Article

Effects of thermal processing on the structural and

functional properties of soluble dietary fiber from whole
grain oats

Ji-Lin Dong1,2,*, Mei Yang1,2,*, Rui-Ling Shen1,2, Ya-Fei Zhai1,2,

Xiao Yu1,2 and Zhen Wang1,2

Abstract
Normal pressure steaming, high pressure steaming, microwave, and frying are widely used to deactivate
enzyme in the oats, but these thermal processing methods may affect the structural and functional properties
of soluble dietary fiber, which contribute greatly to the health benefits of oat foods. The objective of this study
was to evaluate the effects of four different thermal processing methods on the structural and functional
properties of soluble dietary fiber from whole grain oats. The results showed that the thermal processing
resulted in changes on nutritional components of whole grain oats. Especially dietary fiber components, the
total dietary fiber, insoluble dietary fiber, and soluble dietary fiber content of heat-treated oats were signifi-
cantly increased (p < 0.05). Moreover, thermal processing can not only result in an increase in molecular
weight and particle size, but also cause molecular aggregation and different functional properties of soluble
dietary fiber. High pressure steaming-treated oat soluble dietary fiber displayed significantly higher swelling
and emulsifying (p < 0.05), but microwave-treated oat soluble dietary fiber exhibited the highest glucose,
cholesterol, and sodium cholate adsorption capacities. These results might provide basic information to
help to better understand the functionality of oat soluble dietary fiber and improve the process efficiency of
oat foods with high nutritional qualities.

Keywords
Thermal processing, structural properties, functional properties, soluble dietary fiber, whole grain oats
Date received: 5 February 2018; accepted: 13 November 2018

INTRODUCTION reducing risks from cardiovascular and colorectal

Epidemiological studies have shown that regular con-
sumption of whole grains and whole grain products is
associated with reduced risks of various types of
chronic diseases (Huang et al., 2015; Okarter and Liu,
2010). Oats are recognized as one of whole grains with
high nutritional value, especially are considered to be
an excellent source of dietary fiber (DF). Oats and oat
products have gained more attention from consumers
and researchers due to its health-beneficial properties,
such as lowering blood lipid and glucose levels,
Food Science and Technology International 25(4) 282–294
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cancer diseases (Dong et al., 2014; Maki et al., 2010;
Shen et al., 2011, 2016). These physiological benefits are
generally attributed to soluble dietary fiber (SDF). SDF
possesses good functional properties, such as
1
School of Food and Biological Engineering, Zhengzhou
University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of
China
2
Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Production and Safety,
Zhengzhou, People’s Republic of China
*The first two authors contributed equally to this work.
Corresponding author:
Rui-Ling Shen, School of Food and Biological Engineering,
Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, No. 136 Kexue Road,
Zhengzhou 450000, Henan, People’s Republic of China.
Email: shenrl1967@163.com

