metal surface by the
the emitted electrons.
application of heat.
Mechanism Structure and
When a metal is heated, the characteristics of the
few loosely attached vacuum Diode
diode
Milliameter
electrons to each atom Cathode anode mA

acquire kinetic energy and Voltmeter

move more randomly. V

When the electrons gain If

sufficient kinetic energy, Vacuum High tension

overcome the attraction by Filament voltage supply

The potential difference

the nucleus; they are lost.
between the cathode and
the anode is varied and the

55
corresponding anode
current is measured and
recorded by a milliameter.
A graph of anode current
against the p.d is plotted
and its called the I-V
characteristic curve of the
diode.
The I – V characteristic
curve of the diode.
Ia/mA C
D
B
A
Va/V
Region A – B
Here, the potential
difference is very small and
only the most energetic
electrons emitted from the
cathode may reach the
anode and very small
current is registered. A
large number of electrons is
repelled back towards the
cathode and hence many
electrons gather around the
cathode to form an electron
cloud known as a space
charge.
Region B – C: As the
potential difference
increases, more electrons
are attracted towards the
anode; the space charge
decreases as more electrons
reach the anode and hence
the anode current increases
rapidly.
Note: Current in this region
is given by the equation
(Child’s law)
Region C – D: When the
potential difference
becomes sufficiently
positive, all the emitted
electrons reach the anode
and therefore the number of
electrons reaching the
anode becomes constant.
The current that flows
reaches a maximum and is
56
known as the saturation the I – V characteristic
curve and any further curve.
increase in the p.d has very Ia/mA

little effect on the current.

Note:The saturation current
only depends on the
Va/V
filament temperature i.e.
the hotter the cathode Slope, S =
the more the number of
electrons emitted per Anode slope resistance,
second and therefore
saturation current Ra =
increases with the ∴
temperature of the Uses of a Diode
filament. A diode is used for
Ia/mA T2 rectification i.e. the
T1 conversion of alternating
current to direct current.
Types of rectification
Va/V
1. Half wave rectification
Note: In the conversion of 2. Full wave rectification
a.c to d.c, diodes have a Example
resistance known as the The following results were
anode slope resistance obtained from a diode
and it is obtained from valve.
Va/V 20 40 60 80 100

57
 Ia/ 1. 3. 6. 9. 15. depends on the attraction
mA 2 2 6 8 0 potential on the anode (Va)
(i) Plot a characteristic and the repulsive potential
curve and use it to of the grid (Vg).
determine the anode Characteristics of a triode
slope resistance (i) Anode Characteristic
(ii) If Ia = KVan, plot a Graphs
suitable graph and use These show the variation of
it to obtain the anode current (Ia) with
constants n and k. anode voltage (Va), when
Triode the grid voltage is kept
Low tension battery
Anode mA constant.
P Ia/mA Vg=0 Vg=−2V
− Grid Vg=−4V
H.T
+ supply

V Va
g
Va/V

A triode is a three electrode From the above graph, the

device obtained from a more negative the grid
diode by introducing a third voltage the larger the value
electrode known as the of anode voltage (Va)
grid. The grid is a wire required to obtain a given
mesh held at a negative value of current since the
potential relative to the grid will be repelling back
cathode. emitted electrons to the
The number of electrons cathode.
reaching the anode and
hence the anode current, Ia

58
From the graph, the anode
gm =
slope resistance can be
When the anode voltage
obtained. It is defined as
(Va) is kept constant, gm
Anode slope resistance = (mutual conductancy), then

When the grid voltage is

(iii) Amplification factor
kept constant, μ
From the slope, S =

(ii) Mutual characteristic From ; ∆Va =

graphs Ra∆Ia .................. (1)
These show the variation
; ∆Ia =
on anode current with the
gm∆Vg .................. (2)
grid voltage (Vg) when the
Substitute Eqn (2) into
anode voltage is kept
Eqn (1);
constant.
Ia Va=
100V
Va= 80V
Va= 60V

