EET 463 Illumination

Technology

Credit : 3
 Light & illumination

Light is the cause & Illumination is the result of that light

on surfaces on which it falls.
Illumination make the surface look more or less bright
with a certain colour and it is this brightness & colour
which the eye sees
 Introduction to light

 Light is the visible part of the

electromagnetic spectrum
 Light rays can however, be
reflected, transmitted or
absorbed when they strike an
object
 Light can be of different
colours depending on the
wavelength of radiation
causing it.
 Light sources
 Natural sources & Artificial
sources
 Natural sources – sun & other
stars, some natural phenomenon
like volcanic eruptions and
lightning, some living organisms
also who can produce light of their
own, bioluminescence(jellyfish,
fireflies, glow worms)
 Light from natural sources such as
the sun is known as white light or
day light and is made up from the
different frequency components of
the visible spectrum
 Artificial light -Non-
natural light , from
sources such as candles,
tungsten filaments, gas
discharge lamps & LED
lamps etc.,
 has a different mix of
frequency components
which produce a different
colour light
 Total light – both day
light & artificial light
 Day Light in Interiors
 We say the lighting is good ,when our eyes can clearly and pleasantly
perceive the things around us( Techmullers definition)
 Buildings of the 21st century are likely to rely more on natural daylight,
with supplementary artificial lighting being automatically controlled but
with local override facilities provided for staff.
 There are 3 reasons to provide daylight:
 1. Healthier and more satisfactory indoor environment;
 2. Economic advantage in energy savings;
 3. Conserves earth’s resources and improves “Green Image”
 Day Lighting

 Daylighting is the practice of placing windows, skylights, other openings, and

reflective surfaces so that sunlight(direct or indirect)can provide effective internal
lighting
 In particular colour rendering by daylight is the subjective standard by which we
normally measure the colour performance of an electric lamp.
 Daylight varies with latitude, season, coastal or in land location, climate and air
quality
 Artificial Lighting
 Artificial lighting enables extended activity period employing in planned
optimized manner, minimizing the resources
 Artificial lighting should be functional and pleasant both physiologically and
psychologically
 Artificial lights are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, colors of light
emitted, and levels of brightness.
 Some of these sources are incandescent bulbs, halogen lamps, metal halide,
fluorescent tube, compact florescent light, and LEDs.
The incorporation of daylight into interior lighting design is desirable
for the following reasons
 Energy costs are reduced if good control of artificial lighting is
provided.
 A room which does not provide a view of the outside , will be
considered unsatisfactory to most building occupants.
 Daylight from a window provides a cross vector of light which will
improve modelling and provide a desirable vector/scalar ratio.
 Colour rendering will be improved in most interiors with good
daylight penetration.
 The natural variation of daylight provides information about the
weather and time of day which occupants will deem desirable
 Qualities of Good Lighting ( Factors affecting Lighting)

