Politics

Md. Mizanur Rahman

Contextual Dimension of Women Leaders

in Bangladesh and West Bengal

Scientific Essay
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Md. Mizanur Rahman

Contextual Dimension of Women Leaders in Bangladesh

and West Bengal

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Contextual Dimension for Emergence of Women Leaders in Rural Local Government
in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India: A Comparative Perspective

*
Md. Mizanur Rahman

1.  Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2 

2.  Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................... 2 
3.  Methodology of the Study ...................................................................................................... 2 
4.  Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................. 2 
5.  The Rationale Behind Examining the Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in
Bangladesh and West Bengal, India ............................................................................................... 3 
6.  Aspect of Women Leadership ................................................................................................. 4 
7.  Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in Bangladesh and West Bengal.................... 5 
7.1  Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in Bangladesh ......................................... 5 
7.2  Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in West Bengal ..................................... 13 
8.  Summary of the Contextual Dimensions of Women Leadership in Bangladesh West Bengal
20 
8.a)  Bangladesh Part .............................................................................................................. 20 
8.b)  West Bengal Part ............................................................................................................ 21 
9.  Similarity and Dissimilarity in the Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in
Bangladesh and West Bengal........................................................................................................ 21 
9.a)  Similarity in the Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership ....................................21 
9.b)  Dissimilarity in the Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership ............................... 22 
10.  Unique Feature of Emergence of Women Leadership In Bangladesh and West Bengal .. 23 
10.a)  Bangladesh Part .......................................................................................................... 23 
10.b)  West Bengal Part ........................................................................................................ 23 
11.  Some Suggestions for Women Leaders of both Bangladesh and West Bengal, India ......23 
Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 25 
Name of The Experts Consulted For The Study ........................................................................... 26 
Bangladesh Part ........................................................................................................................ 26 
West Bengal Part....................................................................................................................... 26 

*
The author is one of the Joint Directors of the Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development (BARD),
Comilla, Bangladesh. At present he is doing his Ph.D. in the Graduate School of Public Administration
(GSPA) of the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Bangkok, Thailand.

The views expressed here in this paper are those of the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect the
views of both BARD and NIDA. The errors and omissions, if any, in the paper, lie with the author.

1
1. Introduction
It is an axiomatic fact that women leadership does not grow automatically rather it grows with
the dynamic process of socio-cultural development of the country. Bangladesh and West Bengal, having
a traditional socio-economic structure, do not have regular and systematic process of political
participation of women, which is directly or indirectly linked to patriarchal values and kinship ties. Despite
that in the recent days, numbers of women leaders at the grassroots level local government of both
geographical areas have increased remarkably due to some change in the socio-cultural contexts and
dimensions. Therefore, it deserves academic analysis and interpretation to delve into the dynamics and
process of socio-cultural context that have contributed for the development of women leadership in both
cases.

2. Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to delve into the contextual dimensions for emergence of
the women leadership in the grassroots based local government in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India.
The specific objectives of the study are:

i. To examine the social, political, economic and legal aspects for emergence of the women
leadership in grassroots based local government of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India;

ii. To identify the similarity and unique feature of emergence of women leadership at local
government in both the cases;

iii. To suggest some policy options for strengthening the role of women leaders in local
governments in both cases.

3. Methodology of the Study

To understand the dynamics, issues and process of women leadership in the rural local
government of Bangladesh (Union Parishad) and West Bengal (Gram Panchayats) information were
collected through expert consultation and content analysis. Based on a short checklist for both
Bangladesh and West Bengal some eminent gender specialists, social and political scientists,
academicians and professionals who have comprehensive knowledge on the cognate areas of were
chosen in consultation with some key experts of both the areas. Experts were consulted using a pre-
tested checklist containing a few core questions designed in light with the purposes and objectives of the
study.

4. Scope of the Study

The scope of the study was limited to some particular issues. To examine the dynamics, extent and
process for growing women leadership in general than that of rural local government, an attempt was
made to assess the social, economic, cultural and political contexts of Bangladesh and West Bengal. To
identify the contextual aspects of women leadership, some specific quarries such as i) what and how
socio-economic and cultural contexts and value system influenced develop women leadership; ii) how
political participation and mobilization helped to change the contexts and iii) how legal aspect helped

2
grow women leadership were made. The time frame for analyzing the contextual aspects of women
leadership was preferably confined from seventies to nineties because during the stipulated period some
significant breakthrough in the firmament of socio-political milieu as well as major landmark incidents
relating to the development of women leadership at the grassroots based local governments took place
in both Bangladesh and West Bengal.

5. The Rationale Behind Examining the Contextual Dimension of Women

Leadership in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India
Bangladesh and West Bengal of India share some commonalities in their historical, cultural,
socio-economic systems. From historical perspectives both geographic areas experienced colonialism and
were ruled by different kings and dynasties among which the British colonialism prolonged for the
longest period of about more than two hundred years, who ruled the then subcontinent what at present
constituted three sovereign states namely, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In 1947, the undivided
subcontinent was divided in to two different states - India and Pakistan. After the creation of Pakistan
instead of Bengal, East Bengal and West Bengal connotations came into being. In 1971, East Bengal
again achieved its independence from Pakistan and was renamed as Bangladesh.

Both areas share some common socio-economic and cultural similarities. The commonality of
socio-economic features can be found in varying degrees in some areas such as widespread poverty, low
level of living, income, literacy and education, over population, unemployment, underemployment,
lawlessness, high mortality, socio-political unrest, existence of dualistic socio-economic systems,
inappropriate and inadequate technologies and institutions etc.

In all Indian context other relatively successful cases of local governments belong to Panjab,
Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and so on in which women are playing vital role in the spheres of rural
local governments. But the socio-economic, political and cultural systems of those areas are quite
dissimilar, incongruent and diversified in nature than those of Bangladesh and West Bengal. Therefore, it
would not be meaningful and useful to make a comparison between Bangladesh and any one of those
aforesaid areas. Lastly, comparing to Bangladesh case political participation of women in Gram
Panchayets system in West Bengal is greater and local governments have achieved a little more success
than that of Bangladesh case. Therefore, with a view to utilizing the experiences of West Bengal the
comparison between Bangladesh and West Bengal has been made.
In critical analysis both Bengals shared the above-mentioned commonalities up to the partition
of this sub-continent. But after 1947, East and West Bengal, to some extent, began to diverge in its
broad socio-economic and cultural profiles. During this time West Bengal being the part of India began
to achieve the characteristics of a state through having a regular and sustained political process. In case
of East Bengal what now constituted Bangladesh began to struggle for having a sustained democratic
process but all efforts were in vain due to weak socio-economic and political institutions and absence of
regular political process which were transformed into frequent military interventions till late sixties. Due

3
to massive socio-economic and cultural oppressions and exploitations, East Bengal opted for separation
that resulted in independence through a nine months bloody war with Pakistan in 1971.

After the independence Bangladesh government undertook several reform measures to overhaul
its social, economic, cultural and political structures with the basic premise for building an egalitarian,
exploitation free, prosperous and progressive nation state. But due to massive failure and dissatisfactions
for meeting up the revolution of rising demands and aspirations of the people, arising out from the
independence movement, the successive democratic government ended with the brutal killing of civilian
ruler by a sudden military crackdown in 1975. The similar trends continued up to fall of Earshad regime
through a mass upsurge in 1990. With the frequent military interventions progressive socio-economic
trends were destabilized in Bangladesh. After that again representative politics was revived in 1991,
which continued up to three consecutive terms with an unstable and a malfunctioning parliament and
weak political process. On the other hand, except a short disturbance of presidential ruling, democratic
process in West Bengal has been continuing on a regular and sustained basis since 1947. But the
landmark history in West Bengal was the coming of left governments in 1977 that have been continuing
till date with secular, stable and progressive political trends.