(Relation of the 3
+Vg
characteristic features)
−Vg

The graphs can be used to A triode as a single stage

obtain the mutual voltage amplifier
conductancy. When a triode is used as an
Conductancy is defined as amplifier, a small input A.C

59
voltage (Vi) is applied The current that flows
between the cathode and through the resistor is
the grid. As the input obtained by
alternates, it results in a
large change in the anode
current and eventually a
large output a.c voltage The output of voltage (Vo)
across the load resistor. across the resistance is
VO

Anode
RL V0 = IRL
Ra
Grid
Va

VI

The output voltage, VO is

much higher than the input
Voltage gain,
voltage, Vi. The ratio is
called the voltage gain, A.

From , if a voltage VI is
applied across the grid,
Examples
. A triode with a mutual
∴ A voltage Va is obtained conductance of 3mAV-1,
across the anode, anode resistance 104Ω and
Where Va = μVI load resistance 20000Ω is

60
used as a single stage factor is 80 and anode slope
voltage amplifier. resistance is 104Ω when
(i) Calculate the used with an anode load of
30,000Ω in a single stage
amplification factor
voltage amplifier.
(ii) The voltage gain Solution:
(iii) If the input voltage is
10Vr.m.s. Calculate the
output voltage.

A triode bulb with an anode

Solution:
slope resistance of 25kΩ is
used as a single stage
amplifier with a load of
50kΩ. A sinusoidal
alternating signal of
0.5Vrms is applied for the
grid. If the amplification
factor is 15, calculate the
voltage gain and the peak
value of the output voltage.
Solution:

Calculate
The voltage gain for a
triode whose amplification

61

8. What are cathode
rays?
These are streams of
fast moving electrons
ii. Describe an
experiment to show that
cathode rays travel in
straight lines.
Rays are thermionically
emitted on the filament and
accelerated towards the
cross
A shadow is formed on a
screen which confirms that
x-rays travel in straight
line.
c) explain how intensity
and penetrating power of
x-rays is affected by
The filament current
The higher tension p.d
across the tube.
Intensity increase with
filament current since an
increase in current leads to
more electrons produced
The high tension p.d
doesn’t affect the current.
The penetrating power
increases with p.d across
the tube. It also increases
with the filament current.
di) State Bragg’s law of
x-ray diffraction
2dsinθ=nλ
Where; d – atomic
spacing
θ – glancing angle
λ – wavelength of
x-ray
62
 Shadow photographs of
Define mass defect internal imperfections
It is the mass equivalence (cracks, flaws) in engines,
of the energy required to welding joints, e.t.c can be
break a nucleus into its obtained, It can also be
constituent nucleons’ OR. checked whether the core
It is the difference in mass of a golf ball is properly
between the parent nuclei centred. It can also be used
(reactants) and the daughter to see whether parcels
nuclei. contain bombs.
Uses of X-rays X-rays crystallography
Biological uses; This is used in analysis of
In radiotherapy; organic molecules.
Since they inhibit growth, To find the inter-atomic
they are used for spacing and arrangement of
destruction of cancer cells. atoms.
In radiography; Also in the analysis of fine
Since X-rays are easily powders containing minute
transmitted through flesh crystals.
but largely absorbed by
dense materials like bones a THE ATOM
shadow photographic plate The atom consists of a
behind the object onto nucleus containing protons
which x-rays are directed. and neutrons (nucleons)
Soft x-rays are used. surrounded by orbits
Industrial uses carrying electrons. The
Radiography