 Good lighting -Process of providing the right quantity of light at the

right quality
 A good lighting scheme is the one under the influence of which the
eyes of a person do not feel any strain.
Traditional quality criteria
1.Visual Performance
2.Harmonious brightness distribution/uniformity of light
3.No glare, flicker and stroboscopic effects
4. Avoid Veiling reflections
5. Avoid shadows
6.Correct light colour and Appropriate colour rendering
1.VISUAL PERFORMANCE(Sufficient illumination level)
 One of the major aspects of the lighting practice and recommendations
is to provide adequate lighting for people to carry out their visual
tasks.
 Visibility is defined by our ability to detect objects or signs of given
dimensions, at given distances and with given contrasts with the
background Defined by the speed and accuracy of performing a visual
task.
 Visual performance is improved with increasing luminance. Yet, there
is a limit above which further increases in luminance do not lead to
improvements in visual performance
 Thus increasing luminance levels above the optimum for visual
performance may not be justified and can on the contrary lead to
excessive use of energy
 2. UNIFORMITY OF LIGHTING
 Uniformity of lighting can be desirable or less desirable depending on
the function of space and type of activities
 Non uniform lighting may cause distraction and discomfort
 Lighting standards and codes usually provide recommended illuminance
ratios between the task area and its surroundings
 Compared to a conventional uniform office lighting installation with
fluorescent lamps, LEDs provide opportunities to concentrate light
more(nonuniform)on actual working areas and to have light where
it is actually needed.
3.CONTROLLING GLARE,FLICKER AND STROBOSCOPIC EFFECTS
a) GLARE: is a contrast in brightness between different objects in one’s field of
vision
 Caused by high luminance or excessive luminance differences in the
visual field
 Direct glare – If the level of mounting the lamps is too low and no
reflectors are used, then the effect will cause direct glare.
 Indirect glare – The indirect glare is caused by a shining object
reflecting a major portion of incident light. The indirect glare can be
avoided by fixing the lamps at such a position that no direct light falls
on a shining surface.
 Disability Glare and Discomfort Glare
 In indoor lighting the main concern is about discomfort glare
 Disability Glare
• Occurs when vision is actually impaired
• Extreme form of glare.
• Occurs when there is an area close to the line of sight which has a very
high luminance
• The most common causes are windows and electric light sources which
are seen either directly or indirectly by reflection
 Discomfort Glare
• Visual discomfort in the presence of bright light sources , luminaries,
windows or other bright surfaces
• Evaluation is done using unified glare rating(UGR),visual comfort
probability(VCP)etc
• Effect–Loss of concentration, More frequent mistakes, Fatigue
• Remedy–Luminaires with limited luminance levels, Blinds on windows,
Matching luminaire to work station(layout),Indirect lighting ,Matt
surfaces
 B. Flicker
 Produced by very fast fluctuations of small output voltage
amplitude.
 Light sources that are operated with ac supply produce regular
fluctuations in light output
 Visibility of these fluctuations depends upon frequency and
modulation of the fluctuation
 Hazard to health
 Can be minimized by stable supply voltage or by using high
frequency electronic ballasts.
 C. STROBOSCOPIC EFFECTS
 Our brains can only process movement or change at a particular speed. If there are
competing levels of movement or change within our field of vision, our brains naturally
smooth out the visual input we’re receiving.
 The stroboscopic effect causes some unusual effects, and is annoying. The blades of a
revolving fan may appear stationary at some speed and to move in one direction or the
other if the speed is raised or lowered, although it is all the time moving at a high speed in
one direction alone.
 The stroboscopic effect occurs when a flashing light source illuminates a moving object.
 All discharge lamps are turned on and off 100 times per second when operated on magnetic
ballasts supplied by a 50 Hz power system
 Each time the voltage passes through the zero point the arc is extinguished and the lamp
ceases to produce light
 A rapidly rotating object at speeds which are multiples of 50 such as an 1500 rpm or 3500
rpm motor can appear to be motionless
 This effect is harmful to the vision and causes discomfort, visual fatigue and
headaches
 CONSEQUENCES OF STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT
1. The rapidly moving needle of a sewing machine may appear to be standing still in
a place because of the stroboscopic effect of the tube light or a fluorescent lamp
present in the room. This may cause severe injury to the user in many ways.
2. The stroboscopic effect may cause the wings of a running machine at a factory or
industry to appear to be standing still. If the worker operating the machinery is
unaware of this phenomenon, he/she is most likely to get harmed or face serious
injuries.
3. The stroboscopic effect causes severe headaches.
4. Due to the ageing of the lamps, the flickering may also occur at 20-70 Hz
frequency. The stroboscopic effect caused due to this may also induce epileptic
seizures.
5. About 10% of the people working in an area that is exposed to the stroboscopic
effect are much likely to develop migraines and other related problems.
6. It tends to cause a significant amount of downfall in the performance.
Methods to reduce stroboscopic effect
 1. Stroboscopic effect occurs at a significantly higher level if the
environment is illuminated with the help of a fluorescent lamp. Hence,
one must avoid the usage of fluorescent lamps to avoid the stroboscopic
effect.
 2. If a three-phase power supply is used to power the lamps, then the
adjacent lamps must be fed with different phases. This would cause
the lamps to undergo zero frequency at different instants. Thereby,
minimizing the flickering of lights.
 3. In one lamp connection, a capacitor or condenser can be connected in
series with the choke. This creates a phase shift that helps to eliminate the
stroboscopic effect.
 4. AVOID VEILING REFLECTIONS (reflected glare)
Regular reflections that appear on the object viewed and
which reduce the visual task contrast.
Causes–Geometry of the surface , observer and source
High luminance like Glossy papers , glass surfaces and
computer screens are subject to cause veiling reflections
In rooms with several computer screens inside the task are a
special case where care has to be taken in the positioning of
the luminaries to avoid luminous reflections from the screens
 5. AVOID SHADOWS
 A dark area or shape produced by a body coming between rays of light and a
surface obstructs the visibility of certain elements
 6. CORRECT LIGHT COLOUR AND APPROPRIATE COLOUR
RENDERING
 The colour of light sources is usually described by two properties viz
Correlated Colour temperature (CCT) and colour rendering index(CRI)
 Colour appearance of a light source is evaluated by CCT
 For example, CCT OF 2700 K have a yellowish colour appearance and their
light is described as warm
 Fluorescent lamps or white LEDs have CCT of around 6000Kwith bluish
appearance and light is described as cool
 CRI : The ability of the light source to render colours of surfaces
accurately or the Color Rendering Index (CRI) measures the ability
of a light source to accurately reproduce the colors of the object it
illuminates.
 The best colour rendering is Ra = 100.
 Light sources are divided up into colour rendering levels:
 Ra > 90 very good colour rendering
 Ra > 80 good colour rendering
Sources of Artificial Light –General classification
 1. Arc Lamps ( Carbon arc lamps ,Flame arc lamps ,Magnetic arc lamps)
 2. High temperature lamps( incandescent lamps , gas filled lamps – halogen
lamps)
 3. Gaseous Discharge lamps(two types – i) those which give the light of the
same colour as produced by the discharge through the gas or vapour such as
sodium vapour lamps ,mercury vapour & neon gas bulbs
 ii) Those which use the phenomenon of fluorescence, ie : Fluorescent lamps
,CFL )
 4. LED tubes & bulbs
 Types of Artificial light sources
Incandescent lamps & Halogen lamps
LPSV & HPSV
Mercury Vapour Lamp
Metal Halide lamp
Fluorescent lamps & Compact Fluorescent lamps
LED
Types of Artificial light sources