water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity
(OHC), hydration capacity, glucose adsorption cap-
acity (GAC), and cholesterol adsorption capacity
(CAC) (Ozyurt and Ötles, 2016), which is important
for designing oat products with health benefits (Fabek
et al., 2014). Most importantly, these functional prop-
erties are related to food processing methods, extrac-
tion methods, chemical composition, structure, and
particle size (Martı́nez et al., 2012; Peerajit et al.,
2012; Wuttipalakorn et al., 2009).
Oats have more lipid than other cereals and are rich
in lipase, lipoxidase, and other hydrolytic enzymes.
Over time, enzymes result in hydrolysis of the lipids
in the oats and affect the shelf life of the oat foods.
So, it is necessary to inactivate these enzymes to
extend shelf life during the oat processing and storage
(Doehlert et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2010). The most effi-
cient treatments to deactivate enzymes are thermal pro-
cesses (Doehlert et al., 2010). Previous studies have
used diGerent thermal processing methods including
steaming, microwave (MI) heating, and passing
through infrared and gamma radiation to decrease lipo-
lytic activities (De Almeida et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2010;
Jha et al., 2013; Li et al., 2016; Rose et al., 2008).
However, thermal processing can not only alter the
lipase activity, but also affect the structure, physico-
chemical properties, and nutritional effects of DF
(Zhang et al., 2011). Zhang et al. (2009) found that
extrusion treatment could change the distribution of
the molecular weight and the ratios of the (1/3) and
(1/4) chemical bonds in oat bran (OB) SDF.
Accumulating evidence has identified that some ther-
mal processing can increase the extraction rate of nutri-
ents and increase their functionality and improve the
quality of food (Dolatabadi et al., 2016; Farzaneh and
Carvalho, 2017; Ghodsvali et al., 2016; Jabrayili et al.,
2016; Ozyurt and Ötles, 2016; Zhang et al., 2011).
Available evidence suggested that the high tempera-
tures and high pressures can break covalent bonds
and disrupt physical structures of macromolecules lead-
ing to a change in their functional properties
(Kim et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2007). Many published
studies have attempted to clarify the changes of thermal
processing on the nutritional components, mainly
focused on the starch, protein (Bornet, 1993; Honců
et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2010; Ovando-Martı́nez et al.,
2013; Runyon et al., 2015). Nevertheless, fewer studies
focused on the effects of thermal processing on the
structural and functional properties of SDF from
whole grain oats.
Today, because of the high demand for crops for
extensive application in the human diet, increases in
the efficiency of the processing are attracting much
more attention (Farzaneh et al., 2017, 2016).
Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate
Dong et al.
the effects of thermal processing on the structural char-
acteristics and functional properties of SDF extracted
from whole grain oats. Normal pressure steaming
(NPS), high pressure steaming (HPS), MI, and frying
(FR) were selected to process whole grain oat kernels
and the different SDF samples were obtained, the
SDF from unprocessed raw whole grain oat kernels
was added as a control group to determine whether
thermal processing led to difference in structural char-
acteristics and functional properties of SDF. This is
important because oat SDF contributes greatly to the
nutritious value of oat foods. It is our hope that the
research will provide valuable guidance for the process-
ing of oat foods. Different kinds of processing methods
could be selected depending on the purpose of oat
foods.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Oat kernels were purchased from Zhangjiakou Jianjun
Oat Food Co., Ltd (Zhangjiakou, China). The total
starch assay kit, total dietary fiber (TDF), and mixed
linkage beta-glucan assay kit were purchased from
Megazyme International Ireland Ltd (Bray, Ireland).
Glucose, cholesterol, and sodium cholate were pur-
chased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering
Institute (Nanjing, China), and other chemicals were
analytical reagent grade.
Sample preparation and thermal
processing methods
Hu et al. (2010) and Wang et al. (2015) reported
that the optimal processing parameters of NPS, HPS,
MI, and FR can completely inactivate the lipase
and make the quality of the oats after inactivated
enzyme is good. Therefore, sample preparation and
thermal processing were performed according to the
method from Hu et al. (2010) and Wang et al. (2015)
with minor modification. Nonprocessed raw whole
grain oat kernels were used as a control and the four
different thermal processing methods were described as
follows:
NPS. The kernels were steamed in batches of 250 g,
which allowed the kernels to form a layer no
deeper than 1 cm in the steamer basket. Oat kernels
were placed into the metal basket of a steamer and
treated over boiling water for 20 min.
HPS. Using an autoclave, oat kernels were steamed at
121  C and 15 psi for 10 min.
MI. The oat kernels were treated by MI at 1000 W for
2 min.
FR. Oat kernels were fried 160  C for 15 min by wok.
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Food Science and Technology International 25(4)
After above thermal treatments, the oat kernels were
kept at room temperature for 24 h for moisture equili-
bration and then they were put in an air oven at 33  C
for 12 h to reduce the moisture content to about 10%.
Whole grain oat kernels were processed into flour using
a grinder at 50 Hz for 5 min and passed through a
0.250 mm sieve. The different thermal processed whole
grain oat flours (OFs) were used for determination of
nutritional components and extract SDF.
SDF extraction
Extraction of SDF from whole grain oats was per-
formed according to enzymatic-gravimetric procedure
AOAC 985.29 (2000) with minor modifications. Briefly,
samples were thoroughly dispersed in four times
volume of deionized water, and the pH was adjusted
to 6.0 with 0.1 mol/l NaOH. Afterwards, 0.1% (w/w)
heat stable a-amylase was added and hydrolyzed at
95  C with constant stirring at 120 g for 30 min. After
the temperature of the hydrolysate was cooled down to
60  C, 0.016% (w/w) neutral protease was added and
further hydrolyzed for 30 min with constant stirring at
120 g. After the enzymatic hydrolysis reaction was
quenched at 95  C for 5 min and then centrifuged at
3800 g for 20 min at room temperature, the supernatant
and sediment were collected. The supernatant was con-
densed to one-tenth with a vacuum rotary evaporator
(Model R203B, Shanghai Senco Technology Co. Ltd,
Shanghai, China). At the end, the concentrated super-
natant was mixed with 95% (v/v) ethanol at 4  C for
12 h and then subjected to centrifugation at 3800 g for
15 min. The precipitated flocculate was dried in a
vacuum freeze dryer for 48 h. The dried flocculate was
SDF, which was milled and passed through a 0.250 mm
sieve and stored at 4  C. The extracts were stored under
refrigeration for further analysis.
Nutritional components determinations
The moisture content, ash, total starch, protein, lipid,
TDF, SDF, insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), and total b-
glucan were determined according to AOAC 934.01/
4.1.03, 942.05/4.1.10, 996.11/32.2.05A, 988.05/4.2.03,
920.39/4.5.01, 985.29, and 995.16 (2000) methods,
respectively. All samples were analyzed in triplicates.
Molecular weight distribution determination
Molecular weight of oat SDF samples was determined
using gel permeation chromatography-multi-angle laser
light scattering (GPC-MALLS) (Wyatt Technology
Co., USA) equipped with two Viscotek A 6000 M col-
umns. The GPC-MALLS system consists of a Waters
2690D separations module, a Waters 2414 refractive
284
index detector, and a Wyatt DAWN EOS MALLS
detector. The oat SDF samples were dissolved
(1 mg/ml) in mobile phase (NaNO3) and then passed
through a 0.22 mm nylon filter. The mobile phase was
50 mM NaNO3 with a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min and
100 ml of sample was injected, and then molecular
mass distribution of oat SDF samples was determined
through the designated software.
Particle size distribution determination
The particle size distribution of oat SDF samples was
analyzed by a particle size analyzer (Winner 3001, Jinan
Micro-Nano Particle Technology, Jinan, China). Five
percent solution was prepared with distilled water and
ultrasonically dispersed for 30 min, and then placed in a
hopper and scanned in a range of 0.1–500 mm using a
laser particle size analyzer.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FT-IR) determination
The FT-IR of oat SDF samples was determined accord-
ing to Diop et al. (2011). Oat SDF samples were thor-
oughly mixed with KBr (1:100, w/w) and infrared
spectra of samples were obtained by a Fourier trans-
form spectrometer (IR Prestige 21, Shimadzu) in the
4000–400 cm1 region with 32 scans and a resolution
of 4 cm1.
Scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) determination
The oat SDF images were observed using a scanning
electron microscope (SU1510, Hitachi, Japan). The
sample was prepared according to a published
method (Chen et al., 2014a). Briefly, oat SDF samples
were fixed on a specimen holder with double-sided
scotch tape and sputter coated with gold.
Subsequently, each sample was transferred to the scan-
ning electron microscope at an acceleration voltage of
20 kV and magnifications of 300  and 1000.
WHC, OHC, swelling capacity (SC),
emulsifying activity (EA), and emulsion
stability (ES) determinations
The WHC of SDF was determined by the procedure of
Sowbhagya et al. (2007). The OHC was measured by
the method of Wang et al. (2015). The SC was deter-
mined according to the method of Sowbhagya et al.
(2007).
EA and ES were evaluated following Wang et al.
(2015) with minor modification. Briefly, 2 g whole
grain oat SDF was dispersed in 100 ml deionized