63
number of protons in an
tom is referred to as is
atomic number, whereas
the sum of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom is referred to as the
mass number of the atom
(nucleon number).
Atoms of an element with
the same number of protons
but different number of
neutrons are called isotopes
and atoms with the same
number of nucleons
(protons and neutrons) are
called isobars.
Rutherford’s model of an
atom
According to Rutherford,
an atom consists of a
positively charged core
(nucleus) which contains
most of the mass of the
atom and it’s being
surrounded by orbiting
electrons occupying the
biggest part of the atom. To
confirm this, Rutherford
investigated the scattering
of alpha particles by a thin
foil of a heavy metal e.g.
Gold.
Microscope
Vacuum
Screen coated
with zinc
sulphide
Source of alpha Gold foil
particles
In this experiment, α
(alpha-particles) from a
source are incident into a
thin metal foil and a glass
screen coated with zinc
sulphide is used to detect
the scattered alpha particles
which form scintillations
(flash of light) as they hit
the screen.
It’s carried out in a
darkened room so that the
scintillations can be seen
clearly and the apparatus is
evacuated to ensure that the
64
particles are able to reach
the screen without losing
energy.
By rotating the screen
about the metal foil and
then counting the number
of scintillations produced at
various positions in equal
time intervals, it is
observed that majority of
the α-particles go through
undeviated, few of the α-
particles are scattered
through small angles and
very few are deviated by
more than 90°.
Nucleus
The large angle scattering
is due to a single encounter
between an alpha particle
and the intense positive
charge (nucleus). Since
very few of the particles are
scattered through large
angles, this confirms that
the nucleus occupies a
small portion of the
available space in the atom;
and this disproves the
plum-pudding model which
was initially popular.
Rutherford’s model
however had some
opposition on theoretical
grounds that the orbiting
electrons are accelerating
thus emitting
electromagnetic radiations
at the expense of their own
energy and consequently
they would slow down and
spiral into the nucleus.
To resolve this, Bohr
assumed that each electron
moves in a circular orbit
centred on the nucleus and
the necessary centripetal
force is being provided by
the electrostatic force due
to the nucleus and this is
65
concretised by the Failure being:
following proposals by 1. Application on
Bohr. complex (bigger) atoms
Bohr’s Proposals:
contradicts the wave
Angular momentum of the
form behaviour of
electrons are multiples of
electrons.
, where h is Plank’s Note: The Bohr atom
constant and this implies consists of a massive
that angular momentum is positively charged
quantized thus electrons nucleus occupying a
allowed to move in small space at the centre
specified orbits (energy being surrounded by
levels). orbiting electrons which
An electron can jump from don’t emit
an orbit of energy E2 to electromagnetic
another one closer to the radiations as they
nucleus of energy E1 by revolve.
emitting electromagnetic
radiations of frequency, f, Distance of Closest
being given by; E2 – E1 = hf approach
Justification being the high Consider an alpha particle
degree of accuracy of the with charge, 2e incident in
wavelength of the a direction towards the
radiations emitted by nucleus of charge ze.
hydrogen atoms.

66
 2e
Alpha
+Z
e
or
Where: z – atomic number
particle bO

An alpha particle of the nucleus,

approaching directly the e – electronic charge,
nucleus is slowed down, m – mass of the
comes to rest at a distance, approaching nucleus
b0 from the nucleus and and
then repelled back. The v – speed of the
kinetic energy possessed by approaching nucleus
an approaching α-particle is
Example
given by . The
electrostatic potential A beam of 𝛂-particle of 4.2
energy of alpha particle and Mev is incident to a nucleus
nucleus at closest distance of a gold atom. Calculate
of approach; the distance of closest
approach (ZAu = 79)
P.Eelectrostatic = Solution
bO = ?, Z = 79, e = 1.6
P.Eelectrostatic = × 10-19C,
m = 9.11 × 10-31kg, ε1
= = 8.85 × 10-12
At the distance of closest K.E = 4.2 × 106 × 1.6 ×
approach, 10-19J
K.E = P.E elastic = 6.72 × 10-13J

67
 -
wavelength
When an atom is in a stable
orbit, its angular
In the Bohr’s atomic momentum is an integral
model;
multiple of ℏ where
Electrons can only revolve
certain stable orbits (energy Angular momentum ∝ h
levels), each having where;
definite association energy Mvr ∝ ℏ m – mass of an
without emission of atom
radiation. Mvr = n ℏ r – radius of
An electron can jump from the atom,
one energy level to another
and in this case an atom Mvr = v – speed of
radiates or emits energy. the electron
Energy emitted or absorbed n – integer called principle
is in form of quarter number
electromagnetic radiation Application of Bohr atom
of frequency, f given by to the Hydrogen atom
or = hf But (a) Kinetic energy.
Consider an electron
h – Plank’s revolving around an atom
constant, in an orbit of radius, r. The
c – speed of
light,