1. INCANDESCENT SOURCES
 Under incandescent sources, certain objects are being heated to a high
temperature till they begin to emit light. In this process, both infrared
and visible lights are being produced. Examples of incandescent
sources are incandescent lamps and candles
 A common example of the incandescent light source is when a metal is
heated, the atoms present in the metals gets vibrated and emit photons
which emit radiation to make it visible to the human eye by raising the
wavelength in the spectrum
 Incandescent Lamps were first invented by Edison in1879
 Construction
 Glass Bulb
 An incandescent lamp has a glass enclosure including a
tungsten filament.
 Inert Gas
 The inert gas used to fill the light bulb is argon/nitrogen to
reduce the evaporation of the filament. So it increases the life
of the lamp by preventing the filament from falling too
quickly.
 Tungsten Filament
 The Filament in the lamp is the thread or wire that lights up
once you turn it on. The material used to make this filament is
Tungsten metal because the melting point of this is very high
and also heat resistant.
 Contact Wires
 The base of the bulb with two connections is called contact
wires which provide electrical connections toward the
filament.
 Support Wires
 Support wires are small wires which are connected to the stem to give support to the
filament of the lamp.
 Glass Mount or Support
 Incandescent light bulbs include a glass mount that is connected to the base of the lap
which permits the electrical contacts to run throughout the envelope without air or gas
leaks.
 Screw Thread
 Most of the lamps screw into a socket. In household bulbs, a medium screw base is used
which is called an Edison screw. Its diameter is 1¹Ú16 inches including seven threads for
every inch.
 Insulation
 The base of the lamp is made of brass originally & protected with plaster of Paris & after
that porcelain. Nowadays, aluminum is used at the outside of the lamp & glass is used to
protect the inner base so that a stronger base can be formed.
 Working of incandescent lamps
 Incandescent means producing visible light by heating an object.
 When an object is made hot, the atoms inside the object become thermally excited.
 If the object does not melt, the outer orbit electrons of the atoms jump to higher
energy level due to the supplied energy.
 The electrons on these higher energy levels are not stable, they again fall back to
lower energy levels.
 While falling from higher to lower energy levels, the electrons release their
extra energy in a form of photons.
 These photons are then emitted from the surface of the object in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
 Portion of the wavelengths is in the visible range of wavelengths. Thus emit
visible light
 Following are the advantages of Incandescent Bulb:
 ➨It is less expensive due to lower initial cost.
 ➨It can be dimmed or controlled.
 ➨It is easy to install.
 ➨It is available in various shapes, sizes and applications.
 ➨It can be switched ON immediately.
 Following are the disadvantages of Incandescent Bulb:
 ➨It is not energy efficient.
 ➨It has very short lamp life time i.e. about 1000 hours typically.
 ➨It is warm source of light.
 ➨It has higher operating cost.
 ➨It generates low lumen per watt.
 Ordinary incandescent bulbs produces about 5 to 20 lumens per watt. This means it has
lower efficacy
2. Gas filled lamps : Metal filament can work in an evacuated bulb up to 2000 degree
without oxidation
 But for higher efficiency ,working temperature should be more than 2000.
 At higher temperatures ,evaporation can be reduced by using inert gas like argon with
a small percentage of nitrogen.
 Halogen lamps : The addition of a small amount of halogen vapour to the filling
gas restores part of evaporated tungsten vapour back to the filament by means of a
chemical reaction .
 Advantages of halogen lamps:
 No blackening of lamp, hence no reduction in lumen output.
 High operating temperature in creases lumens per watt ( 33 lumens /watt)
 Reduced dimensions of lamps
 Long life – 2000 hrs
 Better colour render index
 LPSV & HPSV lamps( High Intensity discharge
lamps- HID)
 3. Low pressure sodium vapour
lamp :
 consists of a bulb containing a small amount of
metallic sodium, neon gas and two sets of
electrodes
 The outer envelope is made from borosilicate
glass.
 The inner surface of the outer glass case is coated
with indium oxide. This heat-reflective coating
of indium oxide allows visible light to pass but
reflects infra-red radiation back inside the tube as
a result of which both light output and
temperature inside the tube increases.
 The arc tube of the LPSV lamp is made of glass
and bent in the form of a U-shape in order to
increase the length of the arc. The arc tube is
supported at both ends. The arc tube contains a
mixture of metallic sodium and inert gases
argon and neon.
 The operation is explained step by step in details below:
 Electric power is given to the lamp and it is energized.
 The electrodes produce an arc and this arc strikes through the conductive gas
and the lamp produces a reddish-pink light, characteristic of neon.
 Current flowing through the inert gas mixture of argon and neon generates
heat.
 This heat vapourises the metallic sodium.
 With the passage of time, the quantity of sodium in the arc stream increases
and this produces the characteristic monochromatic orange color at a
wavelength of 489.6 nm.
 For proper operation of LPSV lamp, typical pressure is about 0.7 Pa and a
temperature range between 250° to 270°
 Photometric Parameters
 The luminous efficacy of the LPSV lamp is around 150-200 Lumens/Watt.
 Its CRI is very poor as it is monochromatic in nature.
 Its CCT is less than 2000K and the average life is around 18000 burning
hours.
 LPSV lamps are not instant starting and take almost 5-10 minutes to come to full
glow.
 Applications of LPSV Lamps
 LPSV lamps are economical to use in road lighting and security lighting where
the color of the object is not important.
