lndian J. Agrot'orestry Vol 1 No. 1 .

47-62 47

Agroforestry in the lndian Tropics

Y
I :'s. B. Mohan Kumar*
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry
College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University
Vellanikkara, Thrissur-680 654, Kerala

ABSTRACT
Tropical regions of lndia are characterised by diverse land use systems that integrate woody perennials with other life forms. A
constant radiation surplus and the general thermic uniformity, typical of these zones probably sustain such diversity in land use
practices. Social, economic and ecological reasons for the popularity of agroforestry in the tropics, system components and the
functional dynamics of important humid tropical agroforestry practices in the peninsular lndian context are described.
Key words: Tropical agroforestry, litter dynamics, fine root dynamics, energy plantation.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. THE TROPICAL BIOCLIMATE AND SOILS

Agroforestry is often perceived as the predominant land
use system in the tropics. Tropical agroforestry involves
complex land use practices where the indigenous culti-
vators use 'reliable ecological knowledge' (Michon et al.,
1983) or 'ecological theory' (Everett, 1989) in
maneuvering the plants and that this may endow
sustainability to the system. lndia is perhaps no excep-
tion to this general doctrine concerning the tropics. With
f' )ver 80"o of the tolal geographical area coming under
tropical region. lndia presents an array of agroforestry
-th"practices. Presumably the lndian farmers have tried to
mimic the structure and diversity of tropical forests by
planting a variety of crops with dilferential growth habits
in their homesteads for social, economic and/or ecologi-
cal reasons. Such rntensive, integrated land use systems
are characterised by a high degree of complementary
and/or competitive interactions also. Competition for light,
water and nutrients are cardinal production decreasing
functions in mixed species systems. Root competition is
of particular significance in this respect. ln mixed spe-
cies systems, roots of different species frequently inter-
mingle and often this overlap of roots can be extensive.
Although considerable progress has been made lately in
our understanding o{ the biophysical interactions in
agroforestry, they are mostly confined to strategic re-
search and rarely translated into agronomic management
(Rao et al., 1998). Questions relating to resource parti-
tioning and complementary interactions are also seldom
addressed. An attempt is made here to synthesise the
available information on tropical agroforestry in the ln-
dian milieu and discuss the management impliqAtions.
, The principal {ocus in this paper shall, however, be the
reninsular lndia, which shows a tremendous diversity in
F
"l
l*:ano use practices owing to topographic peculiarities and/
or climatic exigencies.
. Professor & Head
Climate has the most important influence on vegetation
and land use. Vegetation, indeed, is an integrator of the
conditions under which it grows. The climate of the ln-
dian peninsula signifies the monsoonic regime that su-
perimposes itself over a regime of thermic convectional
rainfall linked to the zenithal passage of the sun. The
climate, however, {luctuate significantly and is affected
by a variety of factors including distance from the coast,
presence or absence of the monsoons and trade winds,
and size of the land mass. Rainfall patterns are also com-
plicated (Pascal, 19BB). While large tracts in the Deccan
plateau fall under the semiarid category, the insular or
peninsular regions with large coastal areas relative to
the total land area has a striking coastal efJect, making
these territories more humid. Agroforestry practices in
the humid tropics are not likely to be restricted by mois-
ture stress, except on soils with low infiltration rates and
moisture retention capacities.
Seasonal temperature fluctuations in the humid tropics
are less marked than those in the dry tropics (Willaims
and Joseph, 1973). Temperatures in the humid tropics
are olten closer to the optimum for tropical plants than
those in other tropical climatic zones and do not become
high or low enough to seriously restrict plant growth for
extended periods. This in turn may pafily justlfy the tre-
mendous biological diversity of the humid tropics. The
SAT environment, however, is characterised by high at-
mospheric water demand, high mean annual tempera-
ture (>180C), and low, variable annual rainfall (400-1900
mm; Swindale, 1982). The tropical soils are predominantly
well drained and inferlile. Major soil orders of the SAT
regions are Alfisols, Verlic soils, Psamments, Oxisols and
Ultisols (Vandenbeldt, 1990).
Agroforestry being site-specific, the humid and the semi-
arid regions show characteristic diversity with respect to
system components, arrangement and/or management.
 lndian J. Agroforestry Vol- 1 No.
48
But it has been a common practice to integrate trees with
field crops and/or animal production in both these zones'
There are many social, economic and ecologicalfactors
responsible for the wide popularity enjoyed by
agroforestry in the humid and semiarid tropical regions'
3. REASONS FOR AGROFORESTRY
3.1. SocialReasons
Agroforestry is socially acceptable because it fits well
*itn tn" traditional farming systems and established vil-
lage life-styles (Kumar et al., 1992)' The primary func-
tio-n of most agroforestry practices is food
production ei-
ther directly (producing edible f ruits, nuts grain, rhizomes
and tubers, leaves, flowers, etc.) or indirectly (facilitating
enhanced and/or sustained production)' Timber, fuel'
fodder and green leaf manure represent other major
goods obtained from such land use practices' Multiplic-
ity of goods and services, however, is a unique feature
oi ugtofot"ttry. lt thus aims at ecological security, in-
creaied productivity and above all, sustainability' These
are svstems which probably have emerged over centu-
riei oi cultural and biological evolution and represent the
accumulated wisdom and experiences of the farmers who
have interacted with the adverse environment without
access to external inputs, capital or scientific knowledge'
Such experiences have guided farmers in many areas to
develop sustainable agroecosystems, managed with lo-
cally available resources and with human/animal energy
(Altieri et al., 1987).
3.2.
Economic Reasons
A major economic reason for agroforestry is that it is suit-
able for resource poor situations. Agroforestry may also
produce high value crops such as cacao, coffee, various
spices and condiments- The economic advantage can
be summarised as low capital and labour costs, increased
value of outputs, diversified range of products from a given
area in order to (a) increase self sufficiency and/or re-
duce the risk to income from diverse climatic, biological
or market impacts on particular crops/products, (b) even
distribution of labour inputs and thereby reducing the ef-
fects of sharp peaks and troughs in labour utilisation typi-
cal of tropical agriculture, (c) productive application for
under-utilised land, labour or capital, besides creating
capital stocks to meet intermittent costs or unforeseen
contingencies (Arnold, 1 987).
3.3. EcologicalReasons
Trees modify the microclimate, improve nutrient cycling
through processes such as litterdynamics, nutrient pump-
ing, retard soil erosion and desertification, maintain
biodiversity and soil fertility. Soil fertility improvement
associated with trees is often termed as micro-site en-
richment. lt occurs primarily through improvement in the
soil organic matter and mineral nutrient pools, which in
1
turn can be related to litter and fine root dynamics'
A H
6
3.3.1. Litter Dynamics v F
l:
tll
Tropical agroecosystems exhibit varying degrees of
"leakiness'; (Nair, 1984) and the leaf litter frequently
serves as a temporary sink for nutrients such as N' S
and P. Because of the important role of litter in regulat-
have
- r"'
ing nutrient {luxes, factors influencing litter dynamics
im"portant implications for long-term site productivity
Consequently, litter dynamics of the humid tropical {or-
estecosystems (Kumarand Deepu, 1992; Khiewtam and
Ramakrishnan, 1993) and plantation forestry systems
past'
have received considerable research attention in the
However, such reports characterising litterfall, decay and
the resulting changes in soil nutrient pool are scarce in
have
tropical agroforestry. A few workers, nonetheless'
addressed problems such as decompositron of applied
leaf mulches (Budleman, 1988) and nutrient cycling in
systems based on crops including coffee (Coffea spp)'
(Theobroma cacao) (Alpizar et al', 1986; Glover
"""uo
and Beer, 1986; lmbach et al., 1989)' large cardamom
(Amomum subutatum) and mandarin (Citrus reticulatal
planta-
isnutr" et al., 1997) - For Acacia auriculiformis litter-fall
iions, Kunhamu et al. (1994) reported an annual
,
ol12.9Mgha1.GeorgeandKumar(1998)quantified
litter production and the associated nutrient turnover in
tropical silvopastoral systems involving four mu-ltipurpos' ; i*
tree species. Annual addition of litter ranged f rom 1'9b-r
6.25 Mg ha-1. ln another study Jamaludheen and Kumar
(1998)inowed that the amount of litter{all in monospecific
woodlots of nine fast growing multipurpose trees ranged
lrom 3.42to 12.69 Mg ha yrr. Furlhermore, leaf f all ac-
1
counted for about 38-203 kg N ha'1 yr1,0'8-6 kg P ha'
yr-1 and 3.4-15.7 kg K ha1 yr1 appropriated into the soil
pool through nutrient cYcling.
Pruning the lateral branches of trees at the beginning o{
the crop-planting season is typical of agroforestry' ln
g"netai, pruningdelays canopy closure.and/or reduce
Iro*n width. Pruned trees may thus yield less litter' lt
also alters the periodicity of litter{all' Pruning, although
reduces litterfail, does provide substantial quantities of
green leaf manure and/or firewood and facilitates light
infiltration into the understorey that promotes production
of annual crops. ln addition, pruning presents a large
pulse of nutrients through the return of nutrient rich foli-
age.
3.3.2. Fine Root DYnamics
Fine roots represent a large and dynamic porlion of the
below ground biomass and nutrient capital and they ac- r,
count f-or a significant porlion of net primary production
(Srivasthavaetal.,19B6).Studiesintemperateforesi-q,-
ecosystems have shown that fine roots are ln constarLi/' "
flux, with death and replacement taking place simultane-
ously. Presumably fine root morlality transfers consider-
able amounts of organic matter and nulrients into the l
 Agroforestry in Tropics / Kumar 49

