Radio Science, Volume 16, Number 6, pages 1183-1199, November-December 1981

Modeling
attenuation
andphaseof radiowavesin air at frequencies
below1000GHz
Hans J. Liebe

National Telecommunicationsand Information Administration, Institute for TelecommunicationSciences

Boulder, Colorado 80303

(Received December 10, 1980; revised January 25, 1981; accepted February 27, 1981.)

Moist air is characterized for the frequency range 1-1000 GHz as a nonturbulent propagation
medium describedby meteorologicalparameters.An adequatespectroscopicdata base for air consists
of three terms: (1) resonanceinformation for 29 H20 lines up to 1097 GHz and 44 O2 lines up
to 834 GHz in the form of intensity coefficients and center frequency for each line; (2) an empirical
water vapor continuumspectrum;and (3) a liquid water attenuationterm for haze and cloud conditions.
This data base is the heart of two computer programs which calculate and plot attenuation rates
(in decibels per kilometer), refractivity (in parts per million), and refractive dispersion (in parts
per million). The first covers the troposphereand requires pressure, temperature, and relative
humidity as input data. The second addressesisolated line behavior in the mesospherewherein
the geomagneticfield strength H is an additional input parameter due to the Zeeman effect of
the O2 molecules.Each oxygen line splits proportionallywith H into numeroussublines,which
are juxtaposed to form Zeeman patterns spread over a megahertz scale. Patterns of three main
polarization casesare considered.Various typical examplesfor a model atmospheredemonstrate
the utility of the approach, provide new information, and underline the serious role that water
vapor plays above 120 GHz.

1. INTRODUCTION penetrate a somewhat opaque atmosphere (haze,

fog, clouds, dust, smoke, light rain) under circum-
The physicalpropertiesof the neutral atmosphere
stancesin which electro-optical and infrared sys-
influence radio wave propagation. For the fre-
temsnormallyfail. Accurateanddetailedknowledge
quency range 1-1000 GHz, inherent losses are due
of atmospherictransmissionproperties is essential
to spectral absorptionby the moleculesH 20 and
in evaluating the advantagesthat millimeter waves
0 2. Further propagationlimitationsare causedby
might have over shorter wavelengths.
turbulence and atmospheric layering effects, and
Water in bothvaporand liquidstatesis the major
by thermal noise emitted from the absorbing air
deterrent to an unrestricted exploitation of millime-
mass.Intermittently, of course, rain is the dominant
ter and, more so, of infrared wavelengths. For most
absorber, at least in the 15- to 500-GHz range
applications,the operationof ground-basedsystems
[ Crane, 1981].
is limited in frequency to window regions W1-W5,
With the current high interest in millimeter and
these being the gaps between molecular absorption
submillimeter waves, there is need for a reliable
lines and bands as schematically given in Table 1.
model to predict average loss and delay effects
Mean valuesand limits of the following propaga-
from easy-to-obtain meteorological data. Such a
tion effects: absorptive loss of coherent radiation,
model would find considerablepractical application
time of propagation between two points (both of
throughconversionof basicclimatologicalvariables
which are discussedin this paper), refractive ray
(i.e., barometricpressureP, temperatureT, relative
bending, generation of incoherent noise, and scin-
humidity RH) into transfer characteristicsof a radio tillations due to random fluctuations of the medium
path. The frequency of 1000GHz is a kind of new
in spaceand time, can be consideredfor modeling.
frontier for a growing technology encompassing
The characteristicsof a short, horizontal radio path
microwave and optical principles. Millimeter wave
are approximately modeled by one value of an
systems are attractive because of their ability to
averagecomplex refractivity N. Cumulative behav-
ior (e.g., a ground-to-satellitepath) is calculated
This paper is not subject to U.S. copyright. Publishedin 1981 by the American by assuminga spherically stratified atmosphere in
GeophysicalUnion. which each layer has a constant N value. This