water to obtain 100 ml whole grain oat SDF suspen-
sion, which was homogenized using a Caframo HD-1
homogenizer at 2000 g for 2 min and then 100 ml of
corn oil was added to each sample and homogenized
for 1 min. The emulsions were centrifuged at 2000 g for
5 min and then emulsion volume was measured. EA
was expressed as the milliliter of the emulsified layer
volume of the 100 ml entire layer in the centrifuge
tube. The EA was calculated as follows
EAð%Þ ¼ V1 =V0  100 ð1Þ
where V1 and V0 are the volumes of the emulsified layer
and the total sample, respectively.
The ES was determined by heating the prepared
emulsions at 80  C for 30 min, cooling them to room
temperature (25  C), and centrifuging at 2000 g for
5 min. ES was expressed as milliliter of the remaining
emulsified layer volume of 100 ml of the original emul-
sion volume. The ES was calculated as follows
ESð%Þ ¼ V2 =V1  100 ð2Þ
where V1 is the volume of the original emulsion layer
(ml) and V2 is the volume of emulsion that remains
emulsified (ml).
GAC determination
The GAC was determined by the method described by
Peerajit et al. (2012). Briefly, each sample (1 g) was
mixed with 100 ml of different glucose concentrations
(50, 100, and 200 mmol/l) and incubated at 37  C for
6 h. The sample was centrifuged at 4000 g for 20 min
after glucose adsorption reached equilibrium. The
amount of glucose retained by whole grain oat SDF
was determined by measuring the supernatant glucose
content using a glucose assay kit. GAC was expressed
as millimoles of retained glucose per gram of whole
grain oat SDF
GACðmmol=gÞ ¼ ðCi  Cs Þ  Vi=Ws ð3Þ
where Ci is the glucose concentration of the original
solution (mmol/l), Cs is the supernatant glucose content
when adsorption reached equilibrium (mmol/l), Ws is
the weight of whole grain oat SDF (g), and Vi is the
supernatant volume (ml).
Sodium cholate adsorption capacity (SAC)
determination
In vitro SAC of SDF was carried out using the method
of Hu and Huang (2001) with slight modifications.
Briefly, 1.00g sodium cholate was diluted to 500 ml
Dong et al.
with 0.15 mol/L NaCl solution and adjusted the pH
to 7.0, then 100 mL of the above solution was mixed
with 1.0 g SDF samples and incubated at 37  C for 2 h.
Next, the solution was centrifuged at 4000 g for 20 min.
The supernatant (1 ml) was analyzed using furfural col-
orimetric method; 1 ml of supernatant was mixed with
6 ml 45% H2SO4 solution, afterward, added 1 ml 0.3%
furfural solution. Finally, the absorbance was measured
at 620 nm after cooling to room temperature. The con-
centration of sodium cholate was calculated according
to the standard curve of sodium cholate salt
(Y¼1.742X0.00043, R2 ¼ 0.9984). The formula to cal-
culate adsorption capacity for sodium cholate is as
follows
SACðmg=gÞ ¼ ðm0  mÞ=W ð4Þ
where m0 is the total amount of sodium cholate in the
solution (mg), m is the amount of sodium cholate in the
supernatant (mg), and W is the weight of whole grain
oat SDF sample (g).
CAC determination
The CAC of SDF samples was determined according to
the procedure of Zhang, Huang and Ou (2011) with
some modification. First, fresh egg yolk was diluted
with nine times volume of distilled water. Whole
grain oat SDF (1.00 g) was mixed with 50 ml of the
diluted yolk; then adjusted the pH to 7.0, 2.0, and 7.0
(simulating the pH conditions in the stomach and small
intestine, respectively); the mixtures were maintained in
a shaker water bath at 37  C for 2 h; afterward, the
mixtures were centrifuged at 3500 g for 20 min. The
cholesterol in the supernatant was determined at
550 nm.
A 0.1 ml volume of the supernatant was measured
according to the cholesterol standard curve
(Y ¼ 1.8663X þ 0.0148, R2 ¼ 0.9991), where Y is the
absorbance at 550 nm of sample and X is cholesterol
concentration. The formula to calculate adsorption
capacity for cholesterol is as follows
CACðmg=gÞ ¼ ðm0 mÞ=W ð5Þ
where m0 is the total amount of cholesterol in the solu-
tion (mg), m is the supernatant cholesterol (mg), and W
is the whole grain oat SDF sample weight (g).
Statistical analysis
Data were presented as the mean  SD (n ¼ 3). The
statistical differences between groups were determined
by one-way ANOVA using IBM SPSS Statistic Version
20.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Statistical significance
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Food Science and Technology International 25(4)