6. Aspect of Women Leadership

Instead of an automatic process, all over the world, irrespective of country specifications -
developed and developing- women leadership grows everywhere with the positive impetus and dynamic
process of socio-cultural development of the country. A lot of factors affect the process, nature, extent
and dynamics of women's participation in public life in both Bangladesh and West Bengal. Innumerable
factors like psychological, psycho-somatic, attitudinal, social, political, cultural, economical, religious,
organizational and institutional factors influence the process of political participation and emergence of
women leadership. The development of women leadership are intricately interrelated with the prevailing
social, cultural, economic and political context of a country. Hanna Papanek (1975:220-222) discloses
that there are two different ways for women's development. The first ways for women development is to
give priority to change the situation of women by accepting existing social, economic and political
structures. To change the situation of the women the second alternative necessitates general
transformation of the existing socio-economic structures. According to Papanek (1975:220-222) the
second case is relevant to the third world countries. For having a systematic analysis of the contextual
dimension of women leadership, the contexts have been divided into socio- cultural, economic, political
and legal contexts.

4
7. Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in Bangladesh and West
Bengal

7.1 Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in Bangladesh

7.1.a) Socio-Cultural Context

The socio-cultural contexts are quite important to understand the political participation of
women. In countries where culture and society are heavily textured by patriarchal and traditional values,
it is necessary to look into the issues or causes that in turn, help promote and create an enabling
environment to enter women in the structure of power and decision-making process. In general women
have lack of access to the resources in family and state i.e. education, ownership and employment that
limit their opportunities to enter avenues leading to the political arena (Chowdhury, 1994c). Lehary and
Ahmed (2001:8) also view that women are unequal due to their dependent socio-economic status, lower
education, less mobility, social, cultural and religious customs. In the cultural realm women are
subjugated by men, which is well entrenched in habits, belief, custom, feeling, thinking, art, morals, law
etc. of the Bangladesh society (Khanam et. al., 1996: 22). The socio-cultural impediments behind women
empowerment and their coming into public domain, have recently been changed to some extent due to
development of some aspects of socio-cultural phenomena, which are described beneath.

Cultural liberalization i.e. liberal norms, attitude, belief and culture help emergence of women
leadership. Talukder Moniruzzaman expresses that Bengali speaking Muslims are basically liberal minded.
The fundamental cause of developing women leadership, as enunciated by Moniruzzaman, lies with the
fact that "women in Bangladesh are moderate and quickly adaptive. Women are not that much
conservative and traditional as the so-called progressive people tried to establish about these Muslims.
Bangladesh society is not as patriarchal as it is deemed". Though Khanam et. al. (1996: 24) view that
due to religious reasons, women in Muslim states are strictly excluded from politics but Moniruzzaman
opines that in Bangladesh religion always help people to continue their life where religion never create
problems in way of women development and empowerment.

Cataclysmic development of science, technology and ITC revolution helped changing mind-set of
women, which affects development process of women. In the late 70s and early 80s there emerged a
massive change in the global communication system. TV, VCR, radio, two-in-one, cassette recorder and
daily newspapers were more or less available to the rural women. The information revolution facilitated
women for getting modern and up-to-date knowledge that had made a positive impact in the thinking
process of women. In this regard Moniruzzaman elucidates that during the Ayub Khan regime transistor
played an important role for developing rural women in changing their attitude by listening to family
planning programmes broadcasted from the Radio Pakistan or East Pakistan broadcasting center. During
Bangladesh period another Bangladesh Television’s (BTV) popular and educative programme on
agricultural economics named "Mati O Manush (Soil and Man)", possibly helped make an ever-lasting
impression in the mind-set of rural women folk. According to Moniruzzaman, Shaikh Siraj, the presenter
of that programme, was one of the masterminds of women development in rural Bangladesh. Watching

5
this programme women got involved in various income generating activities which helped some women
to bring economic emancipation what actually facilitated growing women leadership in Bangladesh.

Another hidden factor for developing women leadership occurred through extension workers of
the Health and Family Planning Department who used to distribute various contraceptives to the rural
women, which stirred and helped them to a great extent set free from anxiety of being pregnant every
alternate year knowing various methods for birth control. The motivation for birth control helped remove
inertia and bring about radical change in cultural and behavioral pattern of women what gave impetus to
the development of women leadership in the rural society.

In recent days due to enormous growth of education, employment opportunity, communication

network, media and information revolution, much of the socio-cultural problems of women have
substantively reduced that may have a positive impact on women's mobility and empowerment. It is also
recognized that any attempt to promote political participation of women not only require to combine
multiple strategies but it also need to usher positive change of women’s role in socio-economic,
psychological, cultural and familial and careerist, policy making and implementing levels. Moreover it
needs to empower women by ending their indignity caused by domestication, breaking their isolation
imposed by socio-cultural barricades unifying and organizing them on the basis of mutual trust, common
interests, goals and collectivity. Hence women need to get into these processes and institutions to gain
an entry into the functioning of the state and share the control over the state apparatus. S. A. Islam
points out that to preserve and promote equality, justice and bring about positive changes for removing
bottlenecks towards women's political participation, necessary policy changes along with social
restructuring comprising culture, practice, believe, attitude, values are essential.

According to views of the feminists and different action groups, the first and foremost constraint
on women's participation in the political process is patriarchal social system (Khanam et. al., 1996: 21).
Cantor and Bernay (1992, quoted in Genovese, 1993: 217) also point out that escaping from the
bondage of patrimonial problem is an essential ingredient to create a just and equal society that helps
liberate both men and women. Professor Sarder Aminul Islam deemes that “the problem will be reduced
with the gradual development of the socio-economic status of women. The more women will come to
politics, the more easily this problem will be removed”. Chowdhury (1994a: 54) finds it important that
women who are active in politics and public life needs to be aware of those problems for removing the
barriers of women's equality to accelerate the process of women's advancement. Pointing to the same
problem Chowdhury(1994a: 54) blames the politicians for creating social ills through their corruption and
dirty politics that allows them eating out resources being involved with the resource management
process and opines that politicians get this opportunity because people have limited access to resources.
Only through raising awareness or consciousness of the general mass through enlarging educational
facilities, patriarchal problems could be reduced. Professor Borhan Uddin Khan Jahangir also believes
that through education much of the socio-cultural problems could be solved out where women would be
able to solve their own problems following this process.

6
 Citing women's access in to the political process at local level, Nazma Chowdhury points out that
bringing women leaders in local government is not a problem for the patriarchy because at local level
there is little resources, less issues, small jurisdiction, less scopes for women leadership to exploit
opportunities like those of women leaders at the national level where women are yet to involve in the
party politics and women leadership still does not have any continuity in Bangladesh. Nazma Chowdhury
elaborates that as Bangladesh is basically a patriarchal society, so most of the politicians think that
politics is for male only and only men’s perspective works in the field of politics. Pointing to two women
leaders at national level, Nazma Chowdhury opines that both the Prime Minister and leader of the
oppositions are the product of patriarchy and they come to this network through patriarchy and they do
not have any feminist orientation. Accordingly their cultural make up are laden with those traditional
values and therefore they don’t have any intension to bring women in leadership position and reality
never allows them to do that. Because, patriarchy believes that win of the women folk in a direct election
is the defeat for men. Women could be patronized but they can’t be equal. From this hidden motive
women are allowed to participate in the local government. Nazma Chowdhury finds another point that
government has undertaken various programmes for the development of women, as there is no question
of power sharing. In real sense being forced by the demands of NGOs, Donors, and development
partners, government have taken these programmes.