Paper number 1S0352. 1183

1184 H.J. LIEBE

TABLE 1. Millimeterwave windowrangesof the atmosphere. computation rests foremost on theory, while the
Attenuation range confidence limit below 100 GHz is estimated to
Window range at sea level be better than 4%, basedon extensivelaboratory
Absorptionfeature (GHz) (dB/km) testing.
22-GHz H 20 line In the past, computer programs were written
W1 24-48 0.1-0.3
[Falcone et al., 1979; Harries, 1980; Hill et al.,
60-GHz 0 2 line complex
W2 70-110 0.3-1
1980] with spectral line data drawn from the Air
119-GHz 0 2 line Force Geophysics Laboratory tape (Rothman
W3 120-155 1-2.5 [ 1981] and Rothmanet al. [ 1981]; thesecompila-
183-GHz H 20 lille tionsare availableas the main atlasof some159,000
W4 190-300 2-10
transitions and a minor constituents atlas in the
325-GHz H20 line
W5 335-355 5-20
form of magnetictapes from the National Climatic
380-GHz H 20 line Center of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
(and 1823 more lines Administration, Digital Product Section, Federal
of the rotational
Building, Asheville, North Carolina). The sheer
band up to 25 THz)
numberof lines(>105) makessuchcalculations
quitetime-consuming, nontransparent, and costly.
Up to 1000GHz, the two principalabsorbingspecies
layer-by-layer method uses numerical integration are H20 and 02, and simplificationscan be em-
techniques. Refinements consider refractive and ployedsuchas (1) an intensitycutoff(>2 x l0 -3
dispersive ray bending at low elevation angles dB/km at line center)to reduce the number of
[Hopponen, 1980]. contributinglines and (2) an adjustableresolution
Since the pioneeringwork by Van Vleck [1947] factor determiningthe frequencygrid for plotting,
and Birnbaum [ 1953] much progresshas been made which still capturesall extremes without an exces-
in describingatmosphericmillimeterwave spectra. sivenumberof steps.On the otherhand,important
Recent advancesare in the spectroscopicdata base additionsare the overlap correctionfor the 60-GHz
[Liebe et al., 1977; Poynter and Pickett, 1980; 02 band and the Zeeman splitting matrices for
Rothman, 1981], in line shapetheory [Rosenkranz, mesospheric0 2 lines.
1975; Lain, 1977; Smith and Guiraud, 1979; Smith,
1981], in measurementsof refraction [Kemp et al., 2. REFRACTIVITY OF MOIST AIR
1978], in modeling[Falconeet al., 1979;Hopponen,
1980;Hill and Clifford, 1981], in reporting anoma- Amplitude and phaseresponseof a planar radio
lous window absorption [Emery et al., 1980], in wave travelingthe distanceL and startingwith the
collectingavailablefield datato supportan empirical field strengthE o is describedby
water vapor continuum [Crane, 1980], in reviewing E = Eoexp(FL) = Eoexp [j0.02096f(106
+ N)L] (1)
windowexcessabsorption[Liebe, 1980], in treating
liquid water uptake in clear-to-hazy air at high Frequencyf is in gigahertz (GHz) throughoutthe
relative humidities [Nilsson, 1979], and in the paper and ¾ is the propagation constant.
submillimeter wave dielectric constant for water Germane to any propagation model is a conve-
[Simpson et al., 1979]. A unified model of these nient macroscopicmeasure of the interaction be-
new results is given in two computer programs: tween radiation and the absorbingspeciesin moist
ProgramP1 covers attenuationrates •(f)and dis- air. Complexrefractivity N (in parts per million),
persion D(f) in the height range h = 0-30 kin; expressedin terms of measurablequantities, pro-
Program P2 calculatesisolated line behavior espe- videsthat role. For air, N consistsof three compo-
cially Zeeman patternsof oxygenlinesin the meso- nents
phere (h = 30-100 km). Both programsare formu-
lated in engineeringterms and are fully traceable, N = No + D(f) + jN"(f) ppm (2)
but void of quantum-mechanicalcomplications. namely,the frequencyindependentrefractivityN O
They can serveas a referencefor comparisonswith plus variousspectraof refractive dispersionD(f)
future data, which are presently very scarce for and absorptionN"(f). Usually,the imaginarypart
the 200- to 1000-GHz range. In this range, the of (2) is expressedas the specificpower attenuation
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1185

a and the real part determines the phase delay M(O2+ H20) = (0.5034p
+ 2.415e)010'? cm-3 (4)
(with reference to vacuum); that is, Thus p-e-O combinationsaccount for the number
a = O.1820fN" dB/ km of molecular absorbers in moist air. In the water
(3a) vapor state, the saturationpressure es at a given
• = 0.02096f(No + D) radians/km
'temperature' Oi (dew point) cannot be exceeded;
Accordingly, the propagation constant F and the that is [Biigel, 1977],
excesspropagationdelay time t are e -<e, = 2.4090•x 10(10-9'83401)
kPa (5)
r=-0.1151a +j(2.096x 104f+13) 1/km e, -- 3.50
(3b)
t = (13/2,rrf)103= 3.336(No+ D) ps/km (Equation (5) describes the data of the standard
An overviewof notationusedto formulatea(N") SmithsonianMeteorologicalTables to within +0.2%
and It(No, D) is given in Table 2. for the range +40øC.) The vapor pressure with
The physical state of moist air, which determines respect to saturationdefines relative humidity as
the absorberpopulationin a radio path, is described RH -= (e/es)100 -< 100% (6)
by
The humidity condition RH = 100% is a delicate
p dry air pressure (barometric pressureP = p + e),
balance point for physical phase changes. A drop
kPa (1 kPa = 10 mbar);
of 1 K decreasesthe water vapor in saturated air
0 relative inverse temperature, equal to 300/T (T in
OK); between 5% (40øC) and 8% (-10øC). The excess
e water vapor partial pressure,kPa; water vapor pressure e• = e(O l) - e•( 0 •' > 0 l)
w liquidwaterconcentration,
g/m3. is converted into a liquid water droplet concentra-
tion
The number M of O216(20.845%in dry air) and
H20 moleculesper unit air volume is given by the w = 7.219ex0• g/m3 (7)
ideal gas law: The conversionprocess,however, startswell below

TABLE 2. Notation overview.