was considered at p < 0.05. Duncan’s comparison test
was used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nutritional components of thermal
processed whole grain oats
The contents of nutritional components of thermal pro-
cessed whole grain oats are presented in Table 1. The
results showed that the total starch contents of thermal
processed whole grain oats had a slight decrease, but
there was no significant difference among the MI, FR,
and control (p > 0.05). Moreover, thermal processing
also resulted in the change of the crude protein content,
which was significantly lower than that of the unpro-
cessed sample (p < 0.05). Mubarak (2005) also reported
that boiling, autoclaving, and MI cooking significantly
decreased the crude protein content due to their diffu-
sion into the cooking water. However, the crude fat
levels had no obvious changes, which was consistent
with the results obtained by Hu et al. (2010). The mois-
ture content was significantly reduced after different
thermal processing (p < 0.05), which was caused by
loss of water as a result of heating. The TDF, SDF,
and IDF contents of thermal processed whole grain
oats were significantly increased (p < 0.05).
Chen et al. (2014b) found that thermal processing
improved the content of SDF from soybean residues.
Stojceska et al. (2010) suggested that extrusion technol-
ogy increased the levels of TDF in gluten-free products
made from gluten-free cereals. These results could be
partly confirmed by the observation that thermal pro-
cessing has an effect on DF. In addition, the b-glucan as
major SDF components also significantly increased
(p < 0.05). It might be that high pressure and high tem-
perature aggravated the movement of molecules to
promote the dissolution of DF (Lai and Lu, 2014).
Lan et al. (2012) reported that steam processing and
drying in sunshine affected the physicochemical proper-
ties of DF isolated from Polygonatum odoratum.
De Paula et al. (2017) suggested that cooking signifi-
cantly increased the extractability and molecular weight
of b-glucan. In sum, high temperatures break down
glycosidic bonds in polysaccharide, which can lead to
the release of oligosaccharides and thus increase the
quantity of SDF (Wolf, 2010). The above result
showed that thermal processing contributes to the
increase of oat DF content and affecting their structural
properties. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effects
of thermal processing on DF.
Molecular weight distribution
The molecular weight chromatograms of thermal pro-
cessed whole grain oat SDF are shown in Figure 1. The
GPC-MALLS chromatograms of the thermal pro-
cessed whole grain oat SDF were similar. The molecu-
lar weight distribution exhibited a strongest peak when
all samples were at about 12 min. The Mw (weight-
average molecular weight), Mn (number-average
molecular weight), Mp (peak position molecular
weight), and polydispersity index (PDI) values are
shown in Table 2. The Mw, Mn, and Mp values of
control were 1.159  106, 2.534  105, and 2.134 
105 g/mol, respectively, whereas thermal processing
improved the Mw, Mn, and Mp of the whole grain
SDF, which may be due to the presence of intermolecu-
lar aggregation by the different thermal processing con-
ditions, which was consistent with the results obtained
by Kong et al. (2015). It can be seen that the Mw of
SDF after HPS was the highest (4.603  106 g/mol),
indicating that the SDF molecular after HPS easily
aggregated. The PDI (Mw/Mn) was used to clarify
the breadth of SDF molecular weight distribution.