In fine it can be summarized that at the grassroots level family planning workers were the first
and foremost change agent in the rural society from which women were emancipated from the bondage
of frequent child bearing what helped mitigate inertia of women community. The changes were further
sped up with the massive development of science, technology, electronic media and information
revolution, expansion of education, employment opportunity etc. The aftermath of all these factors
helped develop liberal cultural norms, attitude, beliefs and value system of women in family, society and
community life what paved the way for coming out women from the four wall of kitchen room to out side
world. Some affirmative policy change for women development also accelerated the process of women
leadership in Bangladesh.

7.1.b) Political Context

According to B. K. Jahangir, leadership develops amidst movements for demanding equal share
and rights in the spheres of education, job, employment, economic emancipation, dowry free marriage,
production and such other demands on which women can raise their voices. The more scope of demands
will be created for women, the more prospects will be there for growing women leadership in
Bangladesh. But the big question lies with the grassroots women is that how these demands are
legitimated in the context of Union Parishad(UP). B. K. Jahangir raises some questions about women
leadership - how many women are educated in UP, what are their levels of education and whether they
are capable of meeting these rights in the UP -that are some of the major challenges in the days to
come. B. K. Jahangir opines that it would be tough enough to emerge women leadership in Bangladesh
because both government and major political parties prefer to remain mum and voiceless during crucial
moment when fundamentalists oppose women’s issue and beat up women and NGO people. Based on

7
meticulous analysis behind underdevelopment of women leadership, it can be concluded that it will be
impossible to emerge women leadership under the above perspectives. In Bangladesh where both Prime
Minister and leader of the Opposition are women but when women leadership at the grassroots level is
demanded there arise a confrontation, which does not prevail in West Bengal.

According to Suraiya Begum any discussion on emergence of women leadership in Bangladesh

should be started with the British colonial era and the Pakistan period. Suraiya indicates that, during
British time some women like Priti Lata Sen and Ashalata Devi, who were active member of patriotic
movement, showed women the way to involve in the political movement. Then during Pakistan regime
some women from elite families were organized under the umbrella of “Mahila Samity or Parishad
(Women’s Forum)” which helped women to participate in some social work and come out from the four
wall of household life. During language movement in 1952 and mass movement in 1969 and liberation
movements of Bangladesh in 1971, some female students of Dhaka University took part in those
movements. According to Suraiya Begum these are the beginning of the women leadership in
Bangladesh.

Mobilization is an important element for growing women leadership. But Jahangir opined that
through such strategies and processes the achievement of women was not mention-worthy in
Bnagladesh. Women mobilization happens amidst campaign or procession against some particular
demands of women and through such campaigns they uphold or ventilate their needs. In Bangladesh
violence prevails in such mobilization process though in some cases women mobilization becomes
stronger through violence too. Women leadership can grow in the process of participation in decisions
making and development activities of the country. The extent or level of participation may vary but the
system should be introduced for developing their confidence and empowerment. In developing
participation of women in policy-making process, bureaucracy acts as the main barrier. B. K. Jahangir, as
one of the members of Local Government Reform Commission, informed that when they tried to
introduce women members in UP, the local bureaucrats expressed their conservativeness about this
matter. The local bureaucrats views that Bangladesh society is a conservative one, where ‘Mullahs’ have
enough dominance and there are certain provisions in the Quraan and Hadith against women leadership.
Therefore, it would not be wise to bring women in the forefront of local government and government
should not advance fast, whereas in India along with a solid structure of local government there
emerged an organized farmers movement, which was further strengthened by the support from NGOs
and political parties that helped immensely to influence women leadership there.

B. K. Jahangir further explains that leadership develops through structures too. In UP there is no
regular structure. In UP, women leadership has grown out side the trajectory of the local government
structure. Therefore, the perspectives of growing women leadership in both Bangladesh and West Bengal
are quite different. Panchayats system evolved through political power. But in Bangladesh local
government election is not conducted on party basis. The quality of women leadership in Bangladesh and
West Bengal is also different. All issues and demands relating to wpmen’s empowerment or participation
are addressed through proper channel in West Bengal but in Bangladesh this process is absent.
8
According to B. K. Jahangir, the condition required for developing women leadership does not exist in our
country. He deems that “structural continuity is the most important issue for growing leadership” through
local government system. In Bangladesh there is no continuity in local government structure, let alone
developing women leadership.

In Bangladesh tiers and structure of local government are yet to be fixed till date. On the other
hand, all political parties have unanimously accepted the Panchayats system in India though Congress
has introduced the Panchayats Raj Institutions (PRIs). In Bangladesh a structure of local government
through a unanimous political consensus has not yet been developed. Till date government cannot take
decision about Upazila1 system and no one can forecast anything about Upazila - whether it would be
existing or not. But last BNP government introduced Gram Sarkar2 under Union Parishad. Apart from
these two institutions, perhaps there will be no higher LG bodies in the near future.

Based on the analysis of women’s political experiences, the structure and nature of political
parties, their work modes, nomination and elite recruitment processes in different countries, B. K.
Jahangir views that all the above factors are creating hindrance for ensuring women’s entry in legislative
polities. The general trend presents a grim reality which unearths the fact that in many of such cases
family and male political linkages, political crisis and violence provide the background and serve as
enabling environment for getting entry in to and rise of women’s participation in politics.

In short it can be concluded that women leadership promotes through women's movements for
establishing various socio-economic, political rights and demands. Through these socio-political
movements, mobilization and participation of women happen and women can gain strength and get
chance to be organized themselves through such movements. These movements are no doubt good
process of growing women leadership. Women leadership can also grow in solid structures, system and
continuity of local government. Nature and structure of political parties, recruitment and nomination of
political process can be instrumental for building women leadership. But unfortunately all these process
for developing women leadership are feeble, emaciated and underdeveloped in Bangladesh.

1
President Lt. General Hussain Muhammad Ershad introduced Upazila system abolishing the Sub-Division system during 1982-4. Before that, it was
known as Thana (Police Station). Afterwards, different governments used both the term(Upazila/Thana) interchangeably as per their preferences. At
least 22 Nation Building Departments (NBDs) are working at the Upazila level. In fact, Upazila is as like as Block of West Bengal, India.
2
According to the Constitutional Provision every unit of administration should be a representative GL unit through adopting direct adult franchise. But
this “auxiliary” body is non-representative. As soon as the GS bill is passed in the parliament an NGO named Bangladesh Legal Aid Services Trust
(BLAST) a case against GS in the high court alluding such rationale in 2003. Accordingly high court gave verdict in favour of BLAST in 2005 but in
response to government appeal provision of GS again sustained.

9
7.1.c) Economic Context

During the recent time through gaining economic strength women folk have got a good footing
that helped the process of women leadership in Bangladesh. According to Kamrul Ahsan, the pivotal
cause which helps the emergence of women leadership in Bangladesh after liberation is economic. To
overcome their boundless poverty, women from poor families came out from the four wall of the
household life. Involvement in different jobs help emergence of leadership qualities among the women.
S. A. Islam expressed the same view with Kamrul Ahsan who points out that women leadership was also
developed through some development organizations, which include NGOs and business organizations. He
opines that pace of growing women leadership can be accelerated if women can effectively participate in
the decision-making process in these organizations.