Notation Unit of measurement

Propagationparameters
Frequency f (1) GHz
Attenuations a (3), a w(22), Ot
I (25), Ot,_
3 (28), Ot
z (29) dB/km
Refractivities, dispersion N (1), NO(10), N" (11), Nj (20), (21), D (12) ppm
Orientation angle 0 (29)
Attenuation response • (Figure 9) %
Physical measurables
Height h (9) km
Pressure, temperature, relative humidity P (h), T (h), RH (h) (9) kPa, K, %
Magnetic field strength H (26) G
Physical variables
Molecular number density, relative mass M (4), m (23) cm-3, 1
Relative temperature, dew point O(•), O,(5) 1
Partial pressures p, e (4), e, (5) kPa
Droplet concentration w(7) •/m •
Spectroscopicparameters
Line shapes, strength F" (13), F' (14), $ (17) GUz-', MHz
Center frequency, widths, overlap vo (13), •/(17), •/z)(23), 0 (17) GHz, GHz, 1
Line coefficients a,_•, b,_3 (17) (see Table 4)
Zeeman shift and relative strength n (26), • (27) 1
Transition labels ,rr,•rñ (Table6)
O2 quantumnumbers K, M (Table 6)
Complex dielectric constant of water • = •' + j•" (22a) 1
Number in parenthesesdenotesequationwhere symbol is defined.
1186 H.J. LIEBE

TABLE 3. The model atmosphere(U.S. StandardAtmosphere, 1976).

Maxi-
mum

relative Magnetic Saturation

humidity field Temperature pressure, es
Height, h Dry air Temperature, T (RH)o strengthH parameter, (equation (5))
(km) pressure, p (øK) (%) (G) Program O = 300/r (Pa)
0 101.325 kPa 288.15 leo P1 1.041 1706
1.6 83.527 kPa 277.75 100 1.080 847.7
3 70.121 kPa 268.66 1eo 1.117 434.O
6 47.217 kPa 249.19 leo* 1-1eoo GHz 1.204 88.1
10 26.499 kPa 223.25 60 1.344 6.41
16 10.352 kPa 216.65 3 1.385 (1.72)•-
20 5.529 kPa 216.65 2 1.385 (1.72)t
30 1.197 kPa 226.51 1 1.324 9.36

30 1197.000 Pa 226.51 0.2-0.8 P2 1.324

40 287.140 Pa 250.35 0.2-0.8 1.198
50 79.779 Pa 270.65 0.2-0.8 1.108
60 21.958 Pa 247.02 0.2-0.8 1.215
70 5.221 Pa 219.59 0.2-0.8 vo(O2) 1.366
80 1.052 Pa 198.64 0.2-0.8 _+50 MHz 1.510
90 0.184 Pa 187.21 0.2-0.8 1.603
100 0.032 Pa 198.99 0.2-0.8 1.508

*Height profiles of humidityaboveh = 6 km are discussedby Ellsaesseret al. [1980].

•'Value over ice.

RH = 100% due to water uptake by suspended, NO= 2.589pO

+ 41.6eO
2+ 2.39eO ppm (10)
invisible aerosol particles [Nilsson, 1979]. The
and can be calculated in a straightforward manner.
liquid water concentrationin 'clear' air with RH Water vapor refractivity is about 16 times more
> 70% can range somewherebetween
effective, on a per molecule basis, than dry air
w(RH)= O.001 and O.1 g/m3 (8) in generatingpropagationphenomenasuchas delay,
ray bending, ducting, scintillations, etc.
The objective at this point is to express the The absorptionand dispersionspectraare formu-
quantitiesor(f), D(f), and N Oin termsof p-e-O-w latedfromlinecontributions,
a continuum
N'c',and
data, subjectto the followingconditions: a liquidwaterextinctionN"w;i.e.,
Frequency
N"(f)= E (SF"),
+ N'c'
+ N• ppm (11)
f = 1-1000 GHz i

and
Altitude

h = 0-100 km
(9) D(f)= E (SF')ippm
i
(12)
Relative humidity
RH = 0-100%
Both expressionsrequire more elaboration,as de-
tailed below.
Magnetic field strength First, the line spectraof absorptionSF"and of
refractive dispersionSF' have strengthS in units
H = 0.1-0.8 gauss(G)
of kilohertzand shapefactorsF' and F"in units
Numerical and graphicalexamplesare then calcu- of (GHz)-1. The summations consideri = 44 O2
lated for the model atmospherespecified in Table plus 29 H20 lines 0ine spectraof the trace gases
3, using various combinationsof (9). 0 3, CO, N20, SO2, NH 3, etc. [Waters, 1976;
The frequency-independent refractivity is given Poynterand Pickett,1980;Rothman, 1981;Rothrnan
by [Liebe et al., 1977] et al., 1981] are neglected).Commonto each line
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1187

is a pair of intensity-versus-frequencydistribution T = 273 150 K

functions [e.g., Waters, 1976; Kemp et al., 1978]. O= 1.1 2.0
In the atmosphere, the shape factors named after a 2 = 2.1 In O/(O- 1) 2.00 1.46
Van Vleck-Weisskopf (VVW) and Gross are used. b2 = 2.9 In O/(O - 1) 2.76 2.02
We chose the VVW shape as modified by Ro-
senkranz [ 1975]: (18)

Lines with a2, b2 coefficients lower than those

prescribed by (18) increase in intensity when the
L(o_f)2+•/2+(vø+f)2 + •/2 (13) temperature drops and vice versa.
and DispersionD(f) addressesonly frequency de-
pendentcontributions.The term 2/Vo is the finite