Table 1. Nutritional content (%) of different thermal processed whole grain oats

Nutrient (%) Control NPS HPS MI FR

Total starch 60.22  0.37a 58.86  0.18c 59.32  0.43bc 59.68  0.56ab 60.10  0.25a
Crude protein 11.15  0.05a 10.80  0.03c 10.08  0.13e 10.98  0.04b 10.26  0.08d
Crude fat 7.50  0.04a 7.44  0.02a 7.49  0.04a 7.45  0.02a 7.47  0.03a
Moisture 7.12  0.25a 6.42  0.08b 6.04  0.12c 5.17  0.04d 5.04  0.07e
Ash 1.48  0.05d 1.87  0.07c 2.12  0.04b 2.08  0.02b 2.25  0.04a
TDF 12.05  0.07e 13.85  0.11c 14.51  0.07b 14.64  0.04a 12.68  0.06d
IDF 7.03  0.04e 8.39  0.02a 8.03  0.13b 7.83  0.06c 7.44  0.15d
SDF 5.02  0.04e 5.46  0.14c 6.48  0.07b 6.81  0.10a 5.24  0.08d
b-glucan 3.06  0.02e 3.13  0.04d 3.29  0.02c 3.78  0.11a 3.43  0.04b
FR: frying; HPS: high pressure steaming; IDF: insoluble dietary fiber; MI: microwave; NPS: normal pressure steaming; SDF: soluble
dietary fiber; TDF: total dietary fiber.
Data were mean  SD (n ¼ 3). Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

286
 Dong et al.

Strip Chart: SDF-a LS 11

Strip Chart: SDF-c LS 11
dRI
dRI
0.8
–5
–1.6x10
0.15

Differential refractive index (RIU)

Differential refractive index (RIU)
–5
–5 –1.5x10
–1.8x10 0.6

Detector voltage (V)

Detector voltage (V)

–5
–2.0x10
0.10
0.4 –5
–5 –2.0x10
–2.2x10

–5
–2.4x10 0.2
0.05
–5
–5 –2.5x10
–2.6x10

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0

Time (min) Time (min)
LS 11
Strip Chart: SDF-b LS 11
Strip Chart: SDF-d dRI
dRI –5
0.4 –1.6x10
–5 0.30
–1.8x10
–5
–1.8x10

Differential refractive index (RIU)

Differential refractive index (RIU)

0.25
0.3 –5
–2.0x10
Detector voltage (V)

Detector voltage (V)

–5
–2.0x10
0.20
–5
–2.2x10 –5
0.2 –2.2x10
0.15

–5 –5
–2.4x10 –2.4x10
0.10
0.1

–5 –5
–2.6x10 0.05 –2.6x10

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0

Time (min) Time (min)

Strip Chart: SDF-e LS 11

dRI

0.5

–5
–1.5x10
Differential refractive index (RIU)

0.4
Detector voltage (V)

0.3
–5
–2.0x10

0.2

0.1 –5
–2.5x10

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0

Time (min)

Figure 1. The GPC-MALLS chromatograms of different thermal processed whole grain oat SDF. SDF-a: control, SDF-b:
NPS, SDF-c: HPS, SDF-d: MI, and SDF-e: FR. SDF: soluble dietary fiber.

The results displayed that the SDF molecular weight on the molecular weight values and improved Mw of
distribution after MI treatment was the most uniform, SDF. In previous studies, it was shown that thermal
but after that HPS was the most dispersed. These processing could induce effective extraction of high-
results indicated that thermal process had an impact molecular-weight SDF from OB (Zhang et al., 2009).