68
centripetal force of the
electron is
For hydrogen, Q1 = Ze = 1
× e = e and
Q2 = Ze = 1 × e = e
Electrostatic force =
At equilibrium, Fe =
Electrostatic force
(b) Potential energy
Potential energy is the work
done in moving an electron
from infinity to an orbit of
radius r, around the
nucleus.
P.E = ΔW; W = F × x
(c) Mechanical energy
M.E = K.E + P. E
Note: The energy of an
electron is negative because
the electrons are bound to
the nucleus of the atom.
Work must be done to
remove the electron from
the atom and this work is
done against the nuclear
attraction binding the
electrons of the atom.
The energy levels
69
Wave mechanics permits
the electrons in an atom to
have only certain energy
values. These values are
called the energy levels of
the atom. All atoms of a
given element have the
same set of energy levels
and theses are characteristic
of the element. The energy
levels are represented by
horizontal lines arranged
one above the other to form
an energy level diagram,
each line indicating by its
position a particular energy
level.
It is convenient to express
the energy level values in
electron volts (eV) but it
can be expressed in joules
by multiplying the value
with 1.6x1019J.
When an electron is in its
lowest energy level, it is
said to be in its’ ground
state (unexcited state).
If an atom absorbs some
energy in some way, the
electron may be promoted
into an orbit of higher
energy levels and it is said
to be unstable or in its
excited state.
Energy levels in
Hydrogen atom.
Note: Each energy level is
characterized by the
principle quantum
number, n and the
lowest level has, n = 1,
n = 2, etc.
The energy of the level
with n = ∞ is zero (0) and
in this case an electron
70
becomes free of the atom
hence the atom ionized.
The main Spectral
Transition of atomic
hydrogen
The spectrum of atomic
hydrogen contains distinct
groups of lines and the 3
most obvious are the
Lyman, Balmer and
Pashen.
The wavelength of the lines
in the Lyman series are in
the ultraviolet and each
associated transition
involves the level with n =
1, and the wavelength is
between (10 – 400nm)
The Balmer series involves
transitions to the level with
the n = 2, and the
wavelength of the lines are
in the visible region with
wavelengths between (400
– 759nm).
The wavelength of the lines
Paschen series are in the
infra-red region and each
associated transition
involves the level with n =
3 and wavelength > 750nm.
Note: Energy levels of the
hydrogen spectrum are
given by eV
The round state of an atom
is the lowest energy level
an atom can have.
Ionization and excitation
potentials
Ionization energy is the
minimum energy required
to remove the loosely
bound electron from an
atom when in ground state.
Ionization potential is
numerically equal to the
ionization energy.
Excitation Energy
71
This is the energy required
to excite an atom from its’
ground state.
Energy levels in atoms
with more than one
electron.
The energy levels of many
electron atoms are arranged
in groups known as shells,
the level with in any one
group having similar
energies. These shells
include;
K – shell, which contains 2
electrons
L – shell, which contains
upto a maximum of 8
electrons
M – shell contains a
maximum of 18 electrons.
Qn
Outline the experimental
evidence for the existence
of quantum theory of
matter (existence of the
discrete energy levels)
Quantum Theory states that
the energy exists in discrete
packets of magnitude, hf.
Some evidences are;
Photoelectric effect
To liberate an electron from
a metal surface, a packet of
energy, known as work
function which is the
characteristic of the metal
has to be supplied. i.e hf =
1
mv
Ø+ 2 2where Ø is the
work function
The Optical line Spectra
A Line in the optical
emission spectrum
indicates the presence of a
particular frequency
(wavelength) of light and is
considered to arise from
loss of energy work occurs
in an excited atom when an
electron jumps directly or
in steps from a higher
energy level to the lower
energy level and the
72
frequency of the packets of shells leaving a gap in the
the energy emitted is given energy level.
by Continuous spectrum is the
hf = En – Em band of radiations produced
due to the loss of kinetic
where n > m energy by the bombarding
The x-ray line Spectra electrons.
Electron transition from It is produced when
one shell to another leads to electrons strike a metal
liberation of energy packets target and they are
characteristics to the target decelerated. At each
atom. collision, electrons
decelerate and lose their
UNEB Question kinetic energy which is
What is meant by line converted into x-rays and
spectrum and continuous radiations.
spectrum?
Solution:
Electrons and Cathode
Line spectrum is a band of
radiations produced due to Rays
electron transition within CATHODE RAYS;
the energy levels. It is These are streams of fast
produced when energy of moving electrons.
bombarding electrons is
absorbed by the metal Properties of cathode rays
target and energy excites They are negatively
electrons from the inner charged