In developing women leadership in Bangladesh Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have

played the cardinal role. In Bangladesh governments failed to reach in some remotest area of rural
Bangladesh but NGOs generally tried to work at the sub-national or grassroots level. Through working in
the remotest areas they have become able to bring about a change in the consciousness level of the
women folk in the rural society because a lion's share of the NGOs' resources were distributed for
women who were the pivotal target group for almost all NGOs programmes and activities. In every
country economic development occurs in a certain process. As NGOs have involved women in that
process, therefore, the prime credit for developing women leadership at the grassroots should be given
to NGOs. Through various programmes of poverty reduction namely income generation activities (IGAs),
micro-credit and skill development programmes of NGOs, most of which was purported for women’s
development helped immensely organize poor women in the rural areas. Such programmes of NGOs
have helped unleashing women potentials and brought about a radical change in their out look,
consciousness and cultural level.

In general it is believed that women suffer from economic segregation due to non-accessibility to
resource base and this keeps them away from income earning opportunities and outside power structure
(Khanam et. al., 1996: 25). While women have not always been able to benefit from the macro-policies
and major programmes and projects, a number of initiatives sponsored by the government and NGOs
have demonstrated that developmental goals can be effectively achieved by enhancing the capacity of
women. Both economic and social returns from such investment are high. Many of these initiatives
provided poor women with increased income and assets, literacy, education, health, nutrition and
environment and awareness level of social, political and legal rights.

Refuting the above views Talukder Moniruzzaman opines that NGOs try to maintain a
subsistence level among the rural women that never help them become economically self-reliant. NGOs
never help them capital accumulation through productive investment. Therefore, he thinks that NGOs do
not have enough roles for developing women leadership. Instead of that Talukder Moniruzzaman wishes
to extend formidable credit to the health workers behind developing women leadership in Bangladesh.
He opined that a big section of NGOs was working with motivated ideas, which were engaged in

10
destroying traditional social values of Bangladesh. However, NGOs believe that they are working in a
progressive way and helping women engage in development activities bringing them outside from the
four wall of house hold life which creates conflict with the traditional culture of Bangladesh society and
damages family harmony.

One of the major reasons for growing women leadership in Bangladesh is economic
emancipation of women through intervention of non-governmental development organizations. A lot of
poor women get chance to involve in various IGAs through micro-credit, development programmes, skill
training, capacity building programmes etc. of various NGOs that helped them increase their income,
knowledge and education, remove their vulnerability, instill a sense of confidence and encourage to fight
with various social ills and struggles and thus develop the mobility of poor women of remotest rural
areas - which in fact contributed immensely for evolving women leadership in Bangladesh.

7.1.d) Legal Context

Women leadership in Bangladesh has emerged in the context of global change all over the
world. As an aftermath of the movement by the international donor and aid agencies/communities
through imposing some legal measures, strategies and conditionalities favoring the cause of women
development, various affirmative actions were taken by the government for overall development of
women, which facilitated growing women leadership in Bangladesh, although at first these efforts were
basically urban biased but gradually it spread out at the grassroots level. The impact of global
developmental strategy of women has created a plat-form for political movement for women
development in the developing countries.

The issue of women's political participation in Bangladesh has been developed within the ambit
of that global perspective. The process started with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948.
It followed by a UN Convention on the Political Rights of Women in 1952, which emphasized on women’s
participation in all spheres of socio-economic life. After that the first UN Conference on Women, held in
Mexico City in 1975, declared the decade (1975 – 1985), "International Women Decade" and also
suggested for appointment and promotion of women in various branches of the government, public
bodies, trade unions, political parties and pressure groups. This was followed by the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) declaration in 1979 that laid down
importance on equality of rights in every spheres of society. Again, the World Conference on Agrarian
Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD) in 1979 gave strong support for the integration of women in
agrarian reform and rural development. It viewed women not only as contributors but also as
beneficiaries and active participants in development efforts.

Following the first one all the subsequent UN Women's Conferences i.e. the second, third and
fourth respectively held in Copenhagen in 1980; Nairobi in 1985 and Beijing in 1995 and several other
international conferences such as the Women's World Conference on Human Rights held in Vienna in
1993; The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) held in Cairo in 1994; the

11
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Conference held in 1995 and Women
Conference held in New York in 2000 - have emphasized for women's civil, socio-political and legal rights
and empowerment. The documents and strategies of all the international conferences on women
stressed for creating a strong platform for action and advocacy for women (The Hunger Project, India
and Hossain, 1999: 178). Governments of third world countries have to devise suitable strategies to
achieve the goals set by those international conferences, which in the long run helped emerge WID
Policy in their respective countries. Bangladesh Government has made formal commitments to women’s
political participation through all those important international documents.

In the Constitution of Bangladesh, women's political participation was ensured through

reservation of 15 seats in the national parliament in 1972, which was valid for 10 years. In 1978 the
number of reserved seats was increased to 30 and time frame was extended to 15 years. This provision
ended in 1987 and following that no seat was reserved in 1988. In 1990, however, the provision of
reserved seats for women was reinstated again for 10 years through the 10th amendment of the
Constitution. As a consequence of this provision 30 seats were reserved for women in the fifth, sixth and
seventh parliamentary elections. Before the eighth parliamentary election the provision of reservation of
women's seat expired. The eighth parliamentary election, held in 2001 again enacted the provision of 30
reserved seats for women (Chowdhury, 1994a:40-42; Chowdhury,1994b:25; Khanam et. al., 1996:92).
The eighth national parliament has passed a bill for reservation of women, which made provision for 45
seats, which would be distributed proportionately among the seats occupied by political parties in the
parliament (The Daily Observer, 2004).

As a part of WID policy women’s representation to local bodies was for the first time ensured by
two Presidential Ordinances- the Local Government Ordinance of 1976 and Paurashava (Muncipal
Ordinance) of 1977, which made provision for nomination of two women members to Union Parishad.
Afterwards Preseident Zia in his Swanirvar Gram Sarker Programmeme in 1980, kept provision for
nomination of two women in its composition. Following that some changes took place in the number as
well as in the procedures of nomination of women members through the promulgation of the Local
Government (Upazila Parishad and Upazila Administration Reorganization) Ordinance, 1982 and the Local
Government (Union Parishad) Ordinance, 1983. After that, nomination system was changed in 1997. A
system of three reserved seats for women to be filled up through direct adult franchise in both Union
Parishad and municipalities was enacted in the same year, 1997. Recently promulgated Gram Sarker Act
(Law No. 6 of 27th February, 2003) has endorsed women members as advisers in the overall
composition of Gram Sarker system at the ward level.

At national level favoaurable legislations and policy directives of governments have also
buttressed the cause of women development. Government policy specially, policy measures for education
have also influenced the emergence of women leadership in Bangladesh. Non-formal education, adult
education, Total Literacy Movement (TLM), food for education, free primary education and scholarship
for girls' students are some of such strategies through which women's development issues were rightly
addressed by the governments.
12
 To enhance women's status and participation at national and sub-national level, another positive
attempt was the establishment of the Ministry of Women’s and Children's Affairs. Furthermore, creation
of focal points for women in every Ministries, Divisions and Agencies and making WID was a strong
component of the development projects were both salutary steps towards women's development. At
present, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs is involved in implementing multifarious projects
related to the development of women. All these legal provisions contributed positively in the
development of women leadership in Bangladesh context.

