Housing and Home-Based Work: Considerations for development and humanitarian contexts

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Elizabeth Wagemanna, Victoria Maynardb, Beth Simonsc
aAssociate Professor. Escuela de Arquitectura, Facultad de Arquitectura, Arte y Diseño, Universidad
Diego Portales, Chile. elizabeth.wagemann@mail.udp.cl

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b PhD candidate. Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, University College London, UK.
victoria.c.maynard@gmail.com
c Independent Researcher. St. Agnes, Cornwall, UK. bethany.simons@outlook.com

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Corresponding author: Elizabeth Wagemann. Escuela de Arquitectura, Facultad de Arquitectura, Arte y
Diseño, Universidad Diego Portales, Chile. Av. República 180, Santiago, Chile.
elizabeth.wagemann@mail.udp.cl

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CRediT authorship contribution statement

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Elizabeth Wagemann: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing, Visualization. Victoria
Maynard: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing, Reviewing and Editing. Beth Simons:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing, Reviewing and Editing.
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Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Interaction for the Roadmap for Research initiative. Through this project,
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our shared interest in home-based work was established, resulting in this research. We would like to thank
Dr. Graham Tipple, Prof. Katherine Gough, Dr. Darja Reuschke, Chuck Setchell, Dr Ha Thai, Dr. Gonzalo
Lizarralde and Dr. Felipe Hernandez for their contributions during the consultation stage.
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Funding

This work was supported by ANID Fondecyt Iniciación N° 11220869 led by Dr. Elizabeth Wagemann. From
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November 2020 to February 2021, when work had commenced on this paper, Dr. Beth Simons was
employed at CARE International UK on the Self-recovery from humanitarian crises project, UKRI grant
number EP/T015160/1.
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 Housing and Home-Based Work: Considerations for development and humanitarian contexts

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Abstract

For many low-income households in the Global South a house is both a place to live and to generate
income in the informal economy. This can include activities in and around the home such as: running

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small shops selling daily necessities; producing food or crafts; repairing household items; providing
services; or rearing plants and animals. For many households home-based work (HBW) is their main
source of income. It is particularly important for people who are more likely to be excluded from
formal employment outside the home (such as women, elderly and/or disabled people). We used a
scoping study methodology to examine the relationship between housing and HBW. 1837 potentially
relevant studies were identified in academic and grey literature. 12 studies from Latin America and

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the Caribbean were then selected for further study. We identified several characteristics of

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‘supportive housing and settlements’ which make households more likely to engage in HBW and
proposed a model of the symbiotic relationship between housing and HBW. We discuss the
implications of our findings for development and humanitarian contexts, make recommendations for
policy and practice, and suggest topics for further research.

Keywords
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Home-Based Work, Latin America and the Caribbean, Informal economy, Global South, Humanitarian,
housing
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1. Introduction: Home as workspace

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For many low-income households, a house is not solely a place to live, but it is also a place of
production and income generation (Kellett & Tipple, 2000). The use of the house as a livelihood can
be “passive” such as renting rooms, or “active” such as income-generating activities (G. Tipple, 2000).
One of the most used concepts is Home-Based Enterprise (HBE), described as an enterprise “which
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occurs in or very close to the home rather than in a commercial or industrial building or area” (G.
Tipple, 2005b, p. 613). Similarly, Home-Based Business (HBB) has been used to describe businesses
that happen inside or around the house. However, not every activity that provides a source of income
is understood as “enterprise” or “business” by households. Therefore, other terms have been used,
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such as Home-Based Income Generation (HIG), Home-Based Economic Activities (HBEAs) and Home-
Based Work (HBW). These embrace the multiple uses of dwellings which include economic activities
either through self-employment or subcontracts, formal or informal.
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Chen & Sinha (2016) identify two types of home-based workers: self-employed and sub-contracted
(Figure 1). Whilst the first buy their own materials and supplies to sell their own finished goods, the
second (called homeworkers) produce goods for other businesses, either national or international.
Both must cover production costs and absorb the risks of production, but the distinction is relevant
for organisation, advocacy, and policies (Chen & Sinha, 2016).
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 ed
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Figure 1 Sub-contracted and self-employed home-based work. Source: Authors

The term HBW will be used here because it refers to a wider understanding of home as a workplace
in which people earn a living, and that could be a business or enterprise, but also can refer to other

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types of work or income generation. However, in the review we will keep the terms used by other
authors in their texts (such as HBE or HBEAs), since their findings may refer to a particular type of

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HBW, as indicated above.
Differentiating the domestic sphere from the productive one, is not a simple task (Figure 2). For
example, Kellett and Tipple noted that households in New Delhi, India, found it difficult to describe
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their houses as ‘homes’ or ‘workshops’, due to their limited space and their need to use their homes
and the objects within them, for a wide range of domestic and livelihood activities (Kellett & Tipple,
2000). Also, in a study in two Colombian cities, Gough & Kellett (2001) found that some activities “may
not be regarded as ‘work’” by some people and much depends on “how questions are phrased and
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who is asked” (p.237). As an example, they point out that women working as seamstresses in their
homes on a casual basis often do not mention that activity as work, despite being a source of income.
In addition, growing food or rearing animals can be used for home consumption, swapped, or sold,
making activities difficult to quantify in economic terms by the household and researchers alike.
Often, HBW represents the most important income source for households in the Global South, with
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many people relying on them for employment and services (G. Tipple, 2005b). Gough (2010) estimates
globally 20-50% of households in urban informal settlements have HBEs, but there are significant
variations depending on the socioeconomic situation of the population, neighbourhood age, and
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extent of services available. In Enugu, Nigeria, 47% of the housing stock in residential districts has a
HBE (Onyebueke, 2001). In India, estimates of home-based workers indicate that 37.4 million people
pursue their livelihood at home (WIEGO, 2020). Research in Bolivia, India, Indonesia, and South Africa
found HBEs generate 50-75% of household incomes (G. Tipple et al., 2002).
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Types
A wide range of HBW can be found in low-income neighbourhoods around the world (Table 1). Many
are small-scale or part-time extensions of everyday domestic activities, such as preparing food or
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looking after children. Others are larger scale, such as activities that require special equipment in
defined spaces and might employ people beyond members of the household (Gough & Kellett, 2001).
The most common HBW is the small local shop selling daily necessities (G. Tipple, 2004, 2005b; G.
Tipple et al., 2001; Verrest & Post, 2007). However, the nature of HBW is diverse, ranging from
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commerce and home-based occupations to providing professional services (Lopez Estrada, 2002).
Also, (G. Tipple, 2005a) states that illegal or clandestine HBEs (such as drug dealing, liquor production
and prostitution) are difficult to find and study, since they are not admitted by households. Despite

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 the variety of options, researchers have recognised similar types of HBW in low-income
neighbourhoods around the world (Table 1).