rhizosphere in integrated tree-crop systems. However,
( rnvestigation on production ecology andnutrient cycling
'l-,n agroforests face a major gap because little is known
about the production and turnover of fine roots.
4. AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE
HUMID TROPICS OF INDIA
Conventionally agroforestry systems have been classi-
fied as agrisilvicultural, silvopastoral, agrosilvopastoral
and other systems (Nair, 1990). All these major divisions
include many disparate and intricate land use practices'
The practices are often specific to topographic and
edaphic factors. Some of the important practices in the
peninsular lndian context are discussed here.
4.1. Multipurpose Trees on Crop LandI'
of the lndian larrdscape. According to Nair and Dagar
(1991) although the farmers and landowners integrate a
wide variety of woody perennials in their crop and
livestock enterprises, most of these practices are location
specific and information on these also are anecdotal'
Agroforestry systems inventory prepared under the
DLgnosis and Design Project of the All lndia Co-ordinated
Research Project on Agroforestry also catalogues a large
number of woody perennials on farm lands (Table 1)"
There are, however, striking regional variations in this
respect. For instance, Prosopis cineraria and Ziziphus
nummularia are widespread in the arid areas. Coconut,
arecanut and rubber are favourite trees in the humid
regions. Acacia nitotica is popular in the dry to moist
tropical climate, throughout lndia. Acacia leucophloea,
Aci,acia ptanifrons, Acacia catechu, Borassus flabellifer,

Trees, often intentionally planted in crop fields or allowed Tamarindus indica, Ceiba pentandraand several species
to persist f rom natural regeneration, are a common feature of Eucalyptus are prevalent in different parts of lndia'

. Agroforestry systems in the tropical humid and sub-humid zones

.l
Table

Multipurpose tree sPecies FruiVnut trees Crops

Climateizone Agroforestry
system
Ailanthus malabarica, Aftocarpus hirsutus, Arecanut Coconut, Cassava, Colocasia,
Tropical Homegardens
Casuarina equisetifolia, Ceiba pentandra, Jackfruit, Mango, Ginger, Guinea grass,
Highlands
D al b e rg i a I atif ol i a, E ryth ri n a spp, G I i ri c i d i a Sapota. Medicinal piants,
sepium, Grevillea robusta, Hevea brasiliensis, Ornamental Plants,
Macaranga peltata, Moringa oleifera, Turmeric, Vegetables,
l_ Pterocarpus marsupium, Tamarindus indica, Yams.
Tecton a g randi s, Thespesi a popu I nea

Acacia auriculiformis, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia Banana, Coconut, Cowpea Ginger,

Farm boundary
rocera, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bambusa Guava, Jack Fruit, Paddy, Turmeric.
spp, Bauhinia variegata (kachnar) Bombax Litchi, Mango,
ceiba, Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea, Ceiba Papaya.
pentandra, Dalbergia sissoo (shisham)'
Erythrina indica, Eucalyptus tereticornis,
Gtiricidia sepium, Gmelina arborea, Grevillea
robu sta, Le ucae n a le ucoce ph al a, M aca ra n ga
peltata, Morus alba (sehtut), Pterocarpus
marsupium, Populus deltoides, Sesbania
sesban, Syzygium cumini (1amun), Terminalia
arjuna (arjun).
Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Ailanthus Arecanut, Banana, Groundnut.
Tropical plains Agrisilviculture
excelsa ( Maharookh) , Albizia lebbeck, Albizia Black pepper Horsegram, CowPea,
procera. Anacardium occidentale, Artocarpus Coconut. Custard- Til, Vegetables.
heterophyllus, Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia apple, Guava
variegata (kachnar), Bombax ceiba, Cassia Mango, PaPaYa,
fistula, Cassia siamea, Ca.suarina equisetifolia, Sapota.
Ceiba pentandra, Dalbergia latifolia, Dalbergia
sissoo (shish am), Den d rocal am us strictu s,
Embtica officinalis, Erythrina indica, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Feronia
elephantum , Garuga pinnata, Gliricidia sepium,
Gmetina arborea, Grevillea robusta, Leucaena
leucocephala, Macaranga peltata, Paraseria-
L nthes falcataria, Prosopis cineraria, Syzygium
cumini , Tamarindus indica, Vateria indica,
Ziziphus mauritiana.
 lndian J. Agroforestry Vol. 1 No. 1

Climatelzone Agroforestry Multipurpose tree species FruiVnut trees Crops

system
Ag rihortisilvicultu re Acacia catechu, Acacia holosericea, Albizia Banana, Black Cowpea, Mung,
spp, Annona squamosa, Anogeissus latifolia, pepper, Cacao Vegetables.
Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Erythrina Clove, Coffee
indica, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Eucalyptus Nutmeg, Papaya
citriodora, Garuga pinnata, Gliricidia sepium, Tea.
Gmelina arborea, Grevillea robusta, Hevea
b rasi I ien si s, Leucaen a leu coceph ala,
Mangifera indica, Melia azedarach, Moringa
oleifera, Psidium guajava, Syzygium cumini
Tectona grandis, Terminalia spp, Ziziphus spp.

Silvopasture Acacia leucophloea, Acacia planifrons, Cashew, Coconut Guniea grass, Hybrid
Silvihorticulture Ailanthus excelsa, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta Black pepper napier, Paragrass,
Homestead indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ceiba pentandra, Mango, Sapota. Congosignal,
Erythrina indica, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Cenchrus ciliaris,
Garuga'pinnata, Grevillea robusta, Prosopis Vegetables.
cineraira, Prosopis juliflora, Tamrarindus indica.