7.2 Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership in West Bengal

In West Bengal massive political and social reform movements regarding women's issue helped
combining some Constitutional provisions, governmental policies and bringing social actions and
awareness for women that in turn caused promoting women leadership. In understanding the aspects of
political participation of women factors like the ideology of the state, interrelationship among the
components of its structure, i.e. class, caste, gender, social, political and economic context are crucial
(Kaushik, 1996: 40-41). Some of the socio-cultural contexts and factors for developing women leadership
are described below:

7.2.a) Socio-Cultural Context

Everywhere women leadership thrives on political and social movements. In West Bengal, India
women leadership was developed through some social reform movements. In the society of West Bengal
some eminent social reformers like Ram Mohon, Bidda Sagar, Rabindranath put enormous emphasis for
promoting the socio-economic status of women. Drawing impulses and inputs from these earlier
movements the women’s wings of some organizations like Saraj Nalinee Memorial Association, Nari Seba
Sangha, Tagore Society, Karmakuti devotedly worked for organising and developing women community
in the remotest rural areas. Though some issues of these movements were not socially accepted and
encountered social resistance but these sporadic movements organized at different levels, consequently
facilitated growing women leadership in West Bengal.

To eradicate some critical social problems and disorders prevailing in the society of West Bengal
a lot of movements, backed and organized by some women activists who were socially, culturally and
educationally progressive in thinking and belief - helped women get involve themselves into public
spheres. In North India there occurred some strong movements against massive problem of wife killing.
In Birbhum and Murshidabad Districts, Muslim women were organised and fought against various social
ills around them like talak (separation) and dowry problems. In some states of West Bengal where
scheduled tribes live in huge number, women were organized to eradicate the liquor-taking by their
husbands and fathers. Sometimes mobilizing huge women together they had to stage demonstration
against that menace in front of the vatikhana (liquor selling shop), even demolish some vatikhanas and
went to law enforcing authority for having remedy to these problems. In West Bengal, Tripura and Andra
Pradesh such movements aiming at removing anti-social problems achieved tremendous success. The
13
same issues were supported by Kaushik (1996: 38-39) which discloses that socio-political movements for
removing sati problems, controlling rape incidents, violence and police excesses on women and
establishing Muslim women's right to have maintenance cost helped to increase women's political
participation in India in general and West Bengal in particular. Another big movement of such type was
"narmada” saving programme where huge number of women took part. Through participating in these
organized movements against social ills, many women turned into popular leaders in the community who
afterwards become community leaders.

Since early sixties being a part of civil society some Bengali women and gender activists like
Santi Chakrabarty, Fulrenu Guha and Bina Mjumder were the pioneers for initiating movements against
various types of oppressions against women what accelerated the process of women leadership in West
Bengal. The major directives for development of women leadership was an out come of such systematic,
well ordered, incremental efforts and movements by the civil society group, most of which come from
outside the government. In the wake of all such movements against social ills and problems causing
underdevelopment of women, women's organizations demanded women’s quota for reservation in
administration and political power structure. Such movements also influenced government for taking
measures to include women in Civil Service and Panchayats.

Women leaders grow through becoming member of any collective association. Through
collectiveness changes occur in self-confidence and political consciousness of the women. Recently
women of West Bengal have got chance to organize themselves into a process of collectiveness amidst
various micro credit programmes of NGOs/self-helps group and mahila samities etc, which in turn,
contributed a lot for growing women leadership in West Bengal. Being a part of a collective force and
drawing strengths from others and giving support to the group activities are very important for
developing women leadership. Through group activities women can develop mutual and symbiotic
relationships among the members of the group and women can do their work with collective intelligence
and strength from this process. During playing their active role in the literacy camps women have to face
many atrocities with bold attempt taking everyone with them. Through such togetherness some women
leader emerged at the local level and some of them in later stage took part in active politics. Moreover,
the policy makers also thought that through reservation system, women would be able to exert their wills
and voices through collective strength. Participation of women in gram sangsad of GP was another
mechanism for collectivization process to ventilate their views and opinions. Though till now this system
has not become so effective but no doubt it is a good system for developing participation of women in
the process of governance at the grassroots. Sharma (1998:42) views that "worldwide women's
collective action and mobilization process have made a significant contribution in enlarging the definition
of politics, however, they remain largely excluded from formal politics". In other words Sharma (1992)
elaborates that "despite difference in perspectives, approaches and methodology there seems to be a
general agreement both within the women's movement and the government that grassroots
organizations are vital instrument in providing women with collective strength, bargaining capacity and
collective articulation of their interests".

14
 The role of women's organization is very important for developing women leadership. In West
Bengal, women have gained strength through developing their consciousness level amidst participation
of various developmental activities like skill training, micro credit programmemes, taking part in various
socio-economic problems of self-help organizations. Lot of development programmemes undertaken by
these women's organizations help develop the condition of women affecting their thinking, culture, belief
and ideology. According to Caplan and Bujra (1979), there are evidences that women's organizations are
the most effective agents for bringing change in women's behaviour. Mahila samity or women's
organization facilitated women to bring them into political spheres. Students' movement in schools,
college or universities also helped women for getting an exposure for coming to Panchayats as women
leaders.

Education, technology, improved health, nutrition, better socio-economic and institutional

environment have positive impacts on women leadership. Ceaseless struggle coupled with enhanced
education enabled the general mass to realize the situation of women and accept women as partner of
men in social life. Literacy movements helped increase literacy rate of women immensely that acted as a
crucial factor for developing women leadership in West Bengal. In fact, education helps develop
confidence, increase thinking power and it gives words to speak and hence without increasing education
nothing can be achieved. To develop the capacity of human being education is the first and foremost
requirement. The more effective education can be provided to the women, the more women will be
emerged as leaders that help build up their capacity to overcome their problems. At the beginning stage
in the Panchayats Raj Institutions (PRIs) women leaders have endured some problems but they
encountered those boldly with passion and honesty.

The advancement of science and technology resulted in new production processes, occupations
and skills, which led to an increased demand for women labour. Consequently, changes started to
emerge in social roles, customs, attitudes and law for both men and women. Changes in attitudes of
people occurred through socialist and secular trends of the society and mobilization of poor women by
the left government also helped women raise their social position as well as empower women in West
Bengal. Development of communications, modernization and organized economic development have
changed the socio-economic context of rural India. All these factors in turn, facilitated social
transformation of women through breaking the traditional structures of power and value system
(Kaushik, 1993:12 and 1996:38-45 and Rajeswari 1996:131).

Widespread use of radio, cinema and television, books and newspapers, national health
awareness and family planning programmes helped increase consciousness level of women. As a result
of improved method of family planning women could not only relieve their worries and preoccupations
with matters such as giving too frequent childbirth and facing health problems but they could also now
afford to invest part of their energies in the activities outside their homes. Such better health and
nutrition condition have helped women empowerment. In short all the above facts have been ratified by
Subrahmanyam (2002:32) who points out that the spread of education, the influence of the electronic
media and the improvement in the levels of income, exposure, knowledge and awareness among the
15
ruralities are creating impact in the value system, attitudes, perceptions, expectations and aspirations of
the rural disadvantaged sections in recent years. As a matter of fact, in the ultimate analysis, women
have begun to realize that political empowerment holds the key for their social and economic
betterment.