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Table 1: Types of HBW activities. Based on categories suggested by Gough & Kellet (2001). Source: Authors.

Types of activity Identified activities

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Plot-based - Renting rooms
- Agricultural (rearing hens and chickens or growing plants for sale)
- Using plots as “car parks” (particularly for safe overnight storage of vehicles)
- Playing outside games (such as “tejo”)
Repair - Shoemakers and menders
- Vehicle repair and painting

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- Electronic repairs (such as radio and TV)
Production - Carpentry workshop (furniture, cabinetmakers, etc.)

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- Clothing manufacture (dressmakers, sewing, knitwear, shoes)
- Handicrafts (jewellery, stone monuments, rattan and wooden handicrafts, etc.)
- Processing and preparation of food for selling elsewhere
Sales - General stores (which may double as bars)
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- Grocery stores (Including small-scale sale of drinks and sweets)
- Lottery/chance tickets
- Catalogue merchandise (Tupperware, cosmetics, clothes),
Services - Hairdresser/hairstyling and cosmetology
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- Primary health care (dental technician, giving injections, traditional healers)
- Laundry (washing and ironing clothes)
- Radio and television rentals
- Electricity/electrical service
- Office services (telephones, photocopying, assistance with legal documents and
accounting)
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- Childcare (nurseries, schools, afterschool)

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Importance and contribution to household incomes

In some cases, the contribution of HBW is crucial to household incomes, while in other cases, HBW
contributes only with sporadic or little levels of income. This might be influenced by their nature,
because HBW varies in scale and type. Despite this difference, in their international study, G. Tipple
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et al. (2001) found that HBE increases household’s income in comparison to households without HBE,
to the extent that in all the case studies “HBEs generate between half and three quarters of their
household’s incomes” (p.66). Despite the relevance for households, these activities are typically
invisible, and are often not accounted for in national economic assessments because they are either
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not legal, or households fear they should close their operations if counted (Verrest, 2007). Regardless
of these difficulties, Verrest found that households with HBEAs in Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago
are “...significantly less vulnerable and have a larger asset base than households without such
activities…” (Verrest, 2007, p. 259). This has been explained because the operation of HBEAs means
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more assets and more sources of income, and therefore, more resilience.

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 Importance to women
HBW is particularly important for women, elderly and/or disabled people who are more likely to be

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tied to the home for social or physical reasons and excluded from formal employment. In a
multinational study including Cochabamba (Bolivia), New Delhi (India), Surabaya (Indonesia) and
Pretoria (South Africa), it was found that “...at least 50% more women work in HBE operating
households than in those without…” (G. Tipple et al., 2001, p. 66)

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The participation of women in HBW has been explained by the opportunity to combine productive
and reproductive activities in the house, as well as insecurity of employment, male unemployment,
lack of alternatives for childcare and domestic work and lack of other viable alternatives to produce
income (Gough & Kellett, 2001; Lopez Estrada, 2002; Verrest, 2007; Verrest & Post, 2007). Also,
traditional roles have an impact on HBEAs. Household obligations and “female skills” such as cooking,

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childcare and sewing have been connected to the “home environment”, while traditional “male
occupations” such as driving, construction and painting are frequently conducted in the public domain

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(Verrest & Post, 2007).
On the one hand, the integration of productive and reproductive activities within the home has been
considered an opportunity. Some benefits are the flexibility in arranging time for various activities
(Figure 2) and the liberation from a fixed job schedule that allows households to reorganise, increase
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or decrease work regarding family needs (Lopez Estrada, 2002). Although this flexibility allows income
generation for women, working conditions do not integrate domestic and productive tasks
harmoniously. For example, breathing smoke and fumes from cooking and heating processes
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associated with a HBE (G. Tipple, 2005a). Moreover, HBEs are not necessarily financially, socially, and
emotionally rewarding, and for women with another source of income HBEs might not be a choice
because work is irregular, insecure, and low-paid (Verrest & Post, 2007).
In addition, the age of the woman in the household has an influence on the nature of HBEs. Gough &
Kellett (2001) note that operating a HBE could facilitate carrying out childcare responsibilities whilst
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earning money for women with young children, and that running small-scale income generating
activities from home can be suitable for elderly. Coen et al. in a study carried out in Bolivia, found that
most of the shopkeepers were grandmothers that had lived in the neighbourhood for a long time
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(Coen et al., 2008).

Importance in post-disaster recovery

After a disaster, shelter is crucial for survival, providing security, personal safety and protection from
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the weather and disease. It is also essential for providing human dignity, family, and community life,
(Sphere Association, 2018). Additionally, the destruction of homes has the potential to impact the way
many people earn a living. Therefore, re-establishing livelihoods after a crisis is a key task. In most
cases, re-establishing long-term accommodation can take years for a variety of reasons, such as the
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removal of debris and finding available land for the reconstruction (Wagemann, 2017b). During this
time, people are often housed in interim accommodation, where they attempt to return to their
former routines. In this context, adequate post-disaster housing can enable households to restart
income generating activities, while income from livelihoods can enable households to recover (Figure
3).
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The Sphere Handbook - a key document in the field of humanitarian standards - states that work
opportunities should be located “close to the shelter” rather than within it, and livelihoods are briefly

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 considered, linked with food security (Sphere Association, 2018). Although there are examples
showing that post-disaster shelter reconstruction aided livelihood recovery (Joakim & Wismer, 2015)

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the linkages between humanitarian shelter, HBWs, and recovery are largely overlooked (Simons et al.,
2021).

In this article we identify key themes from documents published since 2000 that study spatial
implications of HBW in the house and the settlement in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The

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following section describes the scoping review methodology. Then, we present the results regarding
the impact of HBW at housing and settlement scale, followed by a discussion section. Finally, we
conclude with some suggestions for policy, practice, and future research.