C'oastal Energy plantation Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia planifrons

Ailanthus excelsa (Maharookh), Albizia lebbeck,
Anacardium occidentale, ArTocarpus heterop-
hyllus, Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia variegata
(kachnar), Casuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia
sissoo (shish am), E ucaly ptus te retico rn i s,
Gliricidia sepium, Macarang peltata, Leucaena
leucocephalaa, Paraserianthes falcataria,
Prosopis juliflora.

Agrisilviculture Acacia leucopholoea, Acacia nilotica, Acacia Balck pepper Fodder grasses
Silvopasture planifrons, Ailanthus excelsa, Albizia lebbeck, Cashew, Coconul Groundnut, Sorghum
Sllvihorticu3 lture Azadirachta indica, Cassia siamea, Casuarina Guava. Vegetables.
Homestead equisetifolia, Ceiba pentandra, Eucalyptus
revi I I ea robusta, P rosop i s i u I if lo ra,
te reti co rn i s, G
Syzygi u m cu m in i, Tamarindus i ndica.

Humid Silvihorlipasture Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Ailanthus Arecanut, Balck Coffee, Tea, Fodder
>2500 mm Silvihorticulture excelsa (Maharookh), Albizia lebbeck, Albizia Pepper, Citrus, grasses, Paddy.
mean annual procera, Anacardium accidentale, Artocarpus Coconut, Guava,
precipitation h i rsut u s, Artoca rpu s h ete ro ph y I I u s, Azad i rachta Lime, Mandarin,
indica, Bauhinia variegata (kachnar), Bombax Orange, Papaya,
ceiba, Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea, Casuarina Pomegranate,
eq u i setifol i a, D al be rgi a latifo I i a, D albe rg i a Sapota.
srssoo (shish am), De nd rocal amu s strictu s,
Emblica officinalis, Erythrina indica, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Feronia
elephantum, Gliricidia sepium, Gmelina arborea,
Leucaena leucocephalaa, Macaranga peltata,
Paraserianthes falcataria, Prosopis cineraria,
Syzygium cumini , Tamarindus indica, Vateria
i n dica, Zizi ph u s m au riti ana.

500-2500 Agrisilviculture Artocarpus heterophyllus, Azadirachta indica, Coconut, Guava Cowpea, Forage
Homestead Bauhinia variegata (kachnar), Bombax ceiba, Mandarin orange, grasses, Groundnut
Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea, Casuarina Mango, Paddy, Vegetables.
equisetifolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Dendrocalamus Pomegranate,
strictus, Emblica officinalis, Erythrina indica, Sapota.
E ucalyptus te retico rn i s, G mel i n a arbo rea,
G I i ri cidi a sepi u m, Le ucaen a I eucoce ph al a,
Macaranga peltata, Paraserianthes falcataria,
Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Tectona
g ran dis, Ziziphu s ma u riti an a.
 51
Agroforestry in TroPics / Kumar

Multipurpose tree sPecies FruiVnut trees Crops

Climate/zone Agroforestry
system
Ba1ra, Cenchrus
1500 mm Agrisilviculture Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia leucopholoea,
Acacia planifrons, Ailanthus excelsa, ciliaris, Cotton,
Silvopasture
Albizia lebbeck, Anacardium occidentale, Dinanath, Groundnut
Pulses, Sorghum,
Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia variegata(kachnar),
Vegetableis.
CaSuarina equisetifolia, Ceiba pentandra,
Dalbergia sissoo (shisham'1, Eucalyptus
tereticornis, Grevillea robusta, Leucaena
leucocephalaa, Paraserianthes falcataria,
Prosopis iutiftora, Tarirarindus indica.

Energy plantation Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia nilotica, Ailanthus

excelsa (Maharookh), Ailanthus triphysa,
Albizia tebbeck, Albizia procera, Anacardium
occidentale, Artocarpus heterophyllus,
Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia variegata
(kachnar) Bombax ceiba, Cassia fistula, Cassia
siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia
tatifotia, Datbergia sissoo (shish am) Dendro'
calamus strictus, Emblica officinalis, Erythrina
indica, Eucatyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus
tereticornis, Feronia elephantum , Gmelina
arborea, Leucaena leucocephalaa, Paraseria'
nthes falcataria, Prosopis cineraria, Syzygium
cumini, Tamarindus indica, Ziziphus mauritiana.

Research Project on Agroforestry centres, National Research centre

source: synthesised from the Annual Reports of the All lndia coordinated
on Agroforestry, Jhansi

r Trees on farmlands frequently follow a random or irregular
geometry, except in the case of plantations and orchards'
Many trees also serve multiple objectives such as
providing green manure, fodder, fuel wood and small
timber. For example, almost every part of lhe Acacia
nitotica tree is used. lts leaves, young twigs and pods
are used as fodder; the branches are used as fuelwood
and fencing material; the bark is used for the extraction
of tannin; the timber is used for making agricultural
implements and the tree also yields gum (Tejwani, 1994)'
4.1.1. Constraints
Farmers often perceive inter-specific competition for site
resources as a serious deterrent to integrated tree-crop
produclion systems. Competition for light is a central to
the biophysical interactions in agroforestry. Quick grow-
ing trees with spreading crowns generally impede light
infiltration into the understorey, thereby adversely affect-
ing understorey crop productivity. Allelopathic inf luence
anO/ot recalcitrant nature of litter and the inconve.nience/
lack of ease to carry out various farm/cultural operations
are additional concerns in this respect (Kumar, 1997)'
Root competition is another major constraint in respect
of integrated production systems. Roots of different
species frequently intermingle and often this overlap of
a the roots can be extensive. ln general, tree root systems
can potentially out-compete the field crops grown in
association with them. Yet, little is known about the
characteristics of root systems that enable one species
to acquire resources more efficaciously than others in a
competitive situation. ln a study of the root distribution
pattern of nine-year-old wlld iack (Artocarpus hirsutus)
tree, a prominent multipurpose tree in the mixed species
32P soil injection
systems of southern lndia using
technique, Jamaludheen et al. (1997) lound that most of
the physiologically active roots were concentrated in a
soil volume of up to 75 cm away from the tree and 30-cm
deep. lt is, however, argued that as lateral expansion of
tree roots is limited, the effect of overlapping root zones
and the associated conpetitive eJfects may be
negligible during the initial years of tree growth (below
1 0 years of age).
According to Caldwell (1987) competition below ground
is known more by its manifestations than by mechanlsms
and even the most basic questions have received little
attention. Although there is increasing information on root-
system biomass and root production in varioud ecosys-
tems, there is a paucity of information on root competi-
tion and rooting density in tropical agroforestry systems'
Caldwell and Richards (1986) also observed that when
considering competitive relationships, the distribution and
degree of overlap of neighbburing root systems are of
particular interest. However, data on overlapping root
systems in agroforestry are scarce, owing to methodo-
logical problems.
52 lndian J. Agroforestry Vol. 1 No. 1