7.2.b) Political Context

In West Bengal the reasons responsible for massive increase of women’s political participation at
local level are myriad. The seed of women leadership was germinated through the farmers' movement,
which was popularly known as "tebhaga movement" opined by the Malini Bhattacharia. The movement
started simultaneously in both parts of Bengal, West and East, which transformed into Bangladesh. Huge
women took part in this movement that provided the basic instinct for growing women leadership in both
areas. In the wake of "tebhaga" movement various farmers' movement emerged which, in turn, were
transformed into political movements where women's participation were quite visible. According to
Yashodhara Bagchi it needs to further academic query if there is any similarity and linkage between the
present women leadership and the previous farmer’s movements.

Rai (1995: 115) views that women's access in public life can be ensured through different routes
i.e. family background, participation in socio-political movements and affirmative policy initiatives, which
may ensure women’s access to political life. The first move for bringing women into the public domain
outside home is very important as once women can do that they can automatically overcome other
problems involved with it.

Leadership grows in political and social movements. Women came to participate in public life en
mass through Ghandian movement, basically known as the liberation movements in India, which was
further intensified through the political movements of the socialist and communist parties. Reddy and
Kusuma (1994:59) discloses that the freedom struggle of India provided women with opportunities to
participate in activities outside their homes in the areas of politics and social welfare. The recognition of
women's role by Gandhi and Nehru in nationalist movement helped bring about significant changes in
the thinking process and attitude in the life of women. It is believed that being influenced by the
Gandhian philosophy some old politician known as Gandhian activist were involved in the process of
passing out the 73rd Amendment in the Indian Constitution through which women's access in to PRIs
was ensured.

The provision of property rights, a sense of economic self-reliance and complete individualism
have created a new intelligent, self respecting, determined and progressive class of women. Constant
pursuing for women's rights, organizing rallies and demonstrations, passing resolutions, lobbying with
and pressurizing the government for specific policies by the political parties also helped women to make
positive contribution in the society.

Bringing women as leaders in West Bengal was possible due to long history and tradition of left
politics that helped emerge women leadership at the grassroots based local bodies in this subcontinent.
16
After getting elected in the Panchayats women leaders have got chance to interact with the general
mass amidst providing various services to them. Political consciousness and confidence obtained through
different socio-political reform and democratic movements helped them taking interest in the activities of
local government. Joshodhara Bagchi opines that in the democratic structure party banking has positive
implication for developing leadership at the grass-roots level local governments system. In the sphere of
local government, women took part in the dialogue of the political process that helped establish
democracy. In presence of political party, women could do dialogue with their argument about their
concerns in an ideal situation. Where political party could internalize the very purpose of local
government, change and development in those areas would come faster.

The pivotal impulse for involving women leadership in a mass scale came through the
promulgation of 73rd and 74th amendment in 1993. In West Bengal, elections of local bodies are
conducted on party basis through which women leaders are growing through political structures and are
getting cooperation and guidance from the women leaders of Panchayat Sammitee, Zila Parishand, MPs
and MLAs. The left party especially Communist Party of India (Marxist), CPI (M) has a mass organization
for women entitled "Mahila Samity", through which some women leaders came to Panchayats and the
major left parties in West Bengal have their women's wing at grassroots level who are working well for
developing the cause of women leadership. Organizing training programmeme in the "Shikkha Shibir"
(Education Campaign) by the CPI (M) for providing political education and proper guidance to women
leaders in Panchayats help developing active and competent women leadership at the grassroots. In
West Bengal every five years alternate, the reservation of women seat needs to be changed and thus
more new women are coming to leadership position year after year. The new women candidates are
contesting in the reserved seats using experiences from elected women leaders of the previous years in
PRIs. Thus more and more women are getting involved themselves into politics, which helped the
process of women leadership in West Bengal.

It is evident that the extent, nature and level of women's participation in West Bengal is much
greater than in many other countries - developed or developing. This participation has been more or less
steadily expanding over the years through the various elections – in terms of voting, candidatures and
participation in campaigning etc. (Kaushik, 1996:37). The gap in the turnout between men and women is
getting more and more narrowed. The number of women getting elected to the representative bodies is
steadily increasing. This increase in the turnout of women voters, particularly from the lower class and
castes, has attributed to a high degree of mobilization and political consciousness in West Bangal, India.
Women in India have not only reached the highest position of power, ensured equal political and civil
rights like men. Women have been increasingly joining in higher ranks of administration and public
sectors/services and acquiring themselves with credit (Rajeswari, 1996:133). Though slowly, their
number is also increasing in judicial positions, which at the same time, helps women to play a quasi-
political roles, particularly at the highest levels (Kaushik, 1993: 10).

17
7.2.c) Economic Context

The major cause of the women's weakness is economic and if women can have control over
their income they will be able to empower themselves. Therefore, on this basic premise, governments
are carrying out various income generating projects and programmes through Gram Panchayats, which
have influenced women's life in rural societies. Women are playing effective role in these development
activities what helped raise income level of the poor women.

Left Front government has also brought about a formidable change in land reform and
agricultural productivity by ensuring the rights of sharecroppers and re-distribution of surplus lands
among the landless and extension of institutional credit to the beneficiaries (Pramanik and Dutta, 1994:
17). It also brought about a massive change in the life of Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes
(ST) in West Bengal. Operationalization of land reform and introduction of joint ownership provision
(joint patta) have substantively contributed to develop the economic condition of women in the state of
West Bengal, which is non-existent in other states of India. Land reform along with joint ownership
system helped increase income of women of lower agricultural laborers family. Through land reform
system women's has got a role in the affairs of landed property of the family. Operation barga (share
cropping) system also secured women's economic position and created more employment in agriculture
sector as labours in the rural society.

Apart from the above factors there are other factors for enhancing the economic condition of the
women. Now-a-days some self-help groups or NGOs have become nucleus organizations for developing
women leadership. In the micro-credit programmemes women are getting involved in income generating
activities that have helped them breaking the chain of bondage through which their mobility have also
increased a lot. Women in the rural community are becoming self-reliant and getting more chances to
participate in the self-help groups. Some old social organizations blessed with foreign fund start working
in the name of NGOs or self-help groups, which contribute to grow women leadership. NGOs have
helped women to bring them out side from home. There is belief that where women leaders are doing
work successfully in local government, those women may have an NGO background. Huge number of
women are getting involved in the literacy movement conducted by the self-help group. The success rate
of women in literacy movement is far better than that of male, which causes growing women leadership.
Through such changes in the socio-economic context women leadership has grown in West Bengal.

7.2.d) Legal Context

The rationale behind developing women leadership in all over the third world countries has an
international context. As part of global campaign, governments of the third world countries started
empowering women folk through undertaking some affirmative actions and policy directives to
encourage women for coming into public life that helped shaping women leadership in West Bengal.
During the late eighties development decades emphasized more effective role of women in every spheres
of the state affairs. To bring equality between man and women, many international conferences have
laid down grave importance for women’s role and suggested some policy options in Beijing and onward

18
conferences. The inclusion of women leadership in the Panchayats should be viewed from that
international context.

In West Bengal context a number of affirmative actions, favourable legislations, policies and
programmes were made to bolster women empowerment. Findings of the report on "Committee on the
Status of Women in West Bengal" in 1974, constituted by the government, revealed serious
discrimination of women in sphere of family, society, politics, administration, wages and salary structure
and sex ratio etc. and women had lack of access to education, employment and resources etc. The
report also identified that due to such discriminations and deprivations women’s positions were
economically and culturally subjugated in society. Considering this paradoxical fact there emerged a
change in the welfare outlook, which has been replaced with the concept of women's empowerment.
Consequently in the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) Indian government undertook DOWCRA
(Development of Women and Children in Rural Area) programme with the financial assistance from
UNICEF with a view to organizing women in a participatory development process by giving resources for
their own utilization. These helped women increase their income level following various developmental
activities in the rural areas, which produced positive effects for women leadership.