73
They cause certain accelerated by the anode (at
substances to fluorescence positive potential with
(glow) respect to the cathode).
They produce heat in any The maltase cross is placed
material they impinge in the path of the cathode
rays.
They produce x-rays on
striking matter The rays travelling produce
They are deflected by sharp shadow of a maltase
cross on the fluorescent
electric and magnetic fields
screen. This shows that
and this shows that they are
cathode rays travel in a
charged particles
straight line.
They travel in a straight
Production of cathode
line.
rays.
They possess momentum.
The cathode is heated to
This is shown by
high temperatures by the
introducing a small wheel
low voltage supply
in the tube which is seen to
rotate and this shows that This in turn increases the
they have mass. thermal velocities of the
free electrons hence
An experiment to show
that cathode rays travel in overcoming the attractive
forces.
a straight line
When the cathode is heated, The anode is connected to a
electrons are emitted and positive high voltage

74
supply so that electrons are
accelerated along the tube.
The electrons travel
unimpeded across the tube
and produce a of glow
when they collide with the
fluorescent screen and give
up their energy.
NB Energy conversions are
Electrical Energy →Heat
Energy →Kinetic energy
→Light energy
Motion of an election in
electric fields
(1) Deflection of an
electron in electric field
It follows from the
definition on electric field
intensity that an election in
a field of intensity E is
subjected to a force F,
given by
F = eE …………………(1)
where e = the charge on
the electron
since electrons are
negatively charged, the
force is in the opposite
direction to the field.
Suppose a horizontal beam
of electrons, moving with
velocity V, passes between
two parallel plates P and Q,
and the potential difference
between the plates is V,
while there a distance d
apart, the field strength
75
 From eqn (1) where a = acceleration =
F = eE =
and is directed If me = mass of electron
towards the positive plate. and t = time taken

Vy
+ P
θ
v
Electron beam M d In the horizontal direction,

_
D Vx
x = vt
Q t = ………………..(3)
Substituting eqn (3) in (2)
Since the field strength E is
we have;
vertical, no horizontal force
acts on the electron
entering the plates, so the
horizontal velocity V of the
beam is unaffected. In the Note: Between the plates,

vertical direction, the E and V remain constant.

Since e and me are
displacement y = at , 2

constant, we write that y =

76
kx2 for the motion, where k direction of the field during
Ee
this time is given by ,
is a constant equal to 2 me v 2 .
This is the equation for a .

parabola. So the path is a

parabola between the The angle θ at which the

plates. beam comes out from the

field is given by

When the electron just

EeD
passes the plate at M, x = tan θ =
me v 2
2
EeD
y=
D, the value of 2 me v 2 .
UNEB Question
Outside the plate or field,
(1) A beam of electrons,
the beam then moves in a
moving with a velocity of
straight line. The time
1.0 × 107m/s enters
taken for electrons to move
D
midway between two
between the plates is V .
horizontal parallel plates
So the component of
PQ in a direction parallel to
velocity, V1, gained in the
the plates, P and Q are 5cm