4.2. Trees on Farm Boundaries
When trees are planted on field risers (bunds) andior
borders, quite apad from the specif ic uses for which trees
are planted on farmlands, trees and shrubs serve to de-
marcate the field boundaries and also serve as wind-
breaks/shelterbelts/live fences. ln a survey of the land
use systems of Kerala, Kumar (1994) documented the
dominant tree components of the system (Table 2). The
principal species included Ailanthus triphysa, ArTocarpus
spp., Erythrina spp., Gliricidia sepium, Macaranga peltata
and the like. ln the coastal regions, however, mangrove
species such as Rhizophora spp., Avicennia officinalis
are important. Paddy field risers are usually planted with
tree species such as Borassus flabellifer, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Gliricidia sepium,
etc. in many parts of the country. Many of these trees
(e.9. Casuarina, Ailanthus, Borassus) do not intercept
much of the incoming solar radiation and yield substan-
'
tial quantities of green leaf manure on lopping (e.9.'
Gliricidia sepium). Commercial timber species such as.--
Tectona grandis, Acacia mangium, etc. are of late being
increasingly planted on farmlands. Bamboo clumps oc-
cur particularly on the farm borders. Bambusa
arundinacea is the predominant bamboo species in this
respect. Other species such as B. vulgaris and
Dendrocalamus strictus are also frequent (Kumar, 1997).
4.3. Plantation Crop Combinations
Woody perennial plantation agriculture is a chief land use
activity in the tropics. Perennial crops have formed an
integral component of the peninsular lndian landscape
too. Coconut, arecanut, rubber, tea, coffee, cardamom,
and oil palm are important in this respect. The combina-
tion of crown architecture and the wide spacing adopted
in the plantation agriculturalsystems often facilitate grow-

Table 2. Frequency of important trees and shrubs on farm boundaries and scattered trees in 252 homesteads of Kerala

Species Frequency (%)

Boundry Scattered
Ailanthus triphysa 21.3 .+ -J

Artocarpus hete rophyl lus 10.8 12.6

Mangifera indica 9.4 15.5

Tectona grandis 5.9 6.7

An acardium occidentale 5.0 6.0

Artocarpus hirsutus 5.0 tro

Erythrina indica 4.2 2.6

Macaranga peltata 3.7 2.3

Tamarindus indica 3.4 4.4

Thespesia populnea 3.4 0.7

Psidium guajava 3.0 0.9

Bombax ceiba 1.8 2.3

Leucaena leucocephala 1.4 0,6

Swietenia macrophylla 1.3 1.5

Gliricidia sepium 1.1 2.1

Delonix regia 0.9 1.1

Emblica officinalis 0.7 1.3

Annona squarnosa 0.6 0.7

Terminalia paniculata 0.5 1.1

Ceiba pentandra 0.4 0.9

Azadirachta indica 0.4 1.0

Paraserianthes falcataria 0.2 1.6

Others 13.9 23.6

Source: Kumar (1994)