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Figure 2 Interior of a dwelling in San Salvador used as tailor/dressmaker workshop by the household and people queuing
outside the house. Based on Abrams (1964). Source: Authors
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Figure 3 Domestic and productive space being shared in a Transitional Shelter provided by TECHO NGO to a household in
Peru after the 2007 earthquake. The front the shelter is used as a small trade shop and at the back a bed is hidden behind the
curtains. Based on Wagemann (2017a). Source: Authors

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 2. Methodology

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Using a scoping study approach adapted from Arksey & O’Malley (2005) and Pham et al. (2014) we
adopted the following stages: (1) Clarify the research question(s); (2) Identify the relevant studies; (3)
Study selection; (4) Recording the findings; (5) Collating, summarising, and reporting the results.

2.1. Clarifying the Research Questions

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Initially, the research project focused on humanitarian post-disaster shelter and its relationship with
HBW. The scoping study framework was utilised to answer the main research question: What is known
from existing literature about the relationship between shelter and home-based work (HBW) after
humanitarian crises? However, in the review process there was insufficient evidence from
humanitarian contexts, but relevant information for low-income and informal housing. Therefore, the

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overall research question was broadened to What is known from existing literature about the
relationship between housing and home-based work (HBW)? In particular, the study aimed to

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understand the linkages between housing and HBW by considering: (1) What are the effects of housing
and settlements on HBW?; and (2) What are the effects of HBW on housing and settlements? The study
also aimed to establish the geographic scope of previous studies, identify gaps in existing research and
practice, establish different terms used and methodological approaches in studying housing and HBW.
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2.2. Identification of relevant studies

The research questions defined the parameters for the scoping study search terms. The search terms
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(Table 2) were established iteratively to determine the optimum terminology for capturing the widest
range of literature. Initially, a direct translation was completed of English terms into Spanish, with
variations used that reflected an enhanced understanding of the concepts. Using the original
translation, few studies were identified, and additional Spanish keywords were utilised to ensure an
appropriate depth of searching. The authors note that searching in multiple languages for a scoping
review is beneficial to balance the dominance of English-speaking academic systems. However, after
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the screening phase only, relevant English texts were found, showing a gap for research written in
Spanish on this topic.
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Table 2 Scoping study search terms in Spanish and English

English Spanish a

Home based enterprise* Trabajo a domicilio

Home based work* Trabajo en casa
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Home based business* Trabajo en el hogar

Home based employ* Negocio en casa
Home based entrepreneur* Negocio en la casa
Home based microenterprise* Negocio en el hogar
Home based micro enterprise* Empleo a domicilio
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Empleo en casa
Empleo en el hogar
Negocio doméstico
Vivienda-taller
Vivienda-almacén
Vivienda-comercio
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Vivienda Social- Productiva

a Due to the focus on the relation between HBW and “home” as the place where work is conducted the word “en” (in) was
introduced in the search.

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 To identify relevant studies, different sources and types of evidence were utilised including books,
electronic databases, and consultation through existing networks. Evidence published from January

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2000 until April 2021 was included. This period was considered sufficient to cover changes in
humanitarian programming approaches, including increased use of cash and adaptable shelters
(Doocy & Tappis, 2017) cover development programmes and capture a range of humanitarian crises.

For academic literature, searches were performed using the Scopus and Scielo search engines,

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selected as they are widely used archiving sites and provide strong multidisciplinary coverage.
Searches were conducted under the article title, abstract and keyword fields for Scopus and Scielo.
Google Scholar was also utilised as it archives both academic and grey literature, particularly in
languages other than English. For the grey literature, searches were conducted for 23 sources
considered key locations for publication of humanitarian learning identified amongst the authorship
team, in line with a systematic review by Maynard et al. (2016). Following the academic literature

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search, the grey literature websites were searched using either their internal website search functions
or the Google search engine for the key terms.

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A two-stage consultation was conducted in addition to the web searches. The first, involved using
professional networks known to the authors to request papers or case studies involving housing and
HBW. The second stage involved contacting authors with either numerous or recent publications on
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housing and HBW to solicit further articles. The authors also searched 39 books, including books
considered key texts for development housing and humanitarian shelter practice and theory. Chapter
titles, abstracts and indexes were reviewed for anything relating to HBW, housing recovery after
disasters and livelihoods.
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2.3. Study Selection and citation management

The searches yielded 1837 potentially relevant studies. A two-stage screening process was used to
ensure the relevance of studies identified (Figure 4). The inclusion criteria primarily related to studies
that focussed on the relationship between HBW and housing, or those that mentioned development
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or humanitarian settings. For academic literature, the titles and abstracts were reviewed for
relevance. For grey literature, not all studies had abstracts, so entire documents were searched.
Relevant studies were uploaded to a shared library in the reference management software Zotero,
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and duplicates removed.

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Figure 4 Scoping study process and findings with criteria for study removal. One additional study was found
during reference review of the 11 studies based in LAC, bringing the total to 12. Source: Authors

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 2.4. Charting the data

Forty-nine papers underwent a brief review, with metadata including author(s), publication year, title,

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abstract, geographic scope, study aims and whether the study was based in a humanitarian or
development context, recorded. The ability of the study to answer the research questions was
recorded, including whether the study made any recommendations for practitioners. Many of the
identified studies were focussed on Southeast Asia (46%) with one multi-country study with several

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papers by the same group of authors (8%) comparing HBW across at least 3 continents. Studies based
in the Middle East and North Africa (1%) and in humanitarian contexts (8%) were noted as gaps (Table
3).
Table 3 General characteristics of studies included in the screening stage. Source: Authors

Characteristic Number (n=49) Percentage (%)

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Publication year

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- 2000-2005 14 29
- 2006-2010 6 12
- 2011-2015 11 22
- 2016-2020 18 37

Publication type
-
-
Book chapter
Policy brief
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1
2
2
- Conference paper 7 14
- Journal article 31 63
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- Report 4 8
- Thesis – Masters 1 2
- Thesis – PhD 3 6
- Working paper 1 2

Geographic scope
- Africa 11 23
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- Latin America and the Caribbean 7 14

- Middle East and North Africa 1 2
- Multi-country* 6 12
- Asia and the Pacific 24 49
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Context
- Humanitarian 4 8
- Development 43 88
- Humanitarian and development 2 4
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*Multi-country studies covered Africa, Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean.

