Unit-I Basics of Research

Research: Definition, Objectives, Types and Characteristics

1 Introduction
If we start to think we find that our mind have a scientific quest. We always try to understand
what is happening around us. Our inquisitiveness imposes problems/questions. When we answer
these questions in systematic way, we develop some principles to explain these. This process of
achieving systematic solution too problems process of doing research.

2 What is Research
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former
as a prefix meaning again, a new or over again and the latter as a verb, meaning to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phe-
nomenon. To research is to purposely and methodically search for new knowledge and practical
solutions in the form of answers to questions formulated beforehand. Research is also defined as
a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of data or
texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore.
Usually Research consists of:
• Asking a question that nobody has asked before;
• Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and
• Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.
Research is an act of community. As a member of the research community, you are building on
the knowledge that others have acquired before you and providing a road map for those who
come after you. You are adding to stock of knowledge that will never be complete. Research is
an ongoing, collaborative process with no finish line in sight.
Some of the definitions of research in literature that may help you to understand proper
meaning and concept of research are given below:
According to Clifford Woody ”research comprises defining and redefining problems, for-
mulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.”
 D. Steiner and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as
“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.” Manipulation incorporates experimentation adopted for the purpose of
arriving at generalisation.
Kerlinger (1973) defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical inves-
tigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship about various phenom-
ena.”
Burns (1994) also defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a prob-
lem’.
Thus, the term research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the prob-
lem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching cer-
tain conclusions either in the form of solution (s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
According to Babbie, 1998, Research involves inductive and deductive methods. Induc-
tive methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures,
or processes underlying the phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the hypothesized
principles through observations. The purposes are different: one (inductive method) is aimed at
or directed to develop explanations, and the other (deductive method) is aimed at or directed to
test the validity of the explanations.

3 Characteristic of research
1. Objectivity - Should be unbiased
2. Reliability - One can verify - re-perform the procedure to get same results.
3. Validity - One can validate tools and procedures, research instruments, tests etc
4. Accuracy - Accuracy can be verified by validation too.
5. Generalisation - although research is done with small sample but it should be applicable to
larger population.
6. Systematic and Scientific- should follow definite procedures
7. Replicate - it should be possible to repeat procedures to verify.

4 Types of Knowledge that Research Contributes to Edu-

cation
The following are the types of knowledge that research contributes to education:
1. Description: Results of research can describe natural or social phenomenon, such as its
form, structure, activity, change over time, relationship to other phenomena, etc.
The descriptive function of research relies on instrumentation for measurement and ob-
 servations. The descriptive research results in our understanding of what happened. It
sometimes produces statistical information about aspects of education. For example if
I carry out a research to describe the throughput obtained in IEEE802.11b WLAN System,
one of the major contributions to knowledge will be descriptive data which describes
the throughput based on certain agreed or defined parameters.
2. Prediction: Prediction research is intended to predict a phenomenon that will occur at time
Y from information at an earlier time X. It could also be to predict parameter A (dependent
variable) based on parameter B (independent variable). This usually requires that models
or equations be developed from collected data which can predict the dependent
variable from the independent variable. In educational research, researchers have been
engaged in:
- Acquiring knowledge about factors that predict students’ success in schools and in the
world of work
- Identifying students who are likely to be unsuccessful so that prevention programs can
be instituted.
3. Improvement: This type of research is mainly concerned with the effectiveness of inter-
vention. The research approach includes experimental design and evaluation research. It
is aimed at providing improvement on an already established research or fact.
4. Explanation: This type of research subsumes the other three: if the researchers are able
to explain an educational phenomenon, it means that they can describe, can predict its
consequences, and know how to intervene to change those consequences.

5 What are the Purposes of Research?

The purpose of research is to discover the answers to questions through the application of scien-
tific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
• To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e. formulative research studies)
• To accurately portray the characteristic of a particular individual group or a situation (de-
scriptive research studies)
• To analyse the frequency with which something occurs (diagnostic research studies) and
• To examine the hypothesis of a casual relationship between two variables (hypotheses-
testing research studies)
Patton (1990) pointed out the importance of identifying the purpose in a research process.
He classified four types of research based on different purposes:
1. Basic Research: The purpose of this research is to understand and explain, i.e. the research
is interested in formulating and testing theoretical construct and propositions that
ideally generalize across time and space. This type of research takes the form of a
theory that explains the phenomenon under investigation to give its contribution to
knowledge. This research is more descriptive in nature exploring what, why and how
questions.
 2. Applied Research: The purpose of this research is to help people understand the
nature of human problems so that human beings can more effectively control their
environment. In other words, this type of research pursues potential solutions to
human and societal problems. This research is more prescriptive in nature,
focusing on how questions.
3. Evaluation Research (summative and formative): Evaluation research studies the
processes and outcomes aimed at attempted solution. The purpose of formative
research is to improve human intervention within specific conditions, such as
activities, time, and groups of peo- ple; the purpose of summative evaluation is to
judge the effectiveness of a program, policy, or product.
Action Research: Action research aims at solving specific problems within a program, or-
ganization, or community. Patton (1990) described that design and data collection in action
research tend to be more informal, and the people in the situation are directly involved in
gathering

Hypothesis: Meaning and types

What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point
of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes
components like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research
hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Characteristics of Hypothesis
Following are the characteristics of the hypothesis:

 The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.

 If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship
between variables.
 The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
 The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.

Sources of Hypothesis
Following are the sources of hypothesis:

 The resemblance between the phenomenon.

 Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the competitors.
 Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.