 Agroforestry in TroPics
of crops in association with them
. ing a wide spectrumtolerance is an important criterion of
{Nair, 1984). Shade
\-the field crops to be included under mixed species sys-
tems. Shade relationships of several f ield/plantation crops
were evaluated at the Kerala Agricultural University, with
a view to optimise understorey productivity (Kumar,
1994). Sweet potato (tpomoea batatas), cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata), groundnut (Arachis hypogea), black gram
(Vigna mungo), soyabean (Glycine max) and red gram
(Caianus caian) are considered shade sensitive' Coleus
(Coteus parviflorus) is shade intolerant while ginger
(Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) are
shade loving.
4.3.1. Coconut Based Cropping Systems
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is grown in an area of about
six million hectares in the tropics. More than 90% of the
crop is in Asra and Oceania, major producing countries
being Philippines, lndonesia, lndia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia
and the Pacific islands. The lndian area and production
are put at 1.63 million ha and 12,355 million nuts, re-
spectively. ln lndia, the state of Kerala represents an
important coconut growing region, with an area of about
8,77,000 ha and a total annual production of 5144.3 mil-
lion nuts (KSLUB, 1995). Seventies and eighties saw a
remarkable boom in the area under this crop in the pe-
ninsular lndia.
'\-
Lr,
Polycultural systems involving several species are a
unique feature ol the coconut based farming systems in
the tropics. The palms often do not ordinarily utilise the
incoming solar radiation completely (Abraham, 1993).
Limited lateral spread of the coconut roots leading to sub-
optimal utilisation of below ground resources (Anilkumar
and Wahid, 1988) also facilitates mixed and/or inters crop-
ping. As a result, annual, seasonal and perennial crops
abound in coconut plantations. They include horticultural
crops, medicinal plants and even fast growing multipur-
pose trees. Perennials like pepper, arecanut, nutmeg,
clove, cacao, pineapple and annuals like banana, tur-
meric, ginger, tuber crops, fodder crops, pulses and
oilseeds are frequent. lmpodant spice/beverage crops
such as cacao, clove, nutmeg, co{fee, arecanut and pa-
paya (Pillai, 1985) and fruit crops like sapota, mango,
citrus, guava and jack are also frequent in the coconut
gardens (Srinivasan and Caulfield, 1989). According to
Nair and Varghese (1 976), coconut + cacao + black pep-
per + pineapple is a widely accepted crop combination in
Kerala.
4.3.1.1 . Muttipurpose frees in coconut plantations
lntroducing multipurpose trees in coconut plantations,
however, is a relatively recent concept. Traditionally such
trees were included in the coconut gardens for green
manure and fodder purposes and/or as support trees for
trailing pepper vines. Gliricidia sepium, Erythrina indica,
Pajanetia rheediiand Leucaena leucocephala are promi-
/ Kumar 53
nent in this respect (Nair and Sreedharan, 1986; Ghosh
et al. 1989; Liyanage et al" 1990). Lately, however, with
a view to develop low input sustainable production sys-
tems, numerous muttipurpose trees are systematically
inter planted in the coconut plantations (Nair, 1983). Such
mixed planting systems are particularly relevant for the
disease affected andlor senile plantations. lt not only
improves the productivity of senile and/or disease affected
palms, but also enriches the wood resource base of the
iocality. This is of special significance in a state like Kerala
where wood f rom agricultural lands account for about 74-
84"/o of the society's total wood requirements
(Krishnankutty, 1990)and about 0.41 million hectares o{
the coconut plantations in Kerala are affected by root
wilt, a serious debilitating disease (Bavappa et al', 1986)'
Several multipurpose trces recommended in this respect'
Ceiba pentandra, Gmelina arborea, Tamarindus indica,
Azadirachta indica, Catliandra calothyrsus, Ailanthus
triphysa, Eucatyptus tereticornis, Acacia nilotica, Grevillea
robusta, Casuarina equisetifolia, Paraserianthes
fatcataria, Dalbergia latifolia, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia
auricutiformis, Vateria indica, Sesbania grandiflora,
Tectona grandis and Hardwickia binata are prominent in
'1986; Nair
this respect (Jambulingam and Fernandes,
and Sreedharan, 1986; Dagar and Kumar, 1992; Kumar
et al., 1994; 1998a).
4.3.1.2. Constraints
Although intensive, integrated land use systems involv-
ing multipurpose trees, plantation crops are ideally suited
for the small and medium grofuers o{ coconut, informa-
tion on the compatibility of multipurpose trees in a coco-
nut plantation is scarce. lndiscriminate planting ol multi-
purpose trees in juvenile coconut groves, therefore, may
adversely affect coconut growth and productivity' Farm-
ers apprehend competition for light, water and nutrients
between coconut and inter planted multipurpose trees'
Many aspects of the functional dynamics such as sys-
tem productivity, competitive interactions and resource
sharing are also less known. Snaydon et al. (1989) pro-
posed that root competition between coconut, palms and
pasture understorey is more important than shoot com-
petition between them.
Root competition in intercropping systems involving mul-
pP
tracertech-
tipurpose trees have been evaluated using
agrisilvicultural
nique. Such information on coconut based
system, however, is scarce. Kumar et al. (1998a) reported
an attempt to evaluate the nature of below ground inter-
actions between coconut, multipurpose trees and the field
crop component (kacholam) in intensive, integrated land
use systems involving three fast growing multipurpose
tree species (Aitanthus triphysa, Grevillea robusta and
Vateria indica), based on the relative absorption of
applied 32P. They found that inter planting multipurpose
54 lndian J. Agroforestry Vol. 1 No.
trees in the coconut plantations substantially altered the
32P recovery pattern of coconut. Bolh Ailanthus and
Vateria exhibited a modest depressing effect on 32P
upfake by coconut, while Grevillea exefied a favourable
influence in this respect.
Differences in root architecture (Van Noordwijk and
Purnomosidhi, 1995) may explain such variations.
Schroth and Sinclair (1995), after a review of the role of
tree root systems, concluded tfuat selection of tree spe-
cies with low root competitiveness (eventually supple-
mented by shoot pruning), trees with complementary root
distribution to the crops, reduction in root density by
trenching or tillage and rotations (compared to tree-crop
combinations) are important strategies in agroforestry.
Fufthermore, interplanting of quick growing trees is sel-
dom advocated before 15-20 years of palm age in well
managed plantations.
4.3.2, Rubber Based Cropping Systems
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is a principal plantation crop
in Kerala and the north-eastern regions of India, besides
the Southeast Asian countries. ln Kerala alone, during
the period between 1976-86, there raes 51 per cent in-
crease in area under rubber. The total production of rub-
ber alio increased during this period (from 1.29 lakh
tonnes in 1975-76 to 3.7 lakh tonnes in 1992-93). Pro-
ductivity, which was 555 kg ha"l during 1984-85 increased
to 830 kg ha-l in 1992-93. Bulk of lndian rubber is pro-
duced in tiny gardens of one acre or so, by small hold-
ers, who produce rubber with household labour to meet
part of their household income requirements.
Faced with uncertain markets and discriminatory
treatment from government, the most obvious survival
strategy for small holders has been to diversify their
holdings so that they are not dependent on any one crop.
lntercropping therefore holds promise, especially during
the early phase of rubbergrowth. The potential intercrops
include banana, vegetables, tapioca, yams, etc. ln
Thailand mahy small holders intercrop the young rubber
with food crops. Cropping practices, range from repeated
cropping of upland rice for subsistence to continuous
cultivation of pineapples on a commercial basis (Masae
and Cramb, 1995). Rubber with legume cover crops,
maize, peanuts, pineapple, hedgerows and banana are
frequent in Malaysia (Eusof and Wahab, 1995). Srilankan
experiments (Yogaratnam and lqbal, 1995) have shown
that rubber and tea are ideally suited to intercropping,
although it would require some adjustment of the spacing
of the rubber plants to allow for the permanent growth of
perennial crops. The inter-row space would generate an
income during the first few unproductive years of the
rubber trees, and also during wet periods when rubber
tapping is not possible. Woody perennials are, by an(
Iarge restricted to the borders in well-managed rubber
plantations.
1
4.3.3. Arecanut Based Cropping Systems
lndia is the leading arecanut (Areca catechu) producing.
(75% ol lhe total) country in the world, producing 249,300 -
tonnes of nuts f rom about 208,400 ha of land in 1990-91 .
Arecanut grows mainly in the states of Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Assam, Meghalaya and West
Bengal. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu account for
about62"h of area and 64"/" of production in lndia. Like
coconut, due to its height, crown architecture and wide
spacing adopted for planting, the arecanut palms permit
the growing of a wide variety of annual, biennial and per-
ennial intercrops. Banana, cacao, black pepper, pineap:
ple, betel vine, elephant foot yam, tapioca, paddy, sor-
ghum, cowpea, vegetables, turmeric, ginger and guinea
grass are principal intercrops in this respect.
4.3.4. Oil Palm Based Cropping System
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is recognized as one of the