Eleven publications based in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), which included 1 multi-country
study with 4 publications, were selected for an in-depth review. In the LAC studies, it is notable that
the majority (10 studies, 91%) were published in 2008 or earlier. This presented good opportunities
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to understand the historical standing of the literature, identify gaps for the future, and align with
humanitarian shelter and development housing practice, which has evolved since the 2000s.
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 Table 4 – Summary information for 12 included publications

Authors

Gough, K. &
Kellet, P.
Year

2001
Title

Housing consolidation and Home-based income

generation. Evidence from self-help settlements
Source

Consultation
Source title

Cities
Type

Published -
Journal article
Methodology
Longitudinal study over 10 years,
mixed methods: household
surveys, and structured
d
Location(s) of study

e
Pereira and Santa
Marta, Colombia

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in two Colombian cities.
interviews

e
Journal of

i
Work, gender, and space: Women's home-based Published -
López Estrada S. 2002 Scopus Developing Qualitative in-depth interviews Tijuana, Mexico
work in Tijuana, Mexico Journal article
Societies

Williams, S 2005
"Young Town" Growing Up: Four decades later -
self-help housing and upgrading lessons from a
squatter neighbourhood in Lima
Grey
Literature
Incremental
Housing
Thesis -
Masters

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Mixed methods: Housing
trajectories, housing plan
sketches, household interviews
Lima, Peru

Verrest, H. 2006
Home-Based Economic Activities and Caribbean
Urban Livelihoods: Vulnerability, Ambition and
Impact in Paramaribo and Port of Spain
Consultation
University of

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Amsterdam
r
Thesis - PhD Mixed method comparative case
study approach: GIS Mapping,
household interviews, focus
Paramaribo, Suriname;
Port of Spain, Trinidad
& Tobago

e
International group discussions, household
Verrest, H., & Home-based economic activities, livelihoods and Published -
2007 Consultation Development surveys Paramaribo, Suriname
Post, J. space in Paramaribo, Suriname. Journal article

e
Planning Review
"Without tiendas it's a dead neighbourhood": The Scopus Qualitative case study approach:

p
Coen S.E., Ross Published -
2008 socio-economic importance of small trade stores Cities semi-structured interviews and Cochabamba, Bolivia
N.A., Turner S. Journal article
in Cochabamba, Bolivia observation
Doering L.B. &
Liu C.C.

Tipple, G.,
2019
From the ground up gender, space, and self-
employment in a Colombian housing project

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Scopus Sociology of
Development
Department for
Published -
Journal article
Quantitative case study approach
using census data
No city specified,
Colombia

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The effects of home-based enterprises on the Grey International
Coulson, J., 2001 Book chapter
residential environment in developing countries Literature Development,
Kellet, P.
UK

Tipple G.

Tipple G.
2004

2005
Settlement upgrading and home-based

ir n t
enterprises: Discussions from empirical data

Pollution and waste production in home-based

enterprises in developing countries: Perceptions
Scopus

Scopus
Cities

Journal of
Environment
Planning and
Published -
Journal article

Published -
Journal article
Mixed methods: Household
surveys and interviews
Cochabamba, Bolivia;
New Delhi, India;
Surabaya (Indonesia);
Pretoria, South Africa

p
and realities
Management

e
Employment and work conditions in home-based Scopus Work,
Published -
Tipple G. 2006 enterprises in four developing countries: Do they Employment and

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Journal article
constitute 'decent work'? Society
Qualitative case study approach:

P
Change Makers? Women's Microenterprises in a Reference Gender, Work Published -
Eversole, R 2004 semi-structured interviews and Sucre, Bolivia
Bolivian City Review and Organisation Journal article
observation

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 2.5. Collating, summarising, and reporting the results

Each of the 11 publications were analysed using a coding strategy linked to the research questions. A

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two-stage approach was applied: (1) Deductive codes using the research questions, with four main
themes; (2) Inductive codes developed through reading a sample of the literature, discussion within
the authorship team about the key sub-themes and testing relevance across multiple studies. Iterative
sub-themes were added during the review process as appropriate. An annotated bibliography was

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produced for each study and the coding results recorded using a spreadsheet. The references within
the studies were also reviewed for relevance, which identified 1 additional paper for inclusion in the
study (12 publications in total). Further analysis revealed that the effects of HBW on housing and
settlements, and housing and settlements on HBW could be grouped into either household or
settlement scale. These were further subdivided into effects identified in: multiple studies with
consistent findings (consistent results); multiple studies with contradictory findings (inconsistent

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results); and single studies (single studies).

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Table 5 – Key themes, sub-themes and codes used to summarise the selected publications

Theme(s) Sub-theme(s): 1st round of coding Sub-theme(s): 2nd round of coding

Characteristics: - 1type: Types of home-based work. E.g. shops, crafts, Household scale
What are the food, agriculture, rental rooms etc. - Type: Types of home-based work
characteristics of
home-based work
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- 2frequency: Frequency or prevalence of HBW
- 3Longevity: Longevity of HBW
- Women: Importance of HBW to
women
and home-based - 4importance: Importance of HBW in general, - Spatial/time characteristics of
workers? contribution to household income HBW
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- 5women: Importance to women, enabling women to
work, shared use of space and time, different roles Settlement scale
- 6space/time: spatial/time characteristics. Eg. room, - Location
kiosk, extension, day/night, seasonal - Infrastructure/ services

House>Work: - Pproximinty/location: Location or proximity to main Household scale

What are the roads or markets can limit or enable HBW - Space (size, layout, quality)
effects of housing - Qinfrastructure: Infrastructure can limit or enable HBW - Access to services/appliances
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and settlements - Rcrime: Perceived level of crime can limit or enable - Tenure security
on home-based HBEAs; HBEAs prevent or enable crime
work? - Sspace: Size, quality, and configuration of internal or Settlement scale
external space can limit or enable HBEAs - Location
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- Ttenure: Security of tenure can limit or enable HBW, - Access to infrastructure

regulatory limitation of rentals, rental increases - Regulation (planning
- Zzoning / regulations: regulations such as zoning or policies/taxation)
formalisation (e.g. tax) can limit or enable HBW - Natural hazards & security threats
- Xexposure: Risk of flooding can limit of enable HBW
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Work>House: - Aadaptions: Adaptations, modifications, sharing space, Household scale

What are the sifting space, squishing space - Adaptations & different use of
effects of home- - Ddifferent use of space. Interior and exterior space
based work on - Eextensions: HBW enable housing extensions / - Extensions & upgrading
housing and upgrades - Household negative
settlements? - Fupgrading: HBW contribute to settlement upgrading (overcrowding, health, and safety)
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- Gsettlement positive: HBW provide information,

services and support to the community Settlement scale
- Hsettlement negative: Extra pressure on services, - Settlement positive (provide
pollution, waste goods and services to the
- Iincome: HBW provide income community)
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- Mmeaning: Different of meanings of home - Settlement negative (noise, traffic,

- Nnegative: Household negative impacts: overcrowding, pressure on existing services, solid
privacy, health, and safety issues waste)

So what? What can external actors do to assist?