77
long, 2cm apart and have a Downwards acceleration on
Force Ee
p.d. v applied between a= =
electron Mass me
them. Calculate v if the
So vertical distance,
beam is deflected 1 1 Ee 2
y= at 2 = t
2 2 me
downwards so that it just
But y = 1cm = 10-2m and
grazes the edge of the lower 5 × 10
−2
t= 7
= 5 × 10−9 s .
1 × 10
plate Q. (Assume
).
Solution:
P

2cm
e m
1 e 2. A beam of electrons is
y 1cm
accelerated through a P.d of
Q

5cm 500V and then enters a

uniform electric field
strength 3.00 x 103 vm-1
created by two parallel
Electric field strength
plates each length 2.00 x
between plates,
10-2m. Calculate (a) the
v v
E= =
d 2 × 10−2

78
 speed (v) of the electrons as equal to the work done by
they enter the field. the p.d.
(b) the time t that each i.e.
electron spends in the field.
(c) the angle θ, through
v=
√ 2eV
m

= √ 2 × 1.76 × 10 × 500
11
which the electrons have
been deflected by the time ¿ 1.327 × 107

they emerge from the field

∴ Speed on entering field =
1.327 x 107ms-1
(specific change ( m) for the
e

11 −1
electron = 1.76 × 10 ckg )
(b) The horizontal
Solution:
2 × 10-2m
component of velocity is
V θ unaffected by the field
500v E = 3.00 x 103vm-1

between the plates and is

therefore constant

(a) The kinetic energy ∴ time between plates =

gained by an electron is 1.5.1 × 10-9s.

79
 2000v and is directed mid-
(c) The electric field, E way between two
exerts a force F on each horizontal plates of length
electron where F = eE 5.0cm and a separation of
F eE
a= = 2.0cm. The potential
But m m
difference across the plates
also
is 80v.
Vy = 0 +
eE
m ( )
t
(i) Calculate the speed of
i.e. Vy = ( m)
e
× E×t

the electrons as they

enter the region between
Since the plates.
tan θ =
7 .957 × 10
5
(ii) Explain the motion of
1.327 × 107
tan θ = 5.996 × 10
−2 the electrons between the
0
∴ θ = 3.4 plates
(iii) Find the speed of the
3. UNEB 2004
electrons as they emerge
A beam of electrons is
from the region between
accelerated through a
the plates.
potential difference of

80
 ma = eE

Solution: eE
a =
m
l = 5cm
_
1.6 × 10−19 × 4000
a =
9.11 × 10−31
2cm
v
a = 7.025 × 10−14 ms−1
+ θ Vx

Vy

Time taken by electrons to

move across the plate is

The electric field intensity

across the plate, The vertical component of
E =
v
=
80
= 4000Vm−1 velocity
d 2 × 10−2

V y = Acceleration × time
The electric force on ¿ 7.025 × 10−14 × 1.88679
6 −1
¿ 1.325 × 10 ms
particles = eE

The resultant velocity

81

Motion of Electrons in
Magnetic fields
Consider an electron beam,
moving with a speed, V
which enters a uniform
magnetic field of
magnitude B acting
perpendicular to the
direction of motion. The
force F on an electron is
then given by F = BeV
The direction of the force is
perpendicular to both B and circle of radius r. If BeV is
V. Unlike the electric
force, the magnetic force
cannot change the energy
of the electron. It deflects
the electron but does not
change its speed or kinetic
energy.
Uniform field B
downwards
Electron
beam
Circular
deflection
The force BeV is always
normal to the path of the
beam. If the field is
uniform the force is
constant in magnitude and
the beam then travels in a
small, the path is a circular
arc. If BeV is large
enough, the electron beam
82
can turn round in a
complete circle.
Examples
(1) Protons with a charge-
mass ratio of 1.0 x 108 ckg-1
are rotated in a circular a
bit of radius r when they

If the velocity v of the enter a uniform magnetic

electron decreases field of 0.57. Show that the

continuously due to number of revolutions per

oscillation, for example its second f is independent of

momentum decreases. So, r and calculate f.

from the relation for r Solution:

above, the radius of its Suppose Mp is mass of

path decreases and the proton

electron will thus tend to BeV =

spiral instead of moving in Ber
= rω
So, v = Mp
a circular path of constant Be
ω= = 2 πf
mr
radius.