(Vo
-f)+
F'= (Vo
_f)2 (vø+f)+•18
+ -•(Vø+f)2 q_•2 •7](14)
value of the first two terms in the shape factor
F' (f) whenf--> 0 and, consequently, is subtracted
from (14). Without this measure, for example, the
where vo is the molecularline center frequency,
sum of all rotational H20 lines (that is, 1838lines
•/is thewidth, and0 < _ 1is the overlapinterference.
Above heightsof about 15kin, isolatedline behavior
between 22 GHz and 31 THz) is close (-2.5%)
to the measureddipoleorientationterm 41.6e02
takes over, limiting each molecular resonanceto
in (10) [Hill and Clifford, 1981], while the lines
a megahertz
scalefrequencyspan.For isolatedline
listed in Table 4 yield a residual contribution fitted
calculations, (13) and (14) can be' replaced by
by
Lorentzian shapes
g•: ,y/ [(Vo_f)2 4-
(15)
Na' = E [SF'(f-->0)1,
i

F• = (vo- f)/ [(vo_f)2 4-

-' (4.75e+ 1.14x 10-3p)03 ppm (19)
Maximumabsorptionatf = voandpeak dispersion
at f = Vo•- •/are given by Second,the continuumspectrumN'c'= N'o'+
N] consists
of N'o',thefar-wingabsorption
by very
Nitre
= S/'y -J-am= S/2•l ppm (16) stronginfrared H 20 lines (plus additionalcontribu-
The line parameters are calculated as follows tionswhichare not fully understood)
and N], the
[Liebe and Gimmestad, 1978]' nonresonantdry air spectrum. We opted for the
empirical expression [Waters, 1976]
02 in air
N• • 1.9fep03'lx10-6 ppm (20a)
S, kHz alpo3exp [a2(1-- O)]
•/, GHz a3(p + 1.3e)O
ø'9 which fitted available field data reasonablywell
0 anpOa5 [Crane, 1980].
(17)
The magnitudeof N'o'is abouta factor of 5 above
the far-wingcontribution(first term of (20b)), which
H20 in air is computedwhen the completerotational H20
$, kHz bl eO3.5exp [b2(1 - O)] spectrumis taken into account.The excessabsorp-
•/, GHz b3(4.80e+ p)Oø'6 tion, so far, has not found a generally acceptable
0 0 explanation.An earlier laboratory experiment by
us yielded (forf < 100 GHz)
An invariable line-data base (Vo and the spectro-
scopiccoefficientsa 1-5,b 1-3)is usedin conjunction N•tx• (0.24fl'3epO
3'5+ 2.2fl'6e2012)X 10-6 ppm
with meteorological conditions expressedthrough (20•,)
sets of p-O-e data. The line base is derived from
experiments [Liebe et al., 1977; Kemp et al., 1978] The correctmagnitudeof N• is a major factor in
and spectroscopicparametercompilations [Poynter the window ranges W2-W5. In view of the conflict-
and Pickett, 1980; Rothman, 1981] and is listed ing evidence [Liebe, 1980], the alternativesof either
in Table 4. Line intensities(equation(16)) of a few (20a) or (20b) are not too different (see Figure 2
selectedlines are independentof temperaturewhen in section3). Various researchershave conjectured
1188 H.J. LIEBE

TABLE 4a. Data base for O: (a•-as) and H:O (b•-b3) spectrallines in air.
Center
frequency,vo Strength,a• Temperature Width, a3 Interference,a4 Temperature Quantum number
(GHz) (kHz/kPa) exponent,a: (GHz/kPa) (l/kPa) exponent,a5 identification,K ñ

0a 0.307 E-3 (ppm/kPa) 0.12 (0.056) E-I 1ñ to 37 ñ

50.47381 0.94 E-6 0.969 E+I 0.86 E-2 0.520 E-2 0.179 E+I 37-
50.98742 0.244 E-5 0.869 E+I 0.87 E-2 0.550 E-2 0.169 E+I 35-
51.50311 0.604 E-5 0.774 E+I 0.89 E-2 0.560 E-2 0.177 E+I 33-
52.02124 0.141 E-4 0.684 E+I 0.92 E-2 0.550 E-2 0.181 E+I 31-

52.54227 0.308 E-4 0.600 E+I 0.94 E-2 0.569 E-2 0.179 E+I 29-
53.06683 0.637 E-4 0.522 E+I 0.97 E-2 0.528 E-2 0.189 E+I 27-
53.59570 0.124 E-3 0.448 E+I 0.100 E-I 0.544 E-2 0.183 E+ 1 25-
54.12997 0.2265 E-3 0.381 E+I 0.102 E-I 0.480 E-2 0.199 E+I 23-
54.67115 0.3893 E-3 0.319 E+I 0.105 E-I 0.484 E-2 0.190 E+I 21-
55.22137 0.6274 E-3 0.262 E+I 0.1079 E-I 0.417 E-2 0.207 E+I 19-
55.78382 0.9471 E-3 0.212 E+I 0.1110 E-I 0.375 E-2 0.207 E+I 17-

56.26477 0.5453 E-3 0.100 E-I 0.1646 E-I 0.774 E-2 0.890 1+
56.36339 0.1335 E-2 0.166 E+I 0.1144 E-I 0.297 E-2 0.229 E+ 1