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 3. Results

3.1 What are the effects of housing and settlements on HBW?

ed
3.1.1 Household scale

Consistent results (stronger evidence)

Gough & Kellett (2001) described how larger homes on larger plots offer more opportunities for HBW

iew
such as renting rooms, running small shops, and providing services. While G. Tipple et al. (2001) argued
that small plots do not prevent households starting HBEs, multiple authors found that households
living in larger houses on larger plots were more likely to engage in HBW (Gough & Kellett, 2001;
Verrest & Post, 2007; Williams, 2005) and that their activities were more profitable (Eversole, 2004;
G. Tipple, 2004). On the other hand, lack of space for work or storage, and inadequate lighting, water
and appliances led to poor working conditions and limited the ability of households to sustain or

v
expand HBW (Eversole, 2004; Lopez Estrada, 2002; G. Tipple et al., 2001; Verrest & Post, 2007).

re
Single studies (weaker evidence)
Verrest & Post (2007) found that households with greater tenure security (such as owner-occupiers)
were more likely to expand HBEAs. They found renters were often subject to rules imposed by the
owners which limited their ability to undertake or expand HBW. While owners of shared family
properties found it more difficult to use the house or land as collateral for a loan.
er
Inconsistent results (inconsistent evidence)
Verrest & Post (2007) also found that households with homes built from more permanent materials
were more likely to engage in non-agricultural HBW. However, G. Tipple et al. (2001) found no such
pe
correlation in the multi-country study – especially in Bolivia where all the houses were built of adobe.

3.1.2 Settlement scale

Consistent results (stronger evidence)

Several authors found that the location of a house within the neighbourhood or building affected the
ot

ability of households to generate income from HBW (Doering & Liu, 2019; Eversole, 2004; Gough &
Kellett, 2001). For example, Gough & Kellett (2001) described how one woman had been able to
establish a business selling water because she lived next door to a bus terminal. Doering & Liu (2019)
tn

found that women were significantly more likely to engage in HBW if they lived in ground floor
apartments, but the location of the apartment had no significant effect for men. Multiple studies
found that access to infrastructure (such as water and electricity supplies, sewerage systems and
transportation) can enable households to initiate HBW (Gough & Kellett, 2001) while a lack of
infrastructure limited the productivity or expansion of HBW (Eversole, 2004; Gough & Kellett, 2001;
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Lopez Estrada, 2002; Verrest & Post, 2007). The multi-country study concluded that better services do
not automatically improve HBEs, but that they do save people’s time and effort, which in turn
improves their livelihoods (G. Tipple, 2004). Lopez Estrada (2002) noted that this was particularly
important for women living in low-income settlements, as they tried to balance the demands of
ep

productive and reproductive work.

Single studies (weaker evidence)

Verrest & Post (2007) found that the location of a house within the neighbourhood or city affected
the type of HBEAs undertaken. They found that HBEAs involving agriculture, production or sales were
Pr

more prevalent on the urban periphery, while HBEAs providing services were equally common in both
city centre and urban fringe locations. Within neighbourhoods, they found that businesses located on
main streets typically met the needs of passing customers, while those on back streets either sold

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 daily necessities to their immediate neighbours or made products which were sold elsewhere. Verrest
& Post (2007) also found that the location of a house also affected the likelihood of HBEAs being

ed
registered with the authorities. For example, visible businesses, in visible locations, were more likely
to be registered with the tax department – something which small businesses tried to avoid if possible.
They also noted that planning policies have the potential to prevent households starting HBEAs, but
in their study planning policies only affected households considering HBEA expansion. Verrest & Post
(2007) also found that the level of natural hazards or security threats in a location affected whether

iew
households decided to start or expand HBEAs, or what activity to engage in. Households were
concerned about damage or loss of assets due to flooding or theft, while concerns about crime within
a neighbourhood kept potential customers away. Gough & Kellett (2001) noted that settlements with
higher population densities offer more opportunities for trade.

Table 6 What are the effects of housing and settlements on HBW?

v
Effect(s) Scale Results Ref Location

re
Households living in larger houses on larger plots are House Consistent 1 Colombia
more likely to engage in HBW 6 Peru
10 Suriname

HBW in larger houses on larger plots is more profitable

er House Consistent 4 Bolivia/multi
5 Bolivia

Lack of space for work or storage, and inadequate House Consistent 2 Bolivia/multi
lighting, water and appliances, limits the ability of 3 Mexico
households to sustain or expand HBW 5 Bolivia
pe
10 Suriname

Households with greater tenure security are more likely House Single study 10 Suriname
to initiate or expand HBW

Households with homes built from more permanent House Inconsistent 2 Bolivia/multi
materials might be more likely to engage in HBW 10 Suriname
ot

The location of a house within the neighbourhood or Settlement Consistent 1 Colombia

building affects the ability of households to generate 5 Bolivia
income from HBW 12 Colombia
tn

Access to infrastructure enables or limits the ability of Settlement Consistent 1 Colombia

households to initiate or expand HBW 3 Mexico
5 Bolivia
10 Suriname
rin

The location of a house within the city affects the type Settlement Single study 10 Suriname
of HBW undertaken

The location of a house affects the likelihood of HBW Settlement Single study 10 Suriname
being registered with the authorities
ep

Planning policies have the potential to limit the Settlement Single study 10 Suriname
establishment or expansion of HBW

The level of hazards or threats affects the ability of Settlement Single study 10 Suriname
households to initiate or expand HBW, as well as the
type of HBW to engage in
Pr

Settlements with higher population densities offer more Settlement Single study 1 Colombia
opportunities for trade

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 *Consistent results = multiple studies with consistent findings; Inconsistent results = multiple studies with contradictory
findings; Single studies = only one study with this result. **1 - Gough & Kellett, 2001; 2 - Tipple et al., 2001; 3 - Lopez
Estrada, 2002; 4 - Tipple, 2004; 5 – Eversole, 2004; 6 - Williams, 2005; 7 - Tipple, 2005; 8 - Verrest, 2007; 9 - Tipple, 2006;

ed
10 - Verrest & Post, 2007; 11 - Coen et al., 2008; 12 - Doering & Liu, 2019.