 They are most suitable to use during foggy weathers
4. High Pressure Sodium vapour lamp (HPSV)
 They operate at very high pressures and temperatures
 High-pressure sodium-vapour (HPS) lamps have an inner discharge tube made of translucent
alumina that can withstand the corrosive effects of a mixture of mercury and sodium
under greater pressure and higher temperature.
 low-pressure sodium lamps in which the gas pressure is very low (0.7 Pa) and high-pressure
sodium lamps in which the gas pressure is a factor 10,000–100,000 times higher (10–100 kPa)
 HPS lamps give a whiter light and are used for extra-bright lighting in places such as road
intersections, tunnels, sports stadiums, and other places where it is desirable to see a full
spectrum of reflected colours.
 High pressure sodium lamp has very small diameter (3/8 inch). So there is no enough space to
provide any starting electrode in the arc tube.
 So a higher voltage is required to initiate the arc. A ballast with igniter is used for this
purpose.
 High voltage is fed to the lamp from the ballast by using the phenomenon of superimposing a
low energy high voltage pulse.
 These lamps have high luminous efficacy and life span is about 24000 hours. It has excellent
 Advantages of Sodium Vapor Lamp
 Following are the main advantages of using sodium vapor lamps −
 Sodium vapor lamps have high efficiency.
 They have comparatively longer life.
 Heat produced by the sodium vapor lamps is very low.
 Sodium vapor lamps are ideal for different applications.
 These lamps are energy efficient.
 Sodium vapor lamps work effectively in foggy and rainy season.
 Disadvantages of Sodium Vapor Lamp
 The disadvantages of sodium vapor lamps are as follows −
 Sodium vapor lamps cannot be used in color identification areas.
 Their power factor is very low, about 0.3 and hence require a capacitor to improve it.
 They require an additional transformer.
 Sodium vapor lamps need long tube so that they can give sufficient light output.
 They require extra care in handling, because if it is broken and the sodium comes in contact with
moisture fire will result.
 They need 5 to 10 minutes to provide a complete light output.
 5. Mercury-vapor lamp
 A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses an electric
arc through vaporized mercury to produce light.
 The arc discharge is generally confined to a small fused quartz arc
tube mounted within a borosilicate glass bulb.
 The inner tube is provided with two main electrodes and an auxiliary
electrode. It contains a small amount of argon and a little mercury.
 Mercury vapor lamps are more energy efficient than incandescent lamps
with luminous efficacies of 35 to 55 lumens/watt.
 Their other advantages are a long bulb lifetime in the range of 24,000 hours
and a high intensity, clear white light output.
 For these reasons, they are used for large area overhead lighting, such as in
factories, warehouses, and sports arenas as well as for streetlights.
 When the supply is switched on, the supply voltage is applied across the
electrodes , but is not sufficient enough to cause discharge between the two
main electrodes.
 But this voltage is high enough for initiating the discharge over the very short
distance between main electrode and auxiliary electrode.
 This discharge then spreads rapidly and sets up discharge between the main
electrodes.
 The argon initiates the discharge , vaporizes the mercury and after some
time mercury vapor takes the place.
 The ionized mercury atoms decrease the resistance across the main
electrodes and cause the main arc to strike. The efficiency is about 40 lumens
per watt.
 A significant portion of radiation is in the UV region resulting in a bluish light.
6.Metal halide lamp
 Metal-halide lamp is an electrical lamp that produces light by an electric
arc through a gaseous mixture of vaporized mercury and metal halides(compounds
of metals with bromine or iodine).
 It is a type of high-intensity discharge (HID) gas discharge lamp.
 They are similar to mercury vapor lamps, but contain additional metal halide
compounds in the quartz arc tube, which improve the efficiency and color
rendition of the light.
 The most common metal halide compound used is sodium iodide.
 Once the arc tube reaches its running temperature, the sodium dissociates from the
iodine, adding orange and reds to the lamp's spectrum.
 As a result, metal-halide lamps have high luminous efficacy of around 75–100
lumens per watt, which is about twice that of mercury vapor lights and 3 to 5 times
that of incandescent lights and produce an intense white light.
 Lamp life is 6,000 to 15,000 hours.
 7. Fluorescent lamp
 Uses low-pressure mercury-vapor gas discharge
technology to generate light when electricity is passed
through it.
 Construction
 A typical Fluorescent lamp consists of a glass tube
coated with phosphor and containing a pair of
electrodes at each end.
 It is filled with an inert gas typically argon which acts
as conductor and also consists of mercury liquid.
 The electrodes are of spiral form, made of tungsten
and coated with an electron emitting material.
 A choke is also connected in series with the tube
filament that provides a voltage impulse for starting
the fluorescent lamp .
 The lamp filament is connected to a starter switch
which is a small cathode glow lamp with bimetallic
strip at the electrodes.
 When the circuit is energized, nearly full supply voltage appears across the starter
terminals.
 The starter switch is filled with argon gas. This argon gas ionized and a glow appears
inside the starter switch, which heats up the bimetallic strip carrying a moving contact.
 In a while, the bimetallic strip bends and short circuits the starter terminals. This
results in a high current to flow through the starter and the choke circuit. The filaments
are coated with oxides of barium and strontium, resulting in thermionic emission
which can ionize the argon gas inside the tube.
 In the meanwhile, the bimetallic strip of the starter switch cools down and breaks