highest edible oil-yielding crops. The potential area lor
starling oil palm cultivation in lndia is estimated as 0.795
million ha in 11 states. Oil palm is usually grown in trian-
gular system at a spacing of 9m. Crops such as cocoa,
banana, vegetables, cotton, tobacco, maize, sorghum,
pearl millet, sugarcane are recommended for
intercropping.
4.3.5. Cashew Based Cropping System
The area under the crop has grown from 0.1 1 million ha
in 1955-56 to 0.635 million ha today and during the pe-
riod the production has also increased from 79,000 tonnes
to 0.418 million tonnes. Cashew thrives well when grown
as a monocrop, however, in the initial years of orchard
establishment, the crops having small canopy can be
cultivated. Pineapple is the most beneficial intercrop in
cashew orchards upto the fifth year. The trials conducted
at NRCC and at Vengurla under the AICRP on Cashew
have revealed that growing mango, casuarina and other
forest species is detrimental to crop growth and yield of
casherv. Horsegram, cowpea and groundnut are, how-
ever, prof itable intercroPs.
4.4. Commercial Crops under the Shade of Planted
Trees
Beverage crops such as tea (Camellia sinensis), colfee
(Coffeaspp), cacao (Theobroma cacao), spices like clove
(Syzi g i u m a romati c u m), n utmeg (My ri sti ca f rag ran s), elc.,
require varying levels of shade for their optimum growth
and production. Although, a number of shade trees are
grown in coffee and tea plantations, there is very little
documented infermation regarding the requirement of
shade by these crops. Presumably the tea plant requires
shade only during the establishment phase. This is per-
haps evident from the gradual reduction in shade tree
density leading to their complete removal eventually.
Among the shade trees ol 1ea, Grevillea robusta, Albizia
spp., Erythrina spp. and Acacia spp. are important. Domi-
 Agroforestry in TroPics
nant shade trees in the coffee plantations of Wynad in
'
,- Kerala, arc Erythrina indica, Mangifera indica, Aftocarpus
- heterophyttus, Grevillea robusta, Melia dubia, Areca
catechu and Tectona grandis (Kumar, 1994).
- belonging to State Revenue Depaftment, trees on the
Shade response of cacao was evaluated at the Kerala
Agricultural University (KAU, 1993). While shade stimu-
lates vegetative growth, it suppresses reproductive
growth of cacao. lt was Jound that pod yield suffered heav-
ily due to the presence of a dense overstorey, which in-
tercepted incoming solar radiation to the extent of 25 to
75% ol that in the open. Clove, nutmeg and cacao also
require shade for their optimum growth and production.
They are often grown as components of homesteads as
well as coconut, arecanut and coffee plantations in pe-
ninsular lndia (Kumar, 1994;Tejwani, 1994).
4.5. Commercial Crops Grown Under the Shade of
Trees in the Natural Forests
4.5.1. SmallCardamom
Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is indigenous
to the medium elevation wet evergreen and semi-ever-
green forests of the Western Ghats of peninsular lndia'
ln ancient times, cardamom was collected form forest,
but later on man starled cultivating it as an underslorey
crop in the tropicalforests. lt is perhaps the most impor-
tant cash crop of the lndian wet tropics after rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis) in terms of economic returns to the grow-
ers. Cardamom is grown extensively in the Western Ghats
of peninsular lndia (approximately 81,000 ha; Spices
Board, 1991). The traditional system of cardamom pro-
duction in the Western Ghats represents a unique, but
little studied under agroforestry system. lt involves grow-
ing a sciophytic commercial crop under the shade of trees
in the natural forests, with little or no reliance on external
inputs such as iefiilisers and/or chemicals.
The process of cardamom cultivation involves selective
removal of trees to facilitate light infiltration to the
understorey and planting of the crop' Clearing the for-
ests for cardamom cultivation, however, may result in
disturbance to the forest ecosystem and cause drastic
changes in vegetation structure and physiognomy (Kumar
et al., '1995a). Transforming the multi-tiered stand struc-
ture of the wet evergreen forests into a monolayered struc-
ture of the cardamom areas is the most dramatic eflect
in this respect. lndiscriminate exploitation of natural{or-
ests and illicit felling of trees are common in the carda-
mom growing tracts of Western Ghats. Eroded and de-
graded soils and poor fedility status, besides pest and
disease incidence, are consequential problems.
Loss of canopy cover may result in sub-optimal levels of
I shade for the cardamom crop leading to its lower pro-
L- ductivity. ln the past, the Government of Kerala treated
such degraded forest lands in the state (on lease to pri-
vate growers) as'cardamom hill reserves' (CHRs). Car-
/ Kumar 55
damom productivity is particularly low in the leased ar-
eas, which account for about 20% of the cardamom plan-
tations in Kerala, owing to poor soil management and
shade regulation. The ownership pattern of CHRs (land
land belonging to the State Forest Department and the
cardamom crop being owned by the growers) also acts
as a dlsincentive towards good practice'
Although in the traditional system of cardamom produc-
tion little or no chemical fefiilisers were applied. With the
advent of modern technology, farmers have started us-
ing chemical ferlilisers to supplement the inherent site
ferlility. Furlhermore, to ensure reasonable levels of car-
damom productivity, a regular schedule of cultural prac-
tices consisting of weeding, mulching, trashing, shade
regulation, fertiliser application and irrigation is consid-
ered essential (Kumar et al., 1995a). Maintenance of
optimal levels of shade in the cardamom areas is critical
for ensuring sustained productivity of cardamom. Unless
pruning, lopping, pollarding and/or planting quick grow-
ing tree species in the larger canopy gaps to regulate
overstorey shade, cardamom productivity cannot be sus-
tained. However, shade regulation of cardamom planta-
tion is a grossly neglected aspect.
Although shade trees abound in cardamom plantations,
there is very little documented information on the rela-
tive performance of these species on cardamom produc-
tivity. Shade trees often vary from place to place depend-
ing on local preferences and the silvicultural characteris-
tics/requirements of trees. lmportant shade trees in CHRs
include: Actinodeaphne malabarica, Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Cedrela toona, Canarium strictum, Cullenia
exaritlata, Erythrina spp, Macaranga peltata, Mangifera
indica, Mesua nagassarium, Palaquium ellipticum,
Persea macranthh, Vernonia arborea, etc" Kumar et al'
(1995a) reporled that well managed CHRs were charac-
terised by a relatively higher floristic diversity index
(Simpson's Diversity index D= 0.86 as opposed to a D
value of 0.70 in poorly managed plantations).
4.6. Commercial Crops Trailed on Support Trees- the
. Black PePPer Production SYstem
Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a major foreign ex-
change earning commercial crop of lndia. The state of
Kerala alone accounts for aboul97"/" of total lndian area
of 1,95,050 ha and production of 53,1 10 tonnes. The small
and marginal farmers chiefly grow pepper. Crop produc-
tivity is low in comparison to other pepper growing coun-
tries such as lndonesia, Malaysia and Brazil, owing to
poor management (Cheeran et al', 1992). The cultural
system involving pepper is unique in that it represents a
commercial crop (black pepper vine) being trailed on a
variety of support lrees. Erythrina indica forms the domi-
nant support trees in pepper plantations. Many other spe-
cies such as jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus), coconut
56 lndian J. Agroforestry Vol. 1 No.
(Cocos nucifera), arecanut (Areca catechu), mango
(Mangifera indica) and many timber species (e.9. Tectona
grandis, Artocarpus hirsutus, etc.) are also common sup-
port trees in the homegardens.
Although numerous multipurpose tree species are used
as support trees for trailing pepper vines, only anecdotal
information is available concerning their relative merits.
Mathew et al. (1996) evaluated seven fast growing tree
species as support trees for trailing pepper vines.
Erythrina stricta recorded the highest dry pepper yield
closely followedby Erythrina indica and Garuga pinnata.
An ideal support tree for trailing pepper vines may have
the following traits: fast growth, easy propagation, light
crowns and tolerance to pests and diseases. Typically
such trees should possess rough, non-exfoliating bark
and deep root systems. Non-exfoliating bark is critical
from the point of view of providing anchorage to vines,
while deep root systems minimise inter-specific compe-
tition (between the vine and the living supports). Nitro-
gen fixing potential and ability to retain foliage during sum-
mer (when shade is essential for the vines) and shed the
same during the rainy season are additional features in
this respect. Other attributes include yield of commer-
cially valuable timber, fruits, foliage, green manure, etc.
Pepper vines are trailed on various dead supports too
including teak poles too (Seibed, 1987). Kumar and
Cheeran (1981) compared teak poles (non-living sup-
porls) with Erythrina indica and found that in juvenile
stands of a relatively shade intolerant pepper variety
(Panniyoor-1), Erythrina supports gave lower yields.
Cheeran et al. (1992) also observed competition-related
yield reduction in vines trailed on Erythrina indica and
Garuga pinnata supports, as compared to teak poles.
While comparing the root activity pattern of black pepper
vines trailed on teak poles and Erythrina, Sankar et al.
(1988), obserued interspecific competition for applied 32P