287
Food Science and Technology International 25(4)

Table 2. Molecular weight distribution of different thermal processed whole grain oat SDF

Sample Mw (g/mol) (error %) Mn (g/mol) (error %) Mp (g/mol) (error %) PDI (error %)

6 5 5
Control 1.159  10 (1.220%) 2.534  10 (1.224%) 2.134  10 (1.224%) 4.574 (1.729%)
NPS 3.782  106 (1.177%) 7.222  105 (1.342%) 6.287  105 (1.224%) 5.237 (1.785%)
HPS 4.603  106 (1.240%) 6.706  105 (1.308%) 5.049  105 (1.224%) 6.865 (1.802%)
MI 2.993  106 (1.103%) 7.250  105 (1.226%) 6.749  105 (1.224%) 4.128 (1.649%)
FR 3.254  106 (1.241%) 5.915  105 (1.378%) 4.996  105 (1.224%) 5.501 (1.855%)
FR: frying; HPS: high pressure steaming; MI: microwave; NPS: normal pressure steaming. Mw, Mn, Mp and PDI refer to weight-average
molecular weight, number-average molecular weight, peak position molecular weight, and polydispersity index, respectively.
Polydispersity ratio means Mw/Mn.

Dong et al. (2016) reported that the molecular weights Table 3. Particle size distribution of different thermal
of b-glucan from three processed oat products like oat processed whole grain oat SDF
meal (OM), OF, and high fiber OB were very different.
Sample D10 (mm) D50 (mm) D90 (mm) Span
Notably, three oat products modulating the gut micro-
biota and producing antiobesity effects in obese rats Control 1.328 3.48 20.28 5.45
had obvious differences. Wood (2007) found that NPS 1.384 8.39 37.67 4.32
b-glucan with higher molar mass exhibited better HPS 1.789 8.62 40.74 4.52
health and nutritional effects to the maintenance of MI 1.750 6.84 30.37 4.18
normal blood cholesterol levels and to the reduction FR 1.496 4.23 24.40 5.41
of blood glucose rises after consumption of b-glucan.
However, b-glucan with a smaller molar mass exhibited FR: frying; HPS: high pressure steaming; MI: microwave; NPS:
normal pressure steaming.
better prebiotic effects in the intestine (Arora et al.,
D10, 10% of the volume that is smaller than the size indicated.
2012; Barsanti et al., 2011). We will also study the D50, 50% of the volume that is smaller than the size indicated.
structural effects of thermal processing on DF compo- D90, 90% of the volume that is smaller than the size indicated.
nents (b-glucan, arabinoxylan) in order to find the rela- Span, the width of particle size distribution. Span¼(D90D10)/D50.
tionship between structure and nutritional properties in
the future.
(from 1.00 to 133.10 mm with a mean particle size of
12.50 mm) on its functional properties; it was found
Particle size distribution
that as particle size decreased, SDF content increased,
Particle size distributions play important roles in the with the WHC, water retention capacity (WRC), SC,
functionality of DF. The shape and size of the fibers and oil binding capacity (OBC) increasing significantly.
depend on degree of processing and it also may vary These studies indicated that particle size changes are
during transit in the intestinal tract as a result of diges- related to the functional properties of SDF. The vari-
tion processes (Rosell et al., 2009; Zhang and Moore, ation in size and shape of SDF after the different pro-
1999). Particle size distribution of the thermal pro- cessing methods depend on their degree of processing
cessed whole grain oat SDF is displayed in Table 3. and the type of cell walls present in the foods (Ozyurt
The particle size was expressed by D10, D50, and D90. and Ötles, 2016).
The results showed that D10, D50, and D90 of whole
grain oat SDF after thermal processing were increased,
FT-IR
and the median diameter (D50) of SDF after HPS treat-
ment was the highest, which was similar to the trends of FT-IR of thermal processed whole grain oat SDF is
molecular weight measurements shown in Table 2. shown in Figure 2. Thermal processed whole grain
Additionally, the particle span of SDF after MI treat- oat SDF samples showed similar spectral profiles with
ment was lower than that of any other thermal the control. As can be seen in Figure 2, there was a
treatments, indicating the particle size distribution of broad absorption band at about 3400 cm1, which cor-
SDF after MI treatment was the most uniform. responds to the stretching absorption bands of –OH
Raghavendar et al. (2006) found that when the particle groups. Notably, this is closely related to the hydrogen
size of coconut residue reached 1.127–550 mm, its bonds and the moisture contained in the molecules of
hydration properties increased. Zhu et al. (2014) stu- the SDF component (Raghavendar et al., 2006).
died the effect of buckwheat hull DF particle size The absorption peaks at 3000–2800 cm1 indicated