open the starter circuit.
 This sudden opening of the starter circuit causes an abrupt change of current or flux
linking the choke coil.
 As a result, a high voltage surge is induced in the choke &this momentary high
potential difference between the filaments ionizes the mercury and argon present
inside the lamp tube and results in flow of current between the two electrodes inside the
tube.
 The excited mercury vapor in the tube produces ultraviolet rays, which when falls on
the phosphor coating results in fluorescence, i.e., visible light is emitted from the
phosphor coating.
 MAGNETIC BALLAST WORKING:
 Magnetic ballast is actually an inductive coil. A copper wire is wound
over a core material. Inductors are generally used to oppose a change
in current passing through them
 Magnetic ballasts modulate electrical current at a relatively low cycle
rate, which can cause a noticeable flicker. Magnetic ballasts may also
vibrate at a low frequency. This is the source of the audible humming
sound people associate with fluorescent lamps.
 Capacitors are added to assist lamp starting and power factor
correction
 Electronic Ballast
 An electronic ballast will convert power frequency to a very high frequency
to initialize the gas discharge process in Fluorescent Lamps
 Electronic ballast takes supply at 50 – 60 Hz.
 It first converts AC voltage into DC voltage.
 After that, filtration of this DC voltage is done by using a capacitor
configuration.
 Now filtered DC voltage is fed to the high-frequency oscillation stage where
oscillation is typically square wave and frequency range are from 20 kHz to
80 kHz.
 Hence output current is with very high frequency. A small value of
inductance is provided to be associated with a high rate of change of current
on high frequency to generate a high value.
 Advantages of Electronic ballasts
 It operates in low supply voltage. It produces high frequency to give a very high output
voltage initially to start up the discharge process.
 It creates very low noise during operation.
 It does not create any stroboscopic effect or RF interference.
 As it works with a very high frequency, it helps to start the lamp operation instantaneously.
 It does not require any starter that is used in electromagnetic ballast.
 It never creates flickering.
 No start-up vibration occurs.
 Its weight is very minimal.
 Ballast loss is very less. Hence energy saving is possible.
 It increases the life of the Lamp.
 Due to operation at a higher frequency, the discharge process in a fluorescent lamp is at a
higher rate. Hence the quality of light is increased.
8. COMPACT FLOURESCENT LAMP(CFL)
 Designed to replace an incandescent light bulb
 A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) is a type of fluorescent lamp that has been
compressed into the size of an ordinary incandescent lamp.
 It works on the principle of gas discharge, i.e., ionization of gas by the electric
current.
 The lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an
incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp
 A typical CFL consists of a gas filled tube with two electrodes mounted in an end
cap.
 The tube contains a mixture of argon gas, mercury vapor and liquid mercury at low
pressure.
 The tube is also coated on the inside with three different phosphors.
 When the electric supply is connected to the
electrodes, an electric arc is created between
two electrodes.
 The electric arc produces the flow of
electrons.
 When the mercury atoms inside the tube are
bombarded by these electrons produce
ultraviolet radiation.
 The phosphor coating inside the tube give
off light when exposed to the UV radiation.
 The circuit of the CFL contains a ballast
which provides the high initial voltage
required to create the starting arc and then
limit the current to prevent the lamp from
self-destruction.
 Disadvantages of Fluorescent tubes
 Fluorescent lights contain toxic mercury. Mercury, as well as the phosphor inside
the bulbs, are hazardous materials that present a waste disposal issue at the end of a
light’s life.
 Fluorescent lights age significantly if they are frequently switched on and off.
Typical lamp life for a CFL is about 10,000 hours but this can degrade as a
consequence of frequent switching (turning on and off).
 Fluorescent lights are omnidirectional. Omnidirectional lights produce light in 360
degrees. This is a large system inefficiency because at least half of the light needs to be
reflected and redirected to the desired area being illuminated.
 It also means that more accessory parts are required in the light fixture itself in order to
reflect or focus the luminous output of the bulb (thus increasing unit costs)
 Fluorescent lighting emits a small amount of UV radiation. Ultraviolet light is
known to cause fading of dyed items or paintings exposed to their light.
 Fluorescent lights require a ballast to stabilize the light.
9. LIGHT EMITING DIODE (LED ) Bulbs /Tubes
 A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current
flows through it.
 Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions.
 Based on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit a coloured
light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased
 When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the minority
holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers increases.
The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with the majority charges carriers.
 The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. This phenomenon is called
Electroluminescence.
 Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a material emits
light in response to an electric current passed through it
 The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting element. The two
primary materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and indium
gallium nitride alloys.
 Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red, orange and yellow light, and indium alloys are used
to get green, blue and white light