56.96818 0.1752 E-2 0.126 E+I 0.1181 E-I 0.212 E-2 0.253 E+ 1 13-
57.61249 0.2125 E-2 0.910 0.1221 E-I 0.940 E-3 0.376 E+I 11-

58.32389 0.2369 E-2 0.621 0.1266 E-I -0.550 E-3 -0.111 E+2 _
D2
58.44658 0.1447 E-2 0.827 E-I 0.1449 E-I 0.597 E-2 0.790

59.16422 0.2387 E-2 0.386 0.1319 E-I -0.244 E-2 0.700 E-I 7-
59.59098 0.2097 E-2 0.207 0.1360 E-I 0.344 E-2 0.490

60.30604 0.2t09 E-2 0.207 0.1382 E-I -0.435 E-2 ½ 0.680 5-

D3
60.43478 0.2444 E-2 0.386 0.1297 E- 1 0.132 E-2 -0.120 E+I

61.15057 0.2486 E-2 0.621 0.1248 E-I -0.360 E-3 0.584 E+ 1 4-

61.80016 0.2281 E-2 0.910 0.1207 E-I -0.159 E-2 0.286 E+I

62.41122 0.1919 E-2 0.126 E+I 0.1171 E-I -0.266 E-2 0.226 E+ 1 13+
D4
62.48626 0.1507 E-2 0.827 E-I 0.1468 E-I -0.503 E-2 ½ 0.850 3-

62.99797 0.1492 E-2 0.166 E+I 0.1139 E-I -0.334 E-2 0.218 E+I 15+
63.56852 0.1079 E-2 0.212 E+I 0.1108 E-I -0.417 E-2 0.196 E+I 17+
64.12778 0.7281 E-3 0.262 E+I 0.1078 E-I -0.448 E-2 0.200 E+ 1 19+
64.67886 0.4601 E-3 0.319 E+I 0.105 E-I -0.515 E-2 0.184 E+I 21 +
65.22412 0.2727 E-3 0.381 E+I 0.102 E-I -0.507 E-2 0.192 E+I 23 +
65.76474 0.152 E-3 0.448E+1 0.100 E-I -0.567 E-2 0.178 E+I 25 +
66.30195 0.794 E-4 0.522 E+I 0.97 E-2 -0.549 E-2 0.184 E+I 27 +
66.83663 0.391 E-4 0.600 E+I 0.94 E-2 -0.588 E-2 0.174 E+I 29 +

67.36933 0.181 E-4 0.684 E+I 0.92 E-2 -0.560 E-2 0.177 E+I 31 +
67.90051 0.795 E-5 0.774 E+I 0.89 E-2 -0.580 E-2 0.173 E+ 1 33 +
68.43054 0.328 E-5 0.869 E+I 0.87 E-2 -0.570 E-2 0.165 E+I 35 +
68.95972 0.128 E-5 0.969 E+I 0.86 E-2 -0.530 E-2 0.174 E+ 1 37 +

118.75034 0.9341 E-3 0.000 0.1592 E-I -0.441 E-3 0.890 Il

that possible sources of the excess absorption are water uptake) responsible--a kind of 'invisible'
hydrogen-bondeddimers and/or clustersof selec- cloud [Nilsson, 1979].
tive size distributions(10-30 H20 molecules)[Car- The nonresonant
air spectrumN• makes,at sea
lon and Harden, 1980]. Clustering is assumed to level pressures,a small contribution.The formula-
take place during the evaporation process.Another tion
line of thought holds the RH-dependent H20 at-
tachment to hygroscopic foreign matter (aerosol N• = 6.2fpO2X 10-4
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1189

TABLE 4b. Data base for O2 (a•-as) and H20 (b•-b3) spectrallines in air (an = a5 = bn = b5 = 0).

Center Quantum number

identification(0•)
frequency,vo Strength,a• Temperature Width, a3
(GHz) (kHz/kPa) exponent,a2 (GHz/kPa) Lower Upper
368.498350 0.679 E-4 0.200 E-1 0.156 E-1 1, 1 2, 3
424.763120 0.638 E-3 0.122 E-1 0.147 E-1 2, 1 2, 3
487.249371 0.235 E-3 0.122 E-1 0.147 E-1 2, 1 3, 3