Types of Hypothesis
There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:
  Simple hypothesis
 Complex hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Null hypothesis
 Associative and casual hypothesis

Simple Hypothesis
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable.
For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more
vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable.

Complex Hypothesis
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more
independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin,
and reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease.

Directional Hypothesis
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The
relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four
years eating proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels than children not
having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of the effect.

Non-directional Hypothesis
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between
two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.

Null Hypothesis
It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and
there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted
by “H ”.
O

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the
other variable. Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between
two or more variables.

Examples of Hypothesis
Following are the examples of hypotheses based on their types:

 Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a simple

hypothesis.
  All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null hypothesis.
 If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps less. It is
an example of a directional hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis
Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis:

 Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

 It becomes the start point for the investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
 It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.

How will Hypothesis help in the Scientific Method?

Researchers use hypotheses to put down their thoughts directing how the experiment would take
place. Following are the steps that are involved in the scientific method:

 Formation of question
 Doing background research
 Creation of hypothesis
 Designing an experiment
 Collection of data
 Result analysis
 Summarizing the experiment
 Communicating the results

Research methods vs Methodology

BASIS OF
RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPARISON
Meaning Research Method implies the Research methodology signifies
methods employed by the way to efficiently solving research
researcher to conduct problems.
research.
What is it? Behavior and instrument Science of understanding, how
used in the selection and research is performed methodically.
construction of the research
technique.
Encompasses Carrying out experiment, Study different techniques which
test, surveys and so on. can be utilized in the performance
of experiment, test, surveys etc.
 BASIS OF
RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPARISON
Comprise of Different investigation Entire strategy towards
techniques. achievement of objective.
Objective To discover solution to To apply correct procedures so as
research problem. to determine solutions.

OR

Methods Methodology

The objective of methodology is to

The objective of methods is to find determine appropriateness of the
solution to the research problem. methods applied with a view to ascertain
solution.

Methods are just behavior or tools Methodology is analysis of all the methods
used to select a research technique. and procedures of the investigation.

Methods are applied during the later Methodologies are applied during the
stage of the research study. initial stage of the research process.

It comprises different investigation It is a systematic strategy to find solution

techniques of the study. to the research problem.

Methods encompasses of carrying Methodology encompasses several

out experiments, conducting surveys, techniques used while conducting these
tests, etc. experiments, surveys, tests, etc.

Positivism and post- positivistic approaches to research

The core idea of positivism and post-positivism creates the difference between
them and sets them apart. Positivism and post-positivism have to be viewed
as philosophies used in science for scientific inquiry. These have to be viewed as two
independent philosophies that are different from one another. Positivism is the
philosophy that stresses empiricism. It highlights the importance of objectivity and
the necessity to study observable components. However, in the 20th century, there
has been a shift that was brought about by post-positivism. Post-positivism is a
philosophy that rejects positivism and presents new assumptions in order to
unravel the truth. Through this article let us examine the differences between these
two philosophical stances.

What is Positivism?
Positivism highlights that scientific inquiry should rely on observable and
measurable facts rather than on subjective experiences. According to
this epistemological stance, what counts as knowledge can be captured through
sensory information. If knowledge goes beyond this into subjective boundaries,
such information does not qualify as knowledge. Positivists believed that science
was the medium through which truth could be unraveled. However, according to
positivists, only the natural sciences such as physics, chemistry, and biology was
counted as science.

The social sciences such as sociology and political science did not fall within this
positivist framework, mainly because in social sciences knowledge was derived from
subjective experiences of individuals, which could not be measured and observed.
The social scientists did not engage in research within laboratories. Their laboratory
was the society where the movements, relationships of people could not be
controlled. Knowledge was gained through the study of human attitudes,
relationships, life stories, etc. Positivists believed that these did not have an
objective basis.

Auguste Comte is a positivist

What is Post-positivism?
Post-positivism came about in the 20th century. This was not a mere revision of
positivism, but a complete rejection of the core values of positivism. Post-
positivism points out that scientific reasoning is quite similar to our common
sense reasoning. This denotes that our individual understanding of day to day life
is similar to the understanding of the scientist. The only difference is that a scientist
would use a procedure in order to arrive at conclusions, unlike a lay person.

Unlike positivists, post-positivists point out that our observations cannot always be
relied upon as they can also be subjected to error. This is why post-positivists are
considered as critical realists, who are critical of the reality that they study. Since
they are critical of reality, post-positivists do not rely on a single method of scientific
inquiry. They believe that each method can have errors. These can only be avoided
if a number of methods are used. This is referred to as triangulation.

Post-positivism also assumes that the scientists are never objective and are biased
due to their cultural beliefs. In this sense, pure objectivity cannot be achieved. This
highlights that there are vast differences between positivism and post-positivism,
even though both are grounded in objectivity.

Karl Popper is a post-positivist

What is the difference between Positivism and
Post-positivism?
• Definitions of Positivism and Post-positivism:

• Positivism is a philosophical stance that highlights the importance of objectivity

and the necessity to study observable components.

• Post-positivism is a philosophy that rejects positivism and presents new

assumptions in order to unravel the truth.

• Core Idea:

• Empiricism (which included observation and measurement) was the core of

positivism.

• Post-positivism pointed out that this core idea was faulty.

• Realists and Critical Realists:

• Positivists are realists.

• Post-positivists are critical realists.

• Aim of Science:

• Positivists believe that science aims to unravel the truth.

• However, post-positivists believe that this is impossible as there are errors in all
scientific methods.

• Objectivity of the Scientist:

• In positivism, the scientist is considered as objective.

• Post-positivism highlights that there are biases in the scientist as well.