288

1.1
1.0
3400 2928
0.9
Absorbance /%
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
4000 3500 3000
Figure 2. FT-IR of different thermal processed whole grain oat SDF.
SDF-a: control, SDF-b: NPS, SDF-c: HPS, SDF-d: MI, and SDF-e: FR. SDF: soluble dietary fiber.
stretching absorption bands of C–H. The absorption
peaks between 1640 and 1620 cm1 revealed the
absence of carbonyl groups (C ¼ O). The absorption
peaks between 1400 and 1200 cm1 were attributed to
C–H bending vibration. The absorption peaks in the
range of 1200–1000 cm1 showed the C–O stretching
vibrations of fiber (Alemdar and Sain, 2008).
Furthermore, peak at 898 cm1 revealed the stretching
vibration of b-glycosidic linkages in polysaccharides
(Ma and Mu, 2016). Moreover, the absorption peak
at 620 cm1 revealed the angular vibration of C–H in
the sugar molecule. The above absorption peaks were
the characteristic absorption peak of sugars (Elleuch
et al., 2011). These results showed that thermal process-
ing of whole grain oats did not cause chemical changes
of SDF.
SEM
The morphological characterization of whole grain oat
SDF observed by SEM is shown in Figure 3. SEM
revealed the changes in the microstructure of whole
grain oat SDF after thermal processing. The micro-
structure of SDF from untreated whole grain was
irregular and rough, and flaky shape in the magnifica-
tion was not obvious. However, some SDF from ther-
mal processed whole grain oats showed the presence of
a big flaky structure, which may be attributed to the
presence of intermolecular aggregates by the different
thermal processing (Kong et al., 2015). Moreover, flaky
Dong et al.
SDF-a
898
1650 621
1400 1078
1105
SDF-b
SDF-c
SDF-d
SDF-e
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
–1
Wavenumbers / cm
structure of SDF from thermal processed whole grain
oats was more obvious and uniform, especially the
microstructure of SDF extracted from MI-treated
whole grain oats was relatively even, which was consist-
ent with the results of molecular weight distribution
shown in Table 2, but there was not a great deal of
difference between the different thermal processing
groups.
WHC, OHC, SC, EA, and ES
The WHC, OHC, SC, EA, and ES results are shown in
Table 4. The thermal processing reduced the WHC and
OHC values compared to the control sample. Several
researchers reported WHC and OHC of DFs are
related to the chemical structure of the polysaccharides
component and process-related variability such as par-
ticle size, processing conditions, and method (Ozyurt
and Ötles, 2016). In addition, the swelling of SDF
after thermal processing was significantly increased
than that of the control sample (p < 0.05), and the swel-
ling of HPS-treated oat SDF was the largest than other
thermal treatments (p < 0.05). The increase in SC might
be attributed to a rise in the amount of short chains and
the surface area of DF induced by thermal processing.
Raghavendar et al. (2006) showed that the SC of DF is
strongly related with the characteristics of the major
components and the physical structure of DF.
Hromádková et al. (2003) studied the influence of
drying treatment on the SC of b-glucan and drew a
289
Food Science and Technology International 25(4)

Figure 3. SEM of different thermal processed whole grain oat SDF. a/A: control, b/B: NPS, c/C: HPS, d/D: MI, and
e/E: FR.

290
 Dong et al.

Table 4. Functional properties of different thermal processed whole grain oat SDF

Functional properties SDF-a SDF-b SDF-c SDF-d SDF-e

WHC (g/g) 5.82  0.02a 4.65  0.04e 4.75  0.03d 4.95  0.02b 4.82  0.02c
OHC (g/g) 2.42  0.03a 1.51  0.04d 1.48  0.02d 2.15  0.02b 1.83  0.03c
SC (ml/g) 1.68  0.03c 1.75  0.05c 2.12  0.04a 2.05  0.03b 1.70  0.03c
EA (%) 59.39  2.23b 60.49  1.13b 65.43  2.95a 62.30  1.95ab 63.05  2.29ab
ES (%) 81.28  2.13b 88.30  2.09a 83.38  2.96b 82.08  1.92b 88.67  1.20a
GAC (50 mmol/g) 3.48  0.34a 3.65  0.53a 4.12  0.83a 4.45  0.62a 3.23  0.72a
GAC (100mmol/g) 7.65  0.57a 7.82  0.65a 7.41  0.62a 7.95  0.74a 6.86  0.83a
GAC (200 mmol/g) 16.25  0.72a 16.32  0.54a 16.68  0.82a 16.96  0.86a 15.87  0.63a
SAC (mg/g) 11.32  0.16bc 11.43  0.07b 11.53  0.36b 12.12  0.08a 11.05  0.12c
CAC (mg/g) pH¼7 8.62  0.17c 9.13  0.19b 9.28  0.13b 10.95  0.28a 7.64  0.10d
CAC (mg/g) pH¼2 6.32  0.32c 6.84  0.20b 6.96  0.16b 8.52  0.16a 5.68  0.18d
CAC: cholesterol adsorption capacity; EA: emulsifying activity; ES: emulsion stability; GAC: glucose adsorption capacity; OHC: oil-
holding capacity; SAC: sodium cholate adsorption capacity; SC: swelling capacity; SDF-a: control; SDF-b: normal pressure steaming;
SDF-c: high pressure steaming; SDF-d: microwave; SDF-e: frying; WHC: water-holding capacity.
Results are expressed as the mean  SD (n¼3). Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