There were general lacks of formal participation of women in politics. Observing success of
women’s participation in Panchayats Raj Institutions (PRIs) in West Bengal and Karnataka, where left
front was in power, the then Prime Minister Rajiv Ghandi was very much fascinated during his regime in
1978. Following that, 73rd and 74th amendments of the Constitution was passed in 1993, which made a
provision of reservation of 33% seats for women representatives in the PRIs in all states. This heroic
attempt has laid a solid foundation for institutionalizing women leaders in local governments in the whole
India. The 73rd Amendment to the Indian Constitution has greatly contributed to the political
empowerment of the women, marginalized and disadvantage sections of the rural society that has
opened up new vista for political opportunities of women in the Panchayats. Another favourable attempt
made by the West Bengal government for patronizing women leadership was setting up a single GP in
Kulticri, which was solely run by the women members. In Kulticri women leaders were doing their
assigned duties and responsibilities using their dedication and inner capacity very well where
performance of education and joint patta programme was envious. All these national and international
background crated a common concern for growing woman leadership in West Bengal.

Obviously decentralized process in West Bengal made a substantial impact for efficacious
development of women leadership through a democratic process. Along with education, employment,
literacy movements and some other distributive policies and programmes among which land reform was
mention worthy- have made a deep-rooted impulse for growing women leadership in West Bengal. In a
situation wherein more labour-force are employing in industrial sector, more self-help groups forming,
more women joining politics, more women getting involved in the development process of the country
and consciousness level of women is increasing, it would be very tough to revert the whole process
overnight. Along with Government other social, cultural and political institutions or organizations or

19
groups are trying to bring women into the development process-therefore women's role and status in
leadership position is becoming stronger day by day.

8. Summary of the Contextual Dimensions of Women Leadership in

Bangladesh West Bengal
Women leadership in Bangladesh and West Bengal evolved through different socio-economic and
political contexts. But in both cases major impulse for developing women leadership at the grassroots
local governments come through legal provisions made by the government. The summary of the
Bangladesh part is given below:

8.a) Bangladesh Part

The experts consulted have identified the following major socio-cultural contexts that have facilitated
to grow women leadership in Bangladesh.

 Since Pakistan regime to till date some women organizations, groups, associations particularly
some left political parties like Mahila Samitee and Mahila Parishad were engaged in some social
welfare activities and they ventilated policy issues for women emancipation and development,
which helped evolve women leadership in Bangladesh.

 In Bangladesh some girl students took part in language movement, mass upsurge movements
and liberation movement that helped evolve women leadership in Bangladesh. In our liberation
war a considerable number of women fell victims to sex abuse and humiliation by the occupant
Pakistani military Jantas. At the end of the war some women organizations played a good role in
rehabilitating those women of war victims, which supported development of women in our
country.
 Liberal cultural norms and value systems help develop women leadership. Due to the huge
advancement of science and technology, media and information revolution women used to know
various methods of family planning and their rights, which have brought about a change in the
mentality of the rural women. That in turn helped grow women leadership in Bangladesh.
 Field workers of the Family Planning Departments used to work in the remote areas of rural
society. The field workers as part of their duty were engaged in motivating them for adopting
contraceptives and undertaking various permanent methods of birth control for both men and
women. This helped to change/ break the traditional outlook /views of rural women folk. Some
of the field workers of the Family Planning Departments have also become women members in
Union Parishad.
 Due to international policy strategies for women every national government especially for the
developing countries undertook favorable policy directives concerning women development that
ultimately helped the process of development of women leadership.

 In consonance with the international policy issues on women development, NGOs have played a
crucial role for strengthening the movement for women development in Bangladesh. The
growth/emergence of women leadership in Bangladesh is an outcome or aftermath of the NGO
movement. The case studies conducted on the women members of the Union Parishad in the
seven districts in Bangladesh have also testified this fact.

 Government favorable policy for women education also indirectly helped the process of women
leadership. Some legal measures like reservation of women in UP was the pivotal factor for
emerging women leadership at the grassroots.

20
8.b) West Bengal Part

 Women leadership in West Bengal has grown through various socio-political movements and
mobilization process. Some of such movements were Nationalist/Ghandian, Nakshalist, farmers
and leftist movements through which women leaders get enough support for developing
women's cause in West Bengal.

 Women's organizations helped to ensure socio-economic rights of women that helped developing
women leadership. Self-help groups have contributed to a lesser extent in developing women
leadership in West Bengal.

 Liberal norms, culture and value system helped women leadership.

 Women leadership in West Bengal has emerged in the context of global change all over the
world. The impact of global women movement has made a subsequent impact in the socio-
economic movement for women development, which facilitated grow women leadership in West
Bengal.

 Due to constitutional provision and favourable government policies for women empowerment
i.e., reservation of women quota in service and local government bodies, government
development programmes for women's employment etc. helped women leadership.

 Women leadership in West Bengal has developed through different roots of social reform
movements. Women fought against some crucial social issues such as dowry, domestic violence,
talak (separation) problem, alcohol abuse, abolition of sati system, nardama saving issues etc.
All these movements contributed positively in supporting women leadership in West Bengal.

 Land reform has brought about a positive impact for enhancing income of the poor women.
Operation barga has helped in securing joint ownership of land by both husband and wife, which
helped a lot to establish the women's right and it also helped the process of women leadership in
West Bengal.

 In West Bengal local government is functioning smoothly and regularly with a strong hierarchical
structure at the village, block and district level. Through the continuity in the Local government
structure women leadership are growing gradually and they are getting good footing in their
society.

9. Similarity and Dissimilarity in the Contextual Dimension of Women

Leadership in Bangladesh and West Bengal
9.a) Similarity in the Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership

In Bangladesh and West Bengal women leadership grew through socio-political movements and
mobilization process. In the wake of nationalist /liberation movements, at different point of time, women
leadership gradually evolved. In West Bengal nationalist movements attracted huge numbers of women
to be involved with the process whereas few female students of Dhaka University took part in language
movements in 1952, mass upsurge in 1969 and liberation movements in 1971. These movements
created platform and spaces form developing women leadership in both the areas. Liberal norms, culture
and value system have positive relationship with women leadership. In both cases advancement of
education, science and technology, electronic media revolution, improved health and family planning
programmes and employment opportunity etc. helped women to come out in public life from their
confined household activities. Women leadership in Bangladesh and West Bengal has emerged in the

21
context of global change all over the world. The impact of global women movement has made a
subsequent impact in the socio-economic movement for women development, which facilitated
formulation and implementation of WID policy as well as women leadership in Bangladesh and West
Bengal. In both cases women's organisations helped to ensure socio-economic, civil and political rights of
women. These movements of women's organizations and their continued struggle and lobbying with
governments helped shaping favourable rules and regulation, laws and legislation, government
development policies and programmes and even some constitutional provisions which contributed
immensely for women development and empowerment. In both cases legal measures by the
governments helped the process of women leadership.