3.2 What are the effects of HBW on housing and settlements?

3.2.1 Household scale

iew
Consistent results (stronger evidence)
At household scale, the most immediate effect of HBW is the need to use space in or around the
home, as well as furniture and appliances, for economic as well as domestic activities (Eversole,
2004; Lopez Estrada, 2002; G. Tipple, 2004; G. Tipple et al., 2001). Lopez Estrada (2002) found that
women in economically better off households, or those with more established businesses, were more
likely to allocate specific areas within or around their homes for work. Poorer women were more likely

v
to share spaces – either through performing work and domestic activities simultaneously or using

re
spaces for different purposes at different times. Eversole (2004) described how the design of a typical
neighbourhood shop in Bolivia enables women to continue domestic activities while managing their
business. Items for sale are displayed in the front room of the house, but customers are only able to
view them from the street. This enables the shopkeeper (almost all of whom are women) to continue
with domestic activities in the rear of the house - just attending to customers when they attract her
er
attention. Multiple authors found that the income from HBW was often invested in housing
improvements (Eversole, 2004; Gough & Kellett, 2001; Lopez Estrada, 2002; Williams, 2005) or where
income from HBW was insufficient, this limited housing improvements or expansion (Gough & Kellett,
2001). This can have significant long-term impacts. For example, Williams (2005) found that the most
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developed houses belonged to households who had run profitable local shops when the settlement
was first established – 45 years prior to her research.

Single studies (weaker evidence)

Home-based work has the potential to reduce the space available for domestic activities, especially
for households with very small and overcrowded homes (G. Tipple, 2004). However, the multi-country
ot

study found that households with HBEs had almost twice as much indoor space than those without –
with only around a third of the space being used for economic activities. So, even though the HBE took
up some space within the home, the net domestic space per person was still higher in households with
tn

HBEs than those without (G. Tipple, 2004). HBEs may also increase health and safety risks through the
presence of open fires, overloaded electrical circuits, dangerous tools or machinery, and dust and
fumes within people’s homes (G. Tipple, 2006). However, the multi-country study noted that many of
these risks are also present in domestic environments, and that households typically managed the
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risks created by HBEs through strategies such as keeping children separate from cooking (G. Tipple,
2006).

3.2.2 Settlement scale

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Consistent results (stronger evidence)

Home-based work provides goods and services to the local community. These may be cheaper than
formal alternatives (Verrest & Post, 2007) or save people’s time and money travelling elsewhere (Coen
et al., 2008; G. Tipple, 2004). Local childcare can provide a better environment for children to play and
learn (Gough & Kellett, 2001) and enables women to work (G. Tipple, 2004), while renting out rooms
Pr

adds to the rental housing supply (Gough & Kellett, 2001). Local shops are especially important for
poorer households – who may be unable to afford larger purchases or lack space, electricity, or
refrigeration to store supplies (Coen et al., 2008; G. Tipple, 2004). Coen et al. (2008) found that local

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 shops acted as almost “public” spaces within the neighbourhood, playing an important role, especially
for women, in providing local information, emotional support, and informal social control. They also

ed
provided items on credit if needed, or in emergencies such as the middle of the night.

Single study (weaker evidence)

Home-based work has the potential to increase noise, traffic, and pressure on existing services within
residential areas (G. Tipple, 2005a). The multi-country study found that more than 40% of households

iew
owned some kind of machinery for HBW, but these were typically domestic appliances (such as fridges
or sewing machines) and unlikely to create significant amounts of additional noise (G. Tipple et al.,
2001). Similarly, the authors found little evidence that HBW placed significant additional demands on
existing services such as water and electricity or caused a significant increase in traffic (G. Tipple et al.,
2001).

v
Inconsistent results (inconsistent evidence)
The findings regarding waste disposal are unclear. On the one hand, the multi-country study found

re
that most waste products are reused or recycled, and that any remaining waste products are disposed
of in the same way as domestic waste (G. Tipple et al., 2001). In Bolivia, agents visited households to
buy waste material – either to use as raw materials in their own HBW, or to sell (G. Tipple et al., 2001).
On the other hand, some HBEs generate waste products which are dangerous to people and the
environment (G. Tipple, 2004, 2005a) and home-based workers are unlikely to have the knowledge,
er
skills, space, capital, or access to technology needed to deal with the problem (G. Tipple, 2005a).

Table 7 What are the effects of HBW on housing and settlements?

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Effect(s) Scale Results Ref** Location

HBW requires shared or designated space, furniture, House Consistent 2 Bolivia/multi

and appliances, in or around the home 3 Mexico
4 Bolivia/multi
5 Bolivia
ot

Income from HBW is often invested in housing House Consistent 1 Colombia

improvements 3 Mexico
5 Bolivia
6 Peru
tn

HBW has the potential to reduce the space available for House Single study 4 Bolivia
domestic activities

HBW has the potential to increase health and safety House Single study 9 Bolivia/multi
risks around the home
rin

HBW provides goods and services to the local Settlement Consistent 1 Colombia
community 4 Bolivia/multi
10 Suriname
11 Bolivia
ep

HBW has the potential to increase noise, traffic, and Settlement Single study 2 Bolivia/multi
pressure on existing services

HBW has the potential to increase solid waste Settlement Inconsistent 2 Bolivia/multi
4 Bolivia/multi
7 Bolivia/multi
Pr

*Consistent results = multiple studies with consistent findings; Inconsistent results = multiple studies with contradictory
findings; Single studies = only one study with this result. **1 - Gough & Kellett, 2001; 2 - Tipple et al., 2001; 3 - Lopez
Estrada, 2002; 4 - Tipple, 2004; 5 – Eversole, 2004; 6 - Williams, 2005; 7 - Tipple, 2005; 8 - Verrest, 2007; 9 - Tipple, 2006;
10 - Verrest & Post, 2007; 11 - Coen et al., 2008; 12 - Doering & Liu, 2019.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 4. Discussion

4.1. The symbiotic relationship

ed
The results of this study reaffirm the “symbiotic relationship” (Kellett & Tipple, 2000) between housing
and HBW, with livelihood and household activities taking place at different times of the day in the
same space (Figure 5).

v iew
re
er
pe
ot
tn

Figure 5 Symbiotic relationship between HBW and domestic space. Productive activities in the daytime and domestic activities
at night. Source: Authors
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Results show that households are more likely to engage in HBW if they:

• Live in advantageous locations within the city, neighbourhood or building.