conclusion that the existence of porous structure of
SDF (b-glucan) was helpful to SC. So it is necessary
to study further the effects of thermal process on the
structure of SDF. EA was a molecule’s ability to act as
an agent that facilitates solubilization or dispersion of
two immiscible liquids and ES was the ability to main-
tain an emulsion and its resistance to rupture (Lan
et al., 2012). Oat SDF has good emulsifying property
and has a certain degree of improvement after different
thermal treatments. Especially SDF after HPS treat-
ment was highest and up to 65%, but there was not a
great deal of difference between thermal processing
groups and the control sample (p > 0.05). The above
results showed that HPS whole grain oat SDF had
good SW and ES than other samples.
Glucose, sodium cholate, and cholesterol
adsorption capacities
Three different concentrations of glucose (50, 100, and
200 mmol/l) were used to evaluate GAC of SDF. This
value is used to show the behavior of dietary fiber on
adsorbing of glucose during the gastrointestinal transit
time (Chau et al., 2007; Ou et al., 2001). As shown in
Table 4, the results revealed that whole grain oat SDF
in different glucose concentrations (50–200 mmol/l)
could adsorb the glucose (3.23–16.96 mmol/g) effect-
ively. It was observed that the GAC values were
dependent on concentration and there were no signifi-
cant differences in GAC between control and other
thermal treatments, but MI-treated SDF exhibited the
highest glucose adsorption capacities. The SEM images
in Figure 3 revealed that MI treatment resulted in obvi-
ous network structure; this structure could also
significantly slow down the diffusion rate of glucose
solution and led to the higher GAC (Peerajit et al.,
2012).
The DF with high bile acid adsorption can effectively
delay or inhibit bile acid adsorption during gastrointes-
tinal digestion by accelerating the excretion of bile
acids, thereby preventing epithelial cell and DNA
damage (Wuttipalakorn et al., 2009). The sodium cho-
late and cholesterol (at pH 2.0 and 7.0) adsorption
capacities of SDF were listed in Table 4. The results
indicated that oat SDF in all samples had good
sodium cholate adsorption capacities. The CAC of
SDF after different thermal processing was different,
and the pH of the system had a great influence on
SDF cholesterol adsorption capacities. The CAC at
pH 7 was higher than those at pH 2. These results indi-
cated that SDF exhibited better healthy effect to lower
the concentration of cholesterol in the small intestine,
which was consistent with the study obtained by Nsor-
Atidana et al. (2012). In these in vitro experiments, the
GAC, SAC, and CAC of SDF were increased after
thermal processing than that of control except for
FR. The GAC, SAC, and CAC of MI-treated oat
SDF were the highest, while the GAC, SAC, and
CAC of FR-treated oat SDF were the lowest, which
was consistent with the results obtained by Wang
et al. (2015). These results showed that NPS, HPS,
and MI could improve functionalities like CAC and
STAC values.
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of different thermal processing on structural
and functional properties of SDF from whole grain

291
Food Science and Technology International 25(4)
oats were investigated in this study. The results showed
that the molecular weight and particle size of SDF were
increased after four different thermal processing meth-
ods, which resulted in molecular aggregation and cause
changes of functional properties. Specifically, among all
samples, HPS-treated oat SDF showed better SW and
ES than other samples. However, MI-treated oat SDF
exhibited significantly higher GAC, SAC, and CAC.
Therefore, HPS process can be considered to develop
oat products with high SW and ES, and MI process can
be considered to develop oat products with GAC, SAC,
and CAC. Additionally, we can also consider adding
HPS-processed oat SDF or MI-processed oat SDF to
the food in order to obtain desired functional proper-
ties. These results might provide valuable reference for
the oats processing and its application in food industry.
Further studies by using human fecal bacteria to fer-
ment different thermal processed oat SDF would be
also useful to determine the differences in gut micro-
biota regulation, which would provide reference for the
development of oat products with high nutritional
qualities.
DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
FUNDING
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This research was supported by the Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 31671856).
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