 Tube Size : Normally T12 ,T8, T5
 The “T” stands for tubular, referring to the bulb’s shape,
and the number following it represents the bulb diameter in
eighths of an inch. This means a T8 bulb will be 1” in
diameter, while T12 and T5 bulbs will be 1.5” and ⅝” in
diameter respectively.
 Wattage
 Color Temperature
 Color Rendering Index (CRI)
 Advantages
 LED Light Lifespan:The average LED lasts 50,000 operating hours to 100,000 operating hours or
more. That is 2-4 times as long as most fluorescent, metal halide, and even sodium vapor lights.
 LED Energy Efficiency:most LED lighting retrofit projects result in a 60-75% improvement in the
overall energy efficiency of the facility’s lighting.
 Improved Safety with LEDs:LEDs emit almost no forward heat while traditional bulbs like
incandescent convert more than 90% of the total energy used to power them directly into heat
 LED Lights are Physically Small: The actual LED device is extremely small. Their small size
makes LEDs incredibly adaptable to an infinite number of lighting applications.
 LEDs Have Great Color Rendering Index (CRI):CRI is a measurement of a light’s ability to reveal
the actual color of objects as compared to an ideal light source (natural light). High CRI is generally a
desirable characteristic
 LEDs Generate Directional Emissions:LED technology emits light for only 180 degrees. Every
other type of light emits light 360 degrees around the source. 360 degree emissions necessitate
accessory devices to reflect and/or redirect the light
 LEDs Have Tremendous Design Flexibility: They can be combined in bunches for a traditional
bulb, used in isolation as a small device light, or strung out in sequence in a linear fashion. Just about
everything you can think of can be done with LEDs.
 LED Dimming Capability:LEDs are able to operate at virtually any percentage of their rated power
(0 to 100%
 TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