83
 Be
f = to the anode, A in a absence
Then 2πm p
of any field and the
This results for f shows electrons strike the
fluorescent screen, s at X.
that it is independent of r. A p.d V is then applied
f=
0.5 × 1 × 10
8
between plates P&Q of
Also 2 × 3.14 length, l and the deflection,
f = 8 × 10 revs
6 −1 D of the beam from X on
the screen is measured.
A magnetic field is then
DETERMINATION OF
applied across the electric
SPECIFIC CHARGE
field and the current is
RATION OF AN
varied until the spot goes
ELECTRON
back to X.
J.J. THOMPSON’S
This experiment, a pair of
EXPERIMENT:
Cylindrical
anode

Filament
Magnetic field
into paper
+
Electric
field (F) helm holtz coils is used to
provide a uniform magnetic
Fluorescent
screen (S)
A P
Heater

field directed
supply
X
C
D
Q

perpendicularly around the

High resistance
voltmeter Y
_

Accelerating Voltage
glass bulb.
(Va)

The emitted electrons from

the heated cathode are then
accelerate by a p.d V. as
they move, they collide
Electrons emitted by the with hydrogen atoms which
cathode, c, are accelerated

84
emit light and the electrons Where v = the PD
describe a circular path.
between the deflecting
Theory
plates
The velocity of the
d = their (known)
electrons on emerging from
separation.
the anode is V, then
1
eV a = mv 2
2
2
e v
=
i.e. m 2V a

where Va = the accelerating

voltage
Determination of
also the electric field = electronic charge by using
magnetic field the Millikan’s experiment
Constant temperature bath
∴ BeV = eE
E
i.e. V = Oil
B Spray
arc H
* A

Substituting for v in e.
d
x-ray
B
robe

A and B metal plates at a

The value of E is found known distance, d of
v separation, with A
from E=
d
vertically above B.

85
The oil drops are
introduced between A and
B using an atomizer and are Weight =
strongly illuminated so that
they appear as bright sparks
when observed through a Where r = radius of drop
microscope. o = density of oil

Part I
When the electric field is Also upthrust =
not switched on, the drop is
observed that it falls and its where
velocity, Vo (terminal By stokes law,
velocity) is determined.
Viscous drag =
Forces acting on drop
Upthrust +
viscous drag
Oil Terminal
drop Velocity
V

Part II
When the electric field is
Weight = Upthrust + viscous drag switched on until the same
duet to air oil drop becomes stationary
But weight = volume of drop × density of oil × g
in between the plates.
Therefore for a spherical Weight = Upthrust +
drop Electric force

86
i.e. A constant temperature oil
bath is used to prevent
where
convection currents and
Q = the charge on the drop variation of air viscosity.
E = the electric field A non volatile liquid like
oil is used to prevent
strength evaporation which alters
the mass of the oil drop.
Eqn (2) - (1) From stokes law it’s
assumed that the fall of oil
Q = drop takes place in a
homogenous media.
Note: The principle of the
experiment is to observe
Milkan found out that the a small oil drop charged
charge on the oil drop was either positively or
negatively falling in air
always a multiple of the under gravity, then
basic charge. either rising or being
held stationary by an
electric field.
2.The oil drops charge by
the frictional effect while or
when emerging from the
Precautions; atomizer.