715.393150 0.996 E-4 0.891 E-1 0.144 E-1 3, 3 4, 5

773.839732 0.571 E-3 0.798 E-1 0.140 E-1 4, 3 4, 5
834.145790 0.180 E-3 0.798 E-1 0.140 E-1 4, 3 5, 5

Identification (H 20)
vo b• b2 b3 Lower Upper
ß 22.235080 0.105 0.214 E+I 0.281 E-1 5, 2, 3 6, 1, 6
68.052 0.180E-2 0.875E+I 0.280E-1 3, 2, 1 (1)a 4, 1, 3
ß 183.310091 0.238 E+I 0.653 0.282 E-1 2, 2, 0 3, 1, 3
321.225644 0.460 E-1 0.616 E+I 0.220 E-1 9, 3, 6 10, 2, 9
ß 325.152919 0.155 E+I 0.152 E+I 0.290 E-1 4, 2, 2 5, 1, 5
ß 380.197372 0.123 E+2 0.102 E+I 0.285 E-1 3, 2, 1 4, 1, 4
386.778 0.400 E-2 0.733 E+I 0.160 E-1 11, 2, 10 10, 3, 7
437.34667 0.630 E-1 0.502 E+I 0.150 E-1 6, 6, 0 7, 5, 3
439.150812 0.921 0.356 E+I 0.175 E-1 5, 5, 0 6, 4, 3
443.018295 0.191 0.502 E+I 0.148 E-1 6, 6, 1 7, 5, 2
ß 448.001075 0.107 E+2 0.137 E+I 0.246 E-1 3, 3, 0 4, 2, 3
470.888947 0.328 0.357 E+I 0.181 E-1 5, 5, 1 6, 4, 2
474.689127 0.124 E+I 0.234 E+I 0.210 E-1 4, 4, 0 5, 3, 3
488.491133 0.256 0.281 E+I 0.222 E-1 7, 1, 7 6, 2, 4
504.219 0.380 E-1 0.669 E+I 0.127 E-1 7, 7, 0 8, 6, 3
505.126 0.120 E-1 0.669 E+I 0.130 E-1 7, 7, 1 8, 6, 2
ß 556.936002 0.526 E+3 0.114 0.317 E-1 1, 0, 1 1, 1, 0
ß 620.700807 0.521 E+I 0.234 E+I 0.216 E-1 4, 4, 1 5, 3, 2
658.340 0.460 0.776 E+I 0.328 E-1 1, 0, 1 (1) 1, 1, 0
ß 752.033227 0.259 E+3 0.336 0.302 E-1 2, 0, 2 2, 1, 1
836.836 0.120 E-1 0.811 E+I 0.170 E-1 11, 2, 9 10, 5, 6
859.810 0.150 E-1 0.799 E+I 0.270 E-1 2, 0, 2 (1) 2, 1, 1
899.380 0.910 E-1 0.784 E+I 0.300 E-1 1, 1, 1 (1) 2, 0, 2
903.280 0.640 E-1 0.835 E+I 0.280 E-1 2, 2, 1 (1) 3, 1, 2
907.773 0.179 0.504 E+I 0.204 E-1 8, 3, 5 9, 2, 8
ß 916.169 0.890 E+I 0.137 E+I 0.249 E-1 3, 3, 1 4, 2, 2
970.320 0.940 E+I 0.184 E+I 0.246 E-1 4, 3, 1 5, 2, 4
ß 987.940 0.145 E+3 0.180 0.299 E-1 1, 1, 1 2, 0, 2
ß 1097.368 0.840 E+3 0.656 0.335 E-1 3, 0, 3 3, 1, 2

Read 0.307 E-3 as 0.307 x 10-3.

aNonresonant0 2 spectrum(equation(21)).
bD1 denotes doublet.
CRosenkranz's[1975] first-order solution for the 60-GHz band shape has a shortcoming:the listed values of an(K = 3-,
5-) have to be reduced 5% (which is of negligible consequence)to assure that a(O2) -->0.000 for f > 160 GHz even when
N• = 0 (equation(21).
allere(1) denotesfirstvibrationally
excitedstate.

(o•) (N•) width % is calculated with (17) and a 3 = 0.012

ß {[•/o/(f 2 + •/o2)1+ 2.1pOø'5x l0-7}
is taken from Rosenkranz [1975] (nonresonant02)
and Stankerich [1974] (pressure-inducedN2). The
ppm GHz/kPa [Lam, 1977], albeitthe value a 3= 0.0056
generatedthe a4 and as coefficients(Table 4) using
(21) Rosenkranz's [1975] scheme to fit laboratory data
[Liebe et al., 1977]. This discrepancy has been
resolved in a more profound theoretical treatment
1190 H.J. LIEBE

TABLE 5. Cloud (fog, haze) attenuation ot,• in decibels per included in the described model. The calculation
kilometer
for 1 g/m3liquidwatercontentat 0øand25øC. of iV(f, P, T, RH) is done in a subroutine using
Frequency f, GHz line-by-line superpositionat each frequency. Rela-
1 10 30 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000 tive humidity RtI is specifiedand controls, through
(5), the water vapor pressure.A liquid water con-
Equation (22a)
ot,•at 0øC 0.001 0.097 0.82 5.4 9.3 10.7
centration w can be added. Attenuation otrequires
ot,•at 25øC0.001 0.051 0.45 4.2 10.8 15.3 (3), (5), (6), (11), (13), (17), (20a), (21), and (22);
similarly, for refractive dispersionD, (2), (3), (5),
Equation (22b)
ot,•at 0øC 13 18 23 29 (6), (12), (14), and (17) are applied.
ot,•at 25øC 21 31 40 48

29300

of the 60-GHz band shape by Smith [1981]. 20300 15300

Third,theliquidwaterextinction
N'w'of droplets
h /
with
radii
smaller
than20Ixm(cloud,
haze,
aerosol
ll 0