• Are subject to favourable regulation (or lack of regulation).
ep

• Do not feel at risk from natural hazards or security threats.

• Live in larger houses on larger plots, with adequate appliances and services.
• Have greater tenure security.

These characteristics represent ‘supportive housing and settlements’ (Figure 6). Households which
Pr

engage in HBW have more sustainable and resilient livelihoods - as a result of increased financial assets
and greater diversity of income sources. Income from HBW is often invested in housing improvements
(Table 7) such as purchasing appliances, installing services, or improving the quality or quantity of

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 space in or around the home. Improvements like these in turn generate more supportive housing
conditions - enabling the household to sustain, expand or diversify their HBW.

ed
v iew
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Figure 6: The symbiotic relationship between housing, settlements and HBW. Source: Authors

4.2. Implications for development contexts

er
Several authors (e.g. Gough & Kellett, 2001; Verrest, 2007) found that the location of a house within
pe
the city, neighbourhood or building and population density had a significant impact on the type and
profitability of HBW undertaken. Understanding the types of HBW, flow of customers and where
customers are located could be beneficial to support home-based livelihoods. Improved
understanding of the natural hazards and security threats that may impact housing, settlements and
linked HBW could help mitigate impacts of hazard events on livelihoods. For example, in densely
ot

populated neighbourhoods with security risks after dark, provision of street lighting could support
HBW later in the day by increasing footfall.
tn

Multiple studies described the goods and services, such as childcare (Gough & Kellett, 2001) home-
based work provides to communities, and the convenience to communities of accessing these services
close to home, improving health, wellbeing, and social benefits. These benefits should be considered
as part of development programmes and planning policies to fully account for the nature of the
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settlement. Taking account of HBEs during development programmes and advocating for policies
which provide environments where HBEs can operate without fear of closure due to restrictive
regulations could help support overall community wellbeing.

Home-based work has the potential to reduce the space available for domestic activities. Settlement
ep

upgrading programmes could therefore establish the prevalence of HBW within a settlement and
consider whether upgrading plans prioritise reduction of settlement density over leaving residents in
situ, as noted by (G. Tipple, 2004). Recommendations for larger plots supporting HBW or dwellings a
room larger than planned for occupancy during settlement upgrades may be beneficial in settlements
Pr

with a high number of HBWs. There would be a need to ensure that households without HBWs do not
incur additional costs in these instances. As in humanitarian contexts, facilitating future adaptations

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 and extensions to meet the needs of changing families and business can ensure development
programmes are fit for purpose and have lasting impact.

ed
The relationship between infrastructure and home-based work is also “symbiotic”. With provision of
lighting, electricity, water, and waste management services, HBWs can both function at higher
capacities and limit their negative impact on the surrounding settlement. Understanding the type of

iew
HBW that will be undertaken, and what environmental, health and safety risks these may pose can
help programmes mitigate potential negative impacts through, for example, effective waste
management. If issues identified are outside of programme scope, recommendations could be
provided to development actors that can address issues, or to policy makers. G. Tipple et al. (2001)
and G. Tipple (2005a) note that approaches such as installing industrial levels of electrical voltage and
waste disposal systems can facilitate HBW and reduce impact on the environment and surrounding

v
houses. Regulations may be required to mitigate some of the more severe impacts, working in
collaboration with policy makers.

re
Where HBW is not recognised, this may limit the provision of assistance, such as micro-financing for
livelihood expansion. In more extreme cases, lack of recognition may increase risks of extortion as
households seek finance through informal routes for HBW support or expansion (G. Tipple et al.,
er
2001). Regulations and programmes that account for HBW may therefore support access to longer-
term, both for development and humanitarian programmes.

4.3 Implications for humanitarian shelter practice

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Countries in LAC face numerous humanitarian risks, from natural hazards to conflict. Migration is
widespread as people seek to leave their home countries due to violence, poor livelihood
opportunities and economic deterioration. Despite these concerns, it was notable that none of the
papers in this study referred to humanitarian crises. While the documents included in this scoping
ot

study focused on development contexts, this research identified several important points for
humanitarian crises and resilience. Linkages between HBW and housing, and housing and HBW
indicated from this study that required further investigation are summarised in Table 8.
tn

Table 8. Table summarising the potential linkages between HBW and housing at household and settlement level, before,
during and after humanitarian crisis. Source: Authors.

Scale Relations between HBW and housing

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Before humanitarian crises

- HBW contributes to the diversity of income sources within a household and enables households to
build their financial assets through reduced costs (Coen et al., 2008).
- HBW helps households reduce expenditure, by reducing the need to rent additional space for work
(Coen et al., 2008).
ep

Household - Income from HBW is often invested in housing improvements (3.2.1).

- HBW may contribute to overcrowding and negative health impacts (3.2.1).
level
- HBW may increase health and safety hazards (3.2.1) - placing households at increased risk.

During humanitarian crises

- Households take goods from their store for domestic use when necessary (Coen et al., 2008). This
Pr

could lessen the impact of the crisis by facilitating access to key items such as food, water, and
household goods in the absence of provision by humanitarian agencies.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 After humanitarian crises
- Households take on HBW temporarily to finance improvements to their home - it is likely that they

ed
would do this after a crisis.
- Income from HBW is often invested in housing improvements (3.2.1)- supporting housing recovery
and reconstruction.