between pepper vines and the surface feeding Erythrina
roots. Despite the advantages of teak poles for trailing
pepper vines, high cost and durability problems of dead
supports are inherentweaknesses of non-living supports.
Therefore, many farmers prefer live trees for trailing pep-
per vines.
4.7. Energy Plantations and Woodlots
Development of tropicaltree plantations has been on the
rise in recent decades, presumably to meet the ever-in-
creasing demands for: timber and firewood. A wide spec-
trum of tree species, usually described as multipurpose
trees (MPTs), is often involved in such programmes.
lmportant attributes of MPTs include rapid juvenile growth,
efficient dry matter production in terms of water and nu-
trient inputs, crown characteristics to maximise interiep-
tion of solar radiation and ease of regeneration by
coppicing. Objectives of tree planting also vary corre-
spondingly, from multiple use of perpetually'natural look-
1
ing forests', development of high yielding and sustain-
able industrial plantations for wood production, controlr-r
of land degradation and development of agroforestry sys-.
tems (Nambiar, 1995). High biomass pioduction obvi-.-
ously is an impodant consideration in all tropical tree
planting programmes. Biomass productivity of MPTs,
however, differs enormously with species, site charac-
teristics and stand management practices. Kumar et al.
(1998b) evaluated the biomass production potential of
nine fast growing multipurpose tropical taxa. Rate of
biomass accumulation and rlldrient accumulation was
highest tor Acacia auriculiformis followed by
Parase ri anthes fal catari a.
4.7.1. Constraints
Short rotation tropical planiations that couple intensive
management and rapid growth rates are also character-
ised by high rates of nutrient removal in the harvested
biomass, which in turn, raises concerns about long{erm
site quality and sustainable production. The potential
nutrient expoft, especially with whole tree harvesting may
deplete the site nutrient capital (Jorgensen and Wells,
1986; Wang et al. 1991). Nutrient accumulation and ex-
porl f rom the site have, therefore, become important con-
siderations in shorl-rotation, high-yield plantation systems
(Hopman et al., '1993), where nutrients removed through
frequent harvests may exceed the natural rates of nutri-
ent inputs such as mineral weathering, atmospheric io-
puts and biologicat fixation. Selection of tree species and --
parts of the tree to be removed from the site will deter-
mine the nutrient 'cost' oJ biomass extraction (Wang et
al., 199'l). A slight reduction in the tree parts removed
from the site would definitely alter the rate of nutrient
exporl (Kumar et al., 'l99Bb). Bole fraction, generally ac-
counts for only about 50% of the total nutrient expott.
Therefore, returning leaves and small twigs to the site at
the time of harvest may be a worthwhile option to re-
strain nutrient expod from the site.
ln planning sustainable short-rotation, intensive cultural
systems, biomass productivity and/or site nutrient re-
moval must be considered. Tropical MPTs show consid-
erable variability in this respect. Tree biomass produc-
tivity and nutrient export {rom the site are strongly influ-
enced by species, stand age and tree management prac-
tices adopted.
4.8. Mixed Species Woodlots lnvolving Nr-fi.xing Trees
Quick growing trees such as teak (Tectona grandis),
poplar (Populus deltoides), mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla), Ailanthus triphysa, Eucalyptus tereticornis,
etc. constitute impodant plantation forestry species in the
lndian context. Despite being grown under monospecific
situations, many of these plantations are inappropriately
managed in lndia (Kumar et al., 1995b). On many sites,
production is limited due to low nutrient availability,
 Agroforestry in Tropics / Kumar
particularly Nr. Nutrient deficiencies have been reported
- "-from
the non-traditionalteak growing areas of Liberia also
- where it caused a marked reduction in teak growth (Zech
and Dreschel, 1991). Response to supplemental fertili-
sation also has been widespread forteak (Kishore, 1987).
Gawande (1991) repoded that 50:25:25 and 100:50:50
kg N, PrO, and KrO ha'1 not only enhanced teak height
growth but also biomass production and foliar nutrient
contents ol five-year-old stands. Literature on other spe-
cies is rather scarce.
Chemical sources of nitrogen, however, are dependent
on supplies and prices of non-renewable fossilfuels. They
may have a potential environmental pollution effect too,
especially in the head water catchments of major streams
and rivers. Nitrogen fixing plants, therefore, form an at-
tractive option, as they are non-polluting sources of cheap
N. They can bring in substantialquantities of atmospheric
nitrogen into a combined form. A significant portion of
this nitrogen is also released into the rhizosphere through
leaf litter and/or fine root turnover, besides the sloughing
off mechanism of root nodules. Associated crops may
-utilise
the nrtrogen so released (Mathew et al. 1992).
Nonetheless, nrirogen-frxing trees are only rarely used
to supplement the nutrient requirement ol forest planta-
tions.
An experiment was conducted to examine the growth of
:eak and Leucaena in various combinations involving
these two species and evaluate the soil fertility aspects
of such mixed species stands (Kumar et al., 1998c).
lntercropping treatments exerled a prolound influence on
teakgrowth. lncreasing relative proportions of Leucaena
in the mixture had a consistently favourable effect on both
height and radial growth of teak sapling upto 3 to 4 years
of age. Teak saplings in 1:2 leak-Leucaena mixture
showed significantly higher radial growth than other com-
binations. They were also consistently taller than other
treatments, except the '1 :1 leak-Leucaena combination,
both being statistically at par. lmplicit in the trends of in-
creasing height and radial growth of teak with increasing
relative proportion of Leucaena in the mixture, are
changes in soil propefiies, especially nitrogen content.
Being a prominent nitrogen tixer, Leucaenacan fix 100-
500 kg of N ha-' yr-' (Dommergues, 1987). Using N,
fixing trees could therefore, be a viable silvicultural
option for stimulating teak growth, especially on
unferlilised sites.
4.9. Growing Herbaceous lntercrops in Woodlots
Woody perennial plantation in agricultural systems and
MPT woodlots seldom utilise the site resources com-
pletely, especially in the early stages of stand develop-
ment. Therefore, in the humid tropical regions of penin-
sular lndia, shade tolerant field crops such as ginger,
turmeric, medicinal herbs, colocasia, yams and forage
grasses are frequently under planted in such plantations.
57
4.9.1. Spices and Condiments
Ginger (Zingiber officinale), is an important spice crop of
the humid tropics. Being a premier flavourant in culinary
preparations and an ingredient of medicines, ginger en-
joys immense popularity. lndia is the world's chief pro-
ducer and exporler of this spice. Pakistan, Bangladesh,
U.S.A., Morocco and SaudiArabia are the principal im-
porters. ln India, approximately 55,000 ha of ginger are
cultivated with an annual production of 156,180 tonnes
of dry ginger (Spices Board, 1995).
Being a shade-loving plant, ginger is grown in associa-
tion with a variety of trees (Jaswal et al., 1993; Spices
Board, 1995). Although ginger is traditionally grown in
association with many trees, fast growing multipurpose
trees predominates in the ginger-based agroforestry sys-
tems of Kerala. Owing to its compact crown, moderate
root spread and deep rooting tendency, Ailanthus is
thought to be less competitive with associated field crops.
Nonetheless, literature relating to the performance of gin-
ger in tree-based cropping systems and the magnitude
of interspecific competition, especially for belowground
resources, is scarce. While research repods on crop
management and protection abound, they largely relate
to ginger in monospecific stands.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is grown in lndia over 1,47,000
ha with a total production of 6,59,400 tonnes. lt is con-
sidered a shade loving crop and is often grown in asso-
ciation with a fast growing trees and plantation crops.
4.9.2. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Under the
Shade of Trees
Shade tolerant medicinal and aromatic plants sucli as
koduveli (Plumbago rosea), Nilappana (Curcuiigo
orch i oi d es), arrowroot (Maranta aru nd i naaea), chittaratha
(Alipi nia catcarata), adapathian (H ol ostemma an n ulare),
thippali (Piper longum), Dioseorea spp., patchouli
(Pogostemon cablin), etc. are suitable intercrops in co-
conut and other plantations. Pathimukham (Caesalpinia
sappan), a medicinal tree is frequently planted on farm
borders. Of late, many farmers are taking to medicinal
plant cultivation in view of the new-found economic ifir-
podance of these crops. The humid tropical climate is
considered ideally suited for their growth. Kacholam
(Kaempferia galanga) is shade tolerant and can be in-
corporated in coconut based land use systems without
considerable loss in yield (Nair et al., 1991; Kumar et al.,
1998a). Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides), although a very
effective soil binding medicinal grass, the harvesting of
which involves excavation of roots, may lead to high rates
of soil erosion on slopes.
4.9.3. Constraints
Main constraint is interspecific competition. George et
al. (1996) evaluated root competition in polyculture sys-
 lndian J. Agtoforestry Vol. 1 No.
5B
tems involving four tree species and four grass species
based on 32P recovery by each species in mixed and
sole crop situations. They found variations in the distri-