518 628
hydrometeors)
canbederived
frompublished
di- •-.
electricdata of bulk water (e', e"). The Rayleigh .=• -
absorptionapproximation
N" = 4.49w•"/[(e'
+ 2)2+ (•")2] ppm (22a) •-
of Mie scattering
losses
is appropriate
upto 1000 •_
GHz [Falcone et al., 1979]. Frequency and temper-
aturedependences
of e', e" are calculatedwith the 'o-
Debye model given by Chang and Wilheit [ 1979],
which
wasfoundtodescribe
available
experimental
data up to 300 GHz.
At frequencies
f > 300GHz, the roughapprox- ]_
imation • 35.11

N"w= O.55wf-ø'!O--6 ppm (22b) •82

1.20
7.59•
was obtained [Liebe, 1980] by fitting e data reported
for the submillimeter wave range [e.g., Simpson • $- -ß -39.6
et al., 1979]. Some numerical examples of the
attenuation
otw= 0.182fN"w(in decibelsperkilome-
> Curve
• • RH
•oo
•_ • 50
• ,:::, 10 o
ter) are listed in Table 5. Equations(22a) and (22b)
are applied to model the attenuation by aerosols,
haze, clouds, and fog if their average water con-
i ,,!..... .,...............
0 200 qO0
F•F':OUF:NC¾--GHZ
600 800 ]000

centration and temperature within a radio path are

known.
Fig. 1. Attenuation otin decibelsper kilometer and refractive
3. THE TROPOSPHERE PROGRAM P1
dispersionD in parts per million for dry (RH = 0%) to saturated
(RH = 100%) air at sea level (h = 0 km) (see Table 3) over
the frequency range v = 1-1000 GHz. Some check values are
The complex refractivity N (equation (2)), as listed below.
formulated in the previous section, is applied in
a, dB/km
a computer routine (P1) to generate values of
attenuationor(f), dispersionD(f), and refractivity f, GHz RH = 0 10 100%

ivo (equation (10)). The' program is valid for fre- 10 0.016 0.017 0.028
50 0.299 0.322 0.527
quencies up to 1000 GHz and for heights up to
100 0.054 0.136 0.886
30 km. In the troposphere(h < 10 km), only lines 200 0.028 0.546 5.38
of H20 and 0 2 are important. Above h = 10 km, 300 0.040 0.982 9.71
the weak spectral signaturesof trace gases(03, 500 0.108 11.1 116
1000 0.284 124 1313
CO, N20 , etc.) become detectable, but are not
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1191

124 168

17.8 15ß6 18.5

13.4

1.99
xA/m...4.. W4

..

!"//'•'
',,
ilill
..............
i.........
i.........
i......

i
300 35•
FREOUENC¾--GHZ

Fig.2. Attenuation
otin decibels
perkilometer
andrefractive
dispersion
D in partspermillionof dry
(RH = 5%),humid(RH = 50%),andsaturated
(RH = 100%)air at sealevel(h = 0 km)for temperatures
T = -5øC (15øC--seeFigure1) and 35øCoverthe frequencyrangev = 15-350GHz. Continuum
model
'a' usesequation(20a) and 'b' uses(20b).

The mainprogramP1 generates

a frequencygrid
with a resolution that is tied to the line center
frequencies
whichfall withinthedesiredrange.Two
consecutivevalues of vo are taken from Table 4,
and the number of points in between them is
specified(usually2-5). Also automaticallyadded
to the grid are the half-powerpointsat vo +__
•/.
Thus it is assured that attenuation maxima and
dispersion
peaksarenotmissed.Theprogramfeeds
one frequency at a time into the subroutine and
receives values of a and D, which are stored
temporarily in two files. When all numbers of the
grid have beenprocessed,the outputis presented
in a numerical printoutandprocessed by a graphics ties are exemplified in Figure 2 at sea level for
routine.Examples aredepicted
in Figures1-4taking the temperatures-5 ø and +35øC and the difference
w = 0. Some obvious conclusionsdrawn from these
figures are as follows.
An overviewto 1000GHz at sealevel is given
in Figure 1. Water vapor attenuation above 125
GHz extends
upto 3 x 104 dB/km. Thestrongest
maximaof the rotationalH20 spectrum,however,
are two orders of magnitudehigher and fall in the
2-to 12-THz range [Hill et al., 1980]. Transmission
below 25 THz over any distanceis, for practical
purposes,limited to the window ranges W1-W4
below 350 GHz. The low-frequencywing of the
dispersionspectrum,originatingfrom the strong
557-GHz H20 line, makesits influenceknown down
to about 100 GHz.
AtmosphericEHF (30-300GHz) transferproper-
betweenthe two water vapor continuumspectra
(20a) and (20b) is illustrated.The transparencyof
1192 H.J. LIEBE

15.15

• • Curve
h RH
1 o 50 • /
2
3 2o

5• 58 62 66 70 50 54 58 62 66 70
FREOUENC¾--GHZ FREQUENCY--GHZ

Fig. 3. Attenuation a in decibelsper kilometer and refractive dispersionD in parts per million for the oxygen
microwave band at the altitudes h = 0-30 km (see Table 3) covering the frequency range v - 50-70 GHz.