Before humanitarian crises

- HBW provides goods and services to communities - saving people’s time and money travelling

iew
elsewhere which they can invest in other activities (3.2.2).
- Local shops provide information, emotional support, and informal social control (3.2.2) - thereby
increasing communities social assets.
- HBW may increase environmental hazards, placing communities at increased risk (3.2.2)

During humanitarian crises

Settlement
- Local shops provide items in emergencies or on credit if needed (3.2.2) - lessening the impact of the
level

v
crisis.
- Local shops provide affordable and accessible access to daily necessities (3.2.2) - enabling
households to meet their basic needs and reduced reliance on strategies such as skipping meals or

re
selling assets.

After humanitarian crises

- A construction “boom” can catalyse the establishment of HBEs selling construction materials (Gough
and Kellet, 2001) - it is likely that this could happen after a crisis.
er
There are implications for the size of shelters and plots provided during or after a humanitarian crisis.
Homes that are too small may limit livelihood recovery. There are humanitarian space standards
outlined in the sectoral guidance (Sphere Association, 2018), but HBW is not mentioned. The
pe
adaptable nature of the home demonstrated in the studies indicates the value of humanitarian shelter
programmes that provide adaptable homes or tools for reconstruction, rather than static options such
as tents, where appropriate. Households may then adapt the home to suit their needs, including for
livelihoods.
ot

Many of the studies note the informality of HBW. Whilst further research in the humanitarian context
is required, tangible steps, such as inclusion of questions about HBWs in all post-disaster assessments,
would be beneficial. Formal recognition of HBWs may lead to enhanced humanitarian programming,
tn

through greater understanding of how households generate their income, and how best to support
them.

At household level, humanitarian shelter and settlement programming may provide materials, tools,
and financial assistance which households can use to restart livelihoods. Alternatively, humanitarian
rin

programmes may require households to contribute time, money, and materials to construction –
diverting resources from livelihood recovery (Global Shelter Cluster, 2019; Maynard & Parker, 2018).
More broadly, humanitarian shelter and settlement programming can contribute to market activity
and drive wider economic recovery (Setchell, 2001; Sheppard & Hill, 2005).
ep

5. Conclusions

5.1 Methodology
Pr

This scoping study considered (1) The effects of housing on HBW and (2) The effects of home-based
work (HBW) on housing. 1837 potentially relevant studies were identified in academic and grey
literature. A review of these documents identified that research in humanitarian contexts or in the
Middle East and North Africa were significant gaps. Despite efforts to identify documents from LAC

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 only 12 documents focused on this region - with only one published since 2008. The studies used a
wide variety of research methods - often in combination. Methods ranged from observation and

ed
sketches, through interviews and focus groups, to surveys and analysis of census data. Each of the LAC
studies were read and coded, using a combination of inductive and conductive approaches. Results
were then presented in terms of: effects identified at household or settlement scale; and those
identified in multiple studies with consistent findings, multiple studies with inconsistent findings, and
single studies.

iew
5.2 Results

What are the effects of housing and settlements on HBW?

The ability of households to start, sustain or expand HBW is often enabled or limited by the size of
their house and plot, along with the quality of its lighting, appliances, and services. The location of

v
their home within the city, neighbourhood or building, and level of access to infrastructure are also
critical to the type of HBW which can be undertaken and its potential for income generation. Factors

re
such as tenure security, quality of construction materials, and vulnerability to natural hazards and
security threats may also be important but need further research.

What are the effects of HBW on housing and settlements?

HBW requires shared or designated space, furniture, and appliances within or around the home. It
er
also has the potential to increase health and safety risks and decrease the space available for domestic
activities. HBW may also increase noise, traffic, pressure on existing services, waste, and pollution at
the settlement level. On the other hand, income from HBW is often invested in housing
improvements, while home-based workers provide essential goods, services, support, and
pe
information to their neighbours.

5.3 Recommendations for policy and practice

The prevalence of HBW and importance to housing upgrading shows the importance of acknowledging
HBW in post-disaster assessments and as part of development programmes. As HBW is often informal,
ot

the true extent may not be recorded by authorities, and therefore absent in government figures that
may be used to support programming. Assessments that account for HBW can also help to build
resilience livelihoods longer term, through understanding of the natural hazard and security threats
that may impact not only homes, but HBW. Improved understanding of the extent of HBW may also
tn

support recognition of HBW, which could facilitate access to finance as HBW is viewed as a legitimate
income source by governments and development actors.

Space to facilitate HBW is critical. Humanitarian shelter guidelines on space do not currently account
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for larger homes or plot sizes to start or restart HBW. In development contexts, density of housing and
allowing for expansion of HBW may not be considered in all programmes. Ensuring homes are
adaptable and can meet the changing needs of families and businesses is a key recommendation for
both policy makers and practitioners in LAC, for example through provision of adaptable post-disaster
shelter options. Access to services that are sufficient to support HBW could be addressed by planning
ep

policies and in development practice. Understanding how and when households access essential
services, including water, electricity, and waste management, could help support HBW, mitigate
environmental impacts of waste and minimise health risks of HBW through regulations or provision of
additional services.
Pr

5.4 Suggestions for further research

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4163595
 The primary need is to investigate the relationship between HBW and shelter recovery and/or
resilience in humanitarian contexts. As this review found an insufficient number and quality of studies

ed
for inclusion in a scoping review the authors recommend that a global literature review is undertaken
to synthesise findings on HBW and humanitarian shelter, including other regions.

Another important question is what is the best methodology for researching housing, settlements
and HBW? The papers included in this study used a wide variety of research methods, but this meant

iew
that important evidence may not have been collected, or important topics overlooked. The authors
recommend an in-depth review to identify appropriate multidisciplinary methods for researching the
relationship between housing, settlements and HBW.

Thirdly, this scoping study should be extended to cover the other 38 documents already identified for
potential inclusion. A further review should compare the results from LAC with other continents and

v
identify whether the consistent and inconsistent results are replicated in other regions.

Finally, further empirical studies are needed to gather new evidence on the relationship between

re
housing, settlements and HBW, in development and humanitarian contexts. This should address
research gaps with a focus on groups of people more likely to undertake HBW such as women, elderly
and/or disabled people. It could also investigate the potential negative impacts of HBW and how these
can be mitigated, with a focus on household health; or the impact of house/plot size, construction
er
quality, and tenure security on the prevalence and productivity of HBW.

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ot

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