 Classified according to proportion of light directed upward or

downward from the fittings
 Direct lighting Scheme
 Indirect lighting Scheme
 Semi direct lighting Scheme
 Semi indirect lighting Scheme
 General diffusing lighting scheme
 1.DIRECT LIGHTING
 In a direct scheme, about 90 % to 100 % of the
total light flux or lumen is made to fall downward
directly with the help of deep deflectors.
 Light in a room is produced by fittings that do not
let any of the light fall on ceilings and walls, instead
throw all the light on the area to be lighted.
 Mostly commonly used type of lighting scheme
 Advantage: efficient
 Disadvantage: liable to cause glare and hard
shadows.
 Application: Mainly used for industrial and general
outdoor lighting
 2.INDIRECT LIGHTING
 Mor than 90 percent of total light flux
is thrown up wards to the ceiling
 Light is produced by fittings that
throw all light on the ceiling, from
there it is reflected to area to be
lighted.
 Advantage: ceiling acts as a light
source and glare is reduced to
minimum
 Application: This type of scheme is
mostly used for decoration purposes in
places like cinema halls, theaters, and
hotels. This scheme can also be used
in photo studio workshops where the
method of direct lighting cannot be
implemented
 3.SEMI DIRECT LIGHTING
 60 to 90 percent of the total light
flux is made to fall downwards
directly, remaining light is used to
illuminate the ceiling and walls.
 Suitable for rooms with high
ceilings where a high level of
uniformly distributed illumination
is desirable
 Application: This type of scheme
is best suited for rooms with high
ceilings. Also suited for rooms
requiring a high level of uniform
illumination.
 SEMI INDIRECT
 60 –90 % of the light
produced by the fittings is
directed upwards and 10-40
% of light is directed
downwards
 Application: This type of
scheme is used for
decoration purposes.
 GENERAL DIFFUSING LIGHTING
 Light is equally distributed
upwards and downwards
 In general lighting or diffused
lighting, most of the portion of
the light is diffused around the
surroundings.
 This diffused lighting is
achieved by using lighting
fixtures such as diffusing glass
or glove-shaped fixtures to give
uniform illumination.
 Application: This type of
scheme is used where uniform
illumination is required.
 LIGHTING SYSTEMS
 The purpose of lighting system is that it should provide
 Good lighting
 Give proper illumination
 Have absence of glare
 Enable identification of colour