bution pattern of roots" Most of the absorbing roots were
concentrated near the trunk in the case of Casuarina
equisetifolia, indicating its desirability for species mix-
tures. lntercropped fodder grasses, however, did not
adversely affect the absorption of
32P by the associated
trees. ln another study, Thomas et al. (1898) found that
presence or absence ol Ailanthus triphysa trees did not
affect thes2P uptake pattern of ginger, when adequately
fertilised. This would mean that if the lield crop compo-
nents of the tree based cropping systems are adequately
fertilised, competitive influences would be negligible.
4.10. !'lomegardens
Homestead agroforesiry forms a dominant land use sys-
tem in many parls of the tropics. They represent a token
of social position in West Java and are believed to have
evolved from the tropical forests.
A fundamental attribute of the homegarden is the great
diversity of species with several life forms varying from
those creeping on the ground, such as the sweet potato'
to tall trees, e.g. the coconut palm, and vines climbing on
poles and trees, e.g. pepper vine. Physiognomically the
homegardens exhibit a multi-tiered canopy structure
somewhat identical to the tropical evergreen forest for-
mations. They manifest variability both in the number of
arboreal taxa and their density. ln a study of the Kerala
homegardens, a total o1127 woody species were reported
(Kumar et al., 1994). The dominant homegarden spe-
cies other than coconut, arecanut and para rubber in-
cluded Ailanthus, mango, jack, teak, cashew, wild jack,
tamarind, Erythrina, Macaranga. Gliricidia and so on.
Species diversity of Kerala homegardens is generally
believed to be very high. Mean Simpon's diversity index
for Kerala homegardens ranged from 0.251 to 0.739
(against a value over 0.90 for the species-rich wet ever-
green forests of Western Ghats). Species diversity, size
and shape of homegardens, however, are variable from
place to place depending on cultural, ecological and
socio-economic factors. ln general, smaller gardens are
characterised by higher densitY.
A standard interpretation of homegardeniis that it is a
system for the production of subsistence crops for the
gardener and his family. lt may or may not have the extra
role of producing cash crops. lt can be immediately sur-
rounding the home or slightly furlher away, but still near
the residential area. The lndonesian term peckarangan
is derived from the word karang, meaning a place of resi-
dence and hence, peckarangan specifically refers to a
garden on the residential site.
Homegardens are also known for their stable yields, var-
ied products, and continuous or repeated harvests dur-
1
ing the year and low inputs. Besides meeting the calorie
requirements of the gardeners, they are also importanf
1
sources of nutrients. Other homegarden products include
fuelwood, fodder and timber. A study in the homegardens
-
of Kerala showed that average standing stock of com-
mercial timber ranged from 6.6 to 50.8 m3 ha-1 while
that of fuelwood was of the order o{ 23 to 86 m3 hal,
suggesting that a substantial portion of the society's tim-
ber and firewood demands can be met {rom the home-
steads (Kumar et al., 1994);7a-4 to 83.5 per cent ac-
cording to Krishnankutty (1990). The protective role oJ
homegardens on soil erosion has been deduced from its
multi-storey structure and the litter, which provides a multi-
layer defence mechanism against the impact of falling
rain drops.
4.10. Animal Components of Agroforestry
Most homegardens supporl a variety of animals- cows,
buffaloes, bullocks, goats, sheep and birds like chicken
and ducks. ln certain places, pigs are also reared' A
homestead usually owns one or two cows or buffaloes
and 10-20 chicken. The waste materials f rom homes and
crops are used as fodder/feed for animals/birds and the
livestock wastes are used as manure for crops. Beeking
is a component of the woody perennial plantation agri-
culture or homegardens.
lntegrated paddy and fishery production system is popu-
lar in the brackish water environments of the coastal re-
gions of peninsular lndia. Recent experiments at the Kochi
centre of the Central lnstitute of Brackish Water
Aquaculture have shown that agriculture and aquaculture
are complementary enterprises in the single crop wetland
paddy fields of Kerala whlch has about 13,000 hecatres
o{ perennially waterlogged fields variously known as
pokkati, kot, puncha, virippu, etc. The paddy stubbles left
in the field aid the microfauna which are beneficial to
shrimps. On the other hand, the organic wastes depos-
ited by prawns provide nourishment to the paddy crop'
It, therefore, represents an important sustainable land
use system in these regions.
4.10.1. Constraints
Homegardens are'complex operational farm units which
integrate trees with field crops, livestock, poultry and/or
fish, having the basic objective of ensuring sustained
availability of multiple products such as food, fuel, fod-
der, vegetables, fruits, timber, medicinal and/or
ornamentals, besides generating employment and cash
income. These are even similar to the natural plant com-
munities, where spacing between plants is usually very
irregular and several species may be neighbours. There-
fore, a complicated system with prof use overlap of roots
may be expected. Competitive or complementary inter-
actions are probable depending on the nature of the
-
woody components involved. Complementarity between
 Agroforestry in Tropics / Kumar
the tree and field crop components may lead to higher
-'efficiency
of nutrient uptake. lt shall, therefore, bean
\-rmpodant design criterion in agroforestry.
4.11. Silvopastoral SYstem
Silvopastoralism denotes land use systems in which pas-
ture and livestock production are integrated with woody
perennials on the same land management unit. There
are several manifestations of this practice' They broadly
cover grazing systems, 'cut and carry' fodder production
practices and various types of tree and grassland man-
agement systems. Examples include the grassland-tree
management systems in the semi-arid Decaan plateau-
locally called kanchas. The community and village graz-
ing lands in Ralasthan are called Oran or Brr. Tejwani
(1994) has given a detailed account of the system com-
ponents oJ these grass-tree management practices ln
vogue in lndia.
ln generalsilvopastoral systems maintain higher produc-
tivity in a sustained manner at relatively low input levels
even on poor substrates. Higher productivity is primarily
on account of the vertical stratification of the shoot and
root systems of different components. Understorey herb-
age yield is olten regarded as a function of the
photosynthetically active radiation reaching the ground,
which in turn, is dependent on the nature of the tree
I canopy and its orientation in space. ln this context,
'- Math"w et al. (1992) attributes the lower levels of solar
radiation (about 15"/. ol that in the open) reaching the
understorey oI Acacia auriculiformis and the resultant
lower productivity of the associated fodder crops, to its
more spreading, dense crown with dark green phyllodes.
The needle-like cladodes of Casuarina equisetifolia ,lhe
smaller and compact crowns ol Ailanthus triphysa and
the relatively smaller leaf size ol Lecuaena leucocephala,
however, favoured light infiltration and understorey herb-
age productivity. These findings signify the importance
of crown texture and canopy architecture as determinants
of light infiltration in understorey productivity in
silvopastoral systems. Tree management practices such
as pruning, pollarding, thinning, etc. can regulate
interspecific competition (Kumar, 1 994).
5. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
This review has outlined the advances that have been
made during the past 10-15 years in agroforestry research
in the humid lndian tropics. Evidently, all systems and
technologies have not received ample attention in this
treatment. Many aspects of functional dynamics such as
system productivity, competitive interactions and re-
source sharing are less known. There is still imperfect
comprehension of the below ground interactions in tropi-
cal agroforestry. Considering competitive relationships,
the distribution and degree of overlap of neighbouring
root systems are of parlicular interest. Hence, future.re-
59
search will focus on below ground interactions in tropical
agroforestry. Although, considerable research has been
done on system management of agroforestry, however,
resource partitioning in such systems and aspects re-
lated to tree management to manoeuvre the resource
allocation strategies are not adequate. The choice of tree
species is an important management decision that de-
termines the success or failure of a technology at a given
place. Tree biomass productivity and nutrient expod from
the site are strongly influenced by species' stand age
and tree management practices adopted. The emphasis
on canopy architecture and genetic improvement of
agroforestry trees has not been adequate. ln planning
sustainable short-rotation, intensive cultural systems,
biomass productivity and/or site nutrient removal must
be considered. Substantially more research efforts need
be mounted in this sphere. The usefulness of mixing
woody species in plantation crops such as coconut and
arecanut and shade requirements of plantation crops
such as tea, coffee, etc may be evaluated. Very little work
has been done on integrated fishery-crop production sys-
tems and soil fauna. Further effort is required to develop
management practices in participation with farmers that
will maximise complementary interactions and resolve
the location specific constraints to wide spread adoption
of the technologies.
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