87

Examples
UNEB 2003
a(i) Explain how Milkan’s
experiment for measuring
the charge of the electron
proves that charge is
quantized.
(ii) Oil droplets are
introduced into the space
between two flat horizontal
plates, set 5.0mm apart.
The plate voltage is then
adjusted to exactly 780v so
that one of the droplet is
held stationary. Then the
plate voltage is switched
off and the selected
droplets is observed to fall
a measured distance of
1.5mm in 11.2s. Given the
density of the oil used is
900kgm-3 and the viscosity
of air is 1.8 x 10-5 Nsm-2.
Calculate the charge of the
droplet.
Solution:
a(i) Milkan found out that
the charge on every other
droplet was always a
multiple of the basic unit
1.6 x 10-19c and the whole
number. Thus the charge
carried by a single electron
is -1.6 x 10-19c.
88
A drop carrying charge of
N x 1.6 x 10-19c has either
N electrons too many or too
few. Thus Milkan
Upthrust+Viscous force =
concluded that charge is
Weight of drop
quantized.

where δ = density of air,

(ii) Separation of plates, density of oil
= 5.0mm = 5 x 10-3m, plate η= viscosity of air
voltage = 780V drop falls
1.5mm in 11.2 seconds,
density of oil= .
Also
Viscosity of air
= 1.8 x 10-3Nsm-2.

Let a be radius of the oil Neglecting the density of

u F
drop air, σ=0

v1

89
 eqn (2) - (1)
QE =

v 780
E= =
Also d 50 × 10−3
When an electric field is
= 1.5 × 105 Vm−1 .
applied across the plates,
FE Since the charged drop is
the charge
u F q gained by
held stationary by the field,
the drop is got from the
v2 = 0 .
v2
relation.
w

THE CATHODE RAY

Where V2 is velocity of
charged drop
OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
The C.R.O is an electric
device that uses the
principle of
electromagnetic deflection
to measure and study wave

90
forms, frequencies of a.c X- plates; these are placed
voltages, etc. vertically and they deflect
the beam in horizontal
The C.R.O is made up of 3
direction.
main parts, namely;
Y-plates; these are placed
Electron gun, the deflecting
horizontally and they
system and the fluorescent
deflect the beam in the
screen.
vertical position.
Electron gun,
Fluorescent screen
Cathode; this
This emits light when
produces/emits electrons
struck by the electron
when heated.
beam; i.e the kinetic energy
The grid G, it’s at a of the electrons changes to
negative potential w.r.t the light energy.
cathode and controls the
The inside of the screen is
number of electrons
coated with zinc sulphide
reaching the anodes.
which emits light when
Anode (A1,A2), these struck by electrons.
accelerate the electron
Note: The graphite coating
beam to a high speed down
prevents the electron beam
the tube which is highly
from the influence of
evacuated.
external electric fields.
Deflecting system;
This comprises of x and y
plates.

91
The vacuum prevents
secondary emission of
electrons.
Time base;
This is the varying p.d that
can be applied at the plates
(x-plates) of a C.R.O to
generate a saw toothed
wave form.
Uses of a time base.
It generates a saw-tooth
voltage which sweeps the
electron beam from the left
to the right at a constant
speed. The saw tooth then
return the beam to the
initial position at the
extreme left of the screen.
Uses of a C.R.O
It is used in displaying and
studying of wave forms.
The signal to be displayed
is connected to the y-plates
and the time base to the x-
plates.
Measurement of frequency.
This is an accurate method
for measuring the
frequency of the waveform.
If the unknown wave form
is applied to the y-plates,
on the known frequency
waveform is applied to the
x-plates while the time base
is not switched on.
if the time base is switched
on and the time base gain
and the length of the signal
are known, then the
period=time base gain x
length thus frequency =
1
Period
iii. Measurement of
voltage. The unknown
voltage is connected to the
y-plates; with the time base
switched off the spot is
deflected in a vertical line
92
and from this line the value
of the peak to peak voltage
can be measured provided
the gain control is know.
Advantages of using a
C.R.O over an ordinary
voltmeter.
It can be used to measure
both direct voltage and
alternating voltage.
It uses an electron beam as
a pointer which is very light
It is effective for measuring
alternating voltages with
high frequencies
If has a high resistance to
d.c and a high impedance to
alternating current (a.c) and
therefore the circuit to
which it is connected it
gives a better reading.

93