 Lighting systems depends on

 Kind of occupancy
 Type of lighting fixtures used
 Arrangement of light fittings
 Size of room
 Number of fittings used
Lighting systems
1.General lighting
 This is probably the most commonly used
artificial lighting system
 General lighting is used to provide
illumination over a whole floor area
with a high degree of uniformity.
 This enables people, plants, furniture and
so on to be positioned anywhere in the
space and easily moved without needing
to change the lighting array.
 General lighting is typically provided by
evenly distributed overhead lights.
 General lighting produced by a regular array of
luminaires with or without an indirect component
 Results in a specific horizontal illuminance with a certain
uniformity.
 This type of system will normally provide a rather bland
“shadow free” lighting installation
 High energy costs because the whole area is illuminated
to the highest level of illumination required for the single
most difficult task.
2.Localized Lighting
 If the location of a particular work area is known then localised
lighting can be used to raise the illuminance on this area whilst
maintaining general illuminance at a lower level.
 The average general illuminance should be at least one third of
the task illuminance where localized lighting is provided.
 Localized lighting tends to provide a more interesting design
with emphasis placed on the workstation.
 Localised lighting is more efficient with regard to energy costs
because of the more efficient use of light
 Good maintenance of these schemes is essential.
3. Local /specific lighting
 Can be provided by additional luminaires placed at a small distance
from visual task, which illuminate only a limited area
 In industrial cases it is often referred as supplementary lighting
Recommended for areas when work involves very critical visual task
 Perception of forms and textures requires strongly directional light
 The general lighting does not penetrate to certain places because of
obstructions
 Higher illuminance is necessary for people with reduced eye sight
 It is necessary to compensate for contrast reductions caused by general
lighting
 Different types of Luminaires/Fixtures
 Great tip to ensure best lighting is to always install 3 types of light fixtures in any
given room, as one single source of light will seldom meet all of your needs.
Each of these three types should fulfill a particular function:
 Ambient lighting: Ambient lighting, also known as general lighting, has the
purpose of lighting up the room entirely.
 Ideally, it should provide a uniform level of illumination throughout the room,
regardless of whether or not there are additional light sources.
 Task lighting: task lighting is meant to serve the purpose of providing light for a
specific task a person carries out in any given space.
 Accent lighting: Used mainly to achieve a desired effect, accent lighting focuses on
a specific point. In addition to illuminating a particular spot, this type of lighting also
helps give the impression of a larger room. Typically, it’s used to highlight a
collection of objects, a sculpture or an architectural feature,
Desirable features of Luminaire/fixture
 A good-quality fixture
 should provide a reliably consistent color of light,
 provide more light with less energy usage,
 and distribute the light into the interior space appropriately.
 Good-quality fixtures are manufactured to be durable, safe, and
provided to customers in a way that is easy to install and maintain.
 Should achieve performance, efficiency, and aesthetic goals
1. Recessed Cove Lighting Fixture
 A recessed cove fixture is mounted in a light cove, which is built above the ceiling at the
intersection of the ceiling and the wall. These fixtures typically direct the light toward
the wall.
2.Indirect Pendant Lighting Fixture
 Indirect pendants hang from the ceiling and are usually suspended from cables. The lamp
is completely hidden from below and a reflector directs all of the light up toward the
ceiling. This type of fixture offers a softer and more even distribution of light within the
space
3. Direct / Indirect Pendant Lighting Fixture
 A direct / indirect pendant also hangs from the ceiling, but it directs light up and down.
These types of fixtures are used a lot in offices where general lighting is required, but
there is also a need for task lighting immediately below the fixture
4. Recessed Lighting Fixtures
 Recessed lighting fixtures are the most common fixtures used in commercial and
institutional construction. Fixtures are sized to work with common ceiling tile sizes.
5. Wall Wash Light Fixtures
 Wall wash fixtures are recessed lights with reflectors that direct the light
toward the wall. They are most often used to highlight art, signage, or
other items on a wall
6.Task Lighting
 Task lighting is a generic description for lights that are used to illuminate
specific tasks or work that is being done. Task lights can be lamps, lights
mounted to desks, under cabinet lights, or any lighting that helps people see
their work better
7.Under Cabinet Light Fixtures
 Lights are often mounted below cabinets so that tasks on the counter
below can be seen easily. These can be found in homes and offices and are
generally controlled from a nearby switch or a switch on the light fixture.