9.b) Dissimilarity in the Contextual Dimension of Women Leadership

The root of women leadership was deeply engrained in some leftist movements such as nakshalist,
tevaga and farmers' movements etc. in the then subcontinent. The prevalence of such movements
prevailed in West Bengal. But in Bangladesh there is a little historical background of such movements. In
West Bengal women leadership developed through different roots of social reform movements. Women
fought against some crucial social ills, disorders and issues such as dowry, domestic violence, talak
(separation) problem, alcohol abuse, abolition of sati system, nardama saving issues etc. All these
movements contributed positively for developing women leadership in West Bengal. But incidents of such
movements were non-existent in Bangladesh.

Favarable pro-poor programmes and policies taken by the left-front government helped the process
of women leadership in West Bengal. Land reform has brought about a positive impact for enhancing
income of the poor women. Operation barga has helped in securing joint ownership of land by both
husband and wife, which helped a lot to establish the women's right and it also helped the process of
women leadership in West Bengal. A wide scale reservation system of women in all the tiers of local
governments accelerated the process of women leadership in West Bengal. In Bangladesh no such
programmes were undertaken.

NGO have played a formidable role in developing women leadership in Bangladesh. But in West
Bengal it is now emerging. NGOs in Bangladesh are working with full autonomy from the government
and huge foreign or local resources are used in carrying out NGOs' development programmes. But on the
other hand, In West Bengal, NGOs are being enormously controlled by the government. Relatively lesser
amount of resources is spent for their development programme. They cannot operate any programme
without government permission. Basically NGOs/ Self-help groups are helping government by carrying
out governmental activities and programmes. In comparison with Bangladesh Self-help groups have
contributed to a lesser extent in developing women leadership in West Bengal.

22
10. Unique Feature of Emergence of Women Leadership In Bangladesh
and West Bengal
10.a) Bangladesh Part

 Women leadership emerged through economic process. The micro- credit programmes of NGOs
helped women to get economic strength through various poverty reduction programmes.
Participation of women in various skill training and development activities of NGOs has laid down
a solid foundation for developing women leadership in the grassroots in Bangladesh.

10.b) West Bengal Part

 Women leadership developed through multifarious means and ways. The cumulative impacts of
left movements, women's organizations, nationalist movement, social reform movements have
contributed for the development of women leadership in West Bengal. Due to the assumption of
the political power by the left front government and development of the democratic and political
process have helped the process of women leadership in West Bengal.

11. Some Suggestions for Women Leaders of both Bangladesh and West
Bengal, India
Based on the contextual dimension for growing women leadership at the grassroots in both
Bangladesh and West Bengal the following policy measures are suggested:
 In both West Bengal and Bangladesh emergence of women leaders at the local government
institutions was an out come of some affirmative actions and legal measures taken by the
government. As part of those legal implications left front government devised an excellent and
well-structured three-tired Panchayat system with strong political commitment. Moreover,
Panchayats system, have been functioning on a regular and continuous basis in West Bengal.
Therefore, women leaders of Gram Panchayats are getting enough support, cooperation and
inspiration from the higher bodies such as Panchayat Samittees and Zila Parishad. But in
Bangladesh due to lack of political commitment and consensus among the political parties a solid
structure of local government is yet to take place. Therefore, strong political will, commitment
and consensus among the political parties are exigently essential for developing a well structured
local government system so that women leaders can further be developed in Bangladesh.
 In West Bengal, elections of Panchayats are conducted on party basis. Being involved in this
political process, local leaders have got a chance to grow as leaders by taking part in overall
development and decision-making process in the Panchayats. Because of party based election
respective political parties can share their responsibilities of their success and failure in
Panchayats. This political accountability has also helped in reducing corruption and malpractices
at the grassroots. In Bangladesh it is observed that most of the UP leaders were found having
more or less involved in any political party although UP elections are not done on party basis. In
such a situation it is quite impossible to ensure accountability of the political parties at the
grassroots. Therefore, provision of party based election in UP should be introduced in order to
make local bodies functionally effective.
 The role of women's organizations is very important for developing women leadership at the
grassroots. Everywhere collective force is an effective tool for overcoming many of the socio-
cultural problems of women leaders. Being a part of a collective and drawing strengthen from
group activities women can develop mutual and symbiotic relationships among the women
23
members. In West Bengal Panchayats, women's wing of the CPI (M), popularly known as the
Ganatrantric Mahila Samiti, is playing a vital role in developing the women leaders at the
grassroots. Through that women's organization grassroots women leaders have been linked with
a national network that has helped grassroots women to bring into the political process and thus
to solve many of their problems using this platform. Whereas in Bangladesh most of the
efforts/movements for women's development are urban based and national women activists/
organizations have failed to maintain constant interaction and linkage with these local elected
women leaders. Through such network UP women leaders would be able to ventilate their
problems at the national level. On the basis of their need and proper diagnosis of the existing
weakness or problems of women leaders in UP, national level women activists/organizations
should help create enabling legislations and policy measures for local women leaders. Therefore,
it is important to develop a network between national level women activists/organizations and
local level women leaders, which can help local leaders solving their problems and building
women leadership as well.

24
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Name of The Experts Consulted For The Study

Bangladesh Part

1. Dr. Borhan Uddin Khan Jahangir, Professor (Rtd.), Department of Political Science, University of
Dhaka, Bangladesh
2. Dr. Talukder Muniruzzaman, Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Dhaka,
Bangladesh
3. Dr. Nazma Chowdhury, Professor and Chairman, Department of Women Studies, Dhaka University (DU)
Bangladesh
4. Dr. Sarder Aminul Islam, Professor, Department Sociology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
5. Dr. Kamrul Ahsan, Professor and Chairman, Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
6. Dr. Mainul Islam Chowdhury, Professor, Department Sociology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
7. Maleka Begum, Freelance Consultant, Writer and Gender Specialist, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
8. Suraiya Begum, Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.

West Bengal Part

1. Phulrenu Guhu, Former Member of Parliament, Minister (Congress) and Chairman, Former Status
of Women Committee, West Bengal Government, India
2. Nirmala Benarjee, Ex-Minister During the Congress Government, India
3. Mukul Mukharjee, Professor (Rtd.), Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University, India
4. Yashodhara Bagchi, Professor, Department of Women Studies, Jadhavpur University, Kolkata,
West Bengal
5. Malini Bhattacharya, Professor, Department of English and Director, Women Studies Department,
Jadhavpur University, Kolkata
6. Anuradha Chandra, Department of History and Department of Women Studies, Jadhavpur
University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
7. Devejani Dashgupta, Professor, Department of Sociology, Kalyani University, Kalyani
Nadia, West Bengal, India
8. B. D. Bose, Director, Institute of Social Sciences (East Region), Kolkata, West Bengal, India
9. Shaila Ghosh, Former Civil Servant and Consultant, Institute of Social Science, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India
10. Dr. Prabhat Duta, Professor, Department of Public Administration, Kolkata University and
Advisor, State Institute of Panchayat and Rural Development, Kalyani, Nadia and Institute of Local
Government and Urban Studies, Salt Lake, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
11. Dr. Raghabedha Chattapaddhay, Faculty Member, Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
12. Dr. D. K. Ghosh, WBSCS (Executive) and Research Officer, State Institute of Panchayat and Rural
Development, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
13. Shushmita Chowdhury, Senior Faculty Member, State Institute of Panchayat and Rural
Development, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
14. Suparna Ganguly, Senior Faculty Member, State Institute of Panchayat and Rural Development,
Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
15. Dr. Manab Sen, Senior Faculty Member, State Institute of Panchayat and Rural Development
Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
16. Shanti Chakrobarti, Civil Servant (Rt.) and, Member, Committee on Status of Women, West
Bengal, India

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