the window ranges W2-W4 is dominated by the
controversialwater vapor excessabsorption,which
is normally modeled by (20a). The temperature
dependenceof window attenuation, expressedin
termsof e, is only T-l, but changes
to T 17when
RH is the governing variable. A more detailed
picture of molecular attenuation appearsin Figure
3. The oxygen microwave spectrum dominates in
therange50-70GHz. Closeto sealevelthe 60-GHz
lines are merged into an unstructuredband shape,
the maximum intensity of which is pressure-propor-
tional until the lines separate (h • 15 km). Above
15 km, the overlap disappearsand radio channels
with up to 400-MHz bandwidth can be accommo-
dated between the lines. Details of the centerportion
of the60-GHzbandaremagnified
in Figure4. This
figure shows interesting dispersion properties,
which change with increasingheight from negative
to positivegradientsdD/dv betweenthe 5+ and
5-lines. Numerical values depicted in Figures 1,
2, and 4 may serve as control numbersfor Program
P1.
4. THE MESOSPHERE PROGRAM
Program P2 calculates the attenuation of single
lines as they appear above h - 30 km. The formula-
tion starts with an isolated, pressure-broadenedline
describedby (3) and (11) for N'c'= 0, (15), (16),
and (17). Decreasing pressure in (17) eventually
approachesthe finite Doppler line width
•/o: 6.20Vo/X/mOkHz (23)
where m is the molecular weight (e.g., 0 2, m:
32, O : 1, vo : 60 GHz; •/z, : 65.8 kHz). As
a consequence,a changeto a Gaussianline shape
function takes place.
The convolution of Lorentzian and Gaussian
shape functions is called the Voigt profile, which
is governedby the parametery: •/•z, and which
is appropriate when this ratio falls in the range
= 10-0.1. Numerical evaluationof the height-depen-
dent, complex Voigt function requiresconsiderable
computational effort. Usually, the Voigt profile
'frequencies' x and 'pressures'y are normalized
in multiplesof •z, and the intensitiesare expressed
with reference to the Lorentzian shape. Frequency
profiles reduced in such a manner are labeled for
absorptionu(x,y): F"/F•. and for dispersionv(x,
P2
y) : F'/F L. Examples are shown in Figure 5
together with the pressure profiles of the two
maximaUoand •o approachingzero intensity.Maxi-
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1193

Fig. 4. Attenuationa in decibelsper kilometer and refractive dispersionD in parts per million at the
oxygenmicrowaveband centerfor the altitudesh = 0-30 km (see Table 3) coveringthe frequencyrange
v = 59.4-60.7 GHz.

mum line attenuation is followed by P2 through

the mesophere until it has dropped below 0.01
dB/km. A FORTRAN IV algorithmwas adopted
for the calculations of u(x, y) as reported by
Pierluissiet al. [1977]. An adequateapproximation
can be made by replacing• in (17) with
'•h•' •/r,•2 -•-'•D
2 (24)
and keepingthe shapefunctions(equations(15)).
Isolated line attenuationis then simply ((3), (11),
(15), (16), and (24)) given by
Otl(f)= ao/(l + Z2) dB/km (25)
where ao = O.1820fS/•lnis the maximumat vo,
Frequency
x=(Vo-V)/7'
D ----- Pressure
y =(yO/yD)
p
and z = (Vo -f)/htn is the normalizedfrequency.
Zeeman splitting of isolated oxygen lines due to
the influenceof the earth's magneticfield strength Fig. 5. Normalized Voigt profiles [Faddeyea and Tarentev,
H introducesconsiderablecomplications[Lenoir, 1961] for absorptionu(x, y) and dispersiono(x, y). Shown are
frequency profiles (v = f) at p = const (solid curves) and
1968]. The presenceof the steadyfield H (in units pressureprofiles of maximumabsorptionuoy and peak disper-
of gauss)splits each of the K -+ lines into three sionIoyl (dashed
curves).For 0 2lines,-Vø = a3O0'9,andfor
groups
of (2K -++_1)sublines,
therebyredistributing H20 liaes,•/o= b3OO.6.
1194 H.J. LIEBE

K=3
the line attenuationO[1(equation(25)) over a fixed
2-K(K+I) frequency range.
J{J+l)
MI
Part of program P2 is a subroutinewhich calcu-
lates the line center frequencies
v• = Vo+ •i(K, M)28.03x 10-4H GHz (26)
and the line strengthcoefficients

g = - 2/5 a• = a,[(K, M) kHz/kPa (27)

for theZeemancomponents
of eachK---microwave
line. The componentsare identified by the magnetic
M
3 quantum number M. The rotational quantum
o number J, which is determinedby the total quantum
-3 number K, sets the limits on M. Figure 6 gives
an example of the schematicdistributionof energy
levels and allowed transitions for the case K =
3. The Land6 g factor is the constant of propor-
MI tionality for a splitting of each J level. The fact
4
that g is different for levels J > 1 leads to the
3
anomalous Zeeman effect, while the two lines K
2
= 1-+displaythe normalZeemaneffect. The cal-
I
culation procedurefor the relative frequency shifts
o
ßI(K, M) and relative intensities •(K, M) is sum-
-I
marized in Table 6. The formulations are based
-2
on Lenoir's [1968] work with two exceptions' (1)
-3
the intensities •(K, M) are normalized to the theo-
-4
retical definition of the coefficient a• [Liebe and
Girnrnestad,1978], and(2) both K linesare referred,
Fig. 6. Schematicenergylevel diagramdisplayingthe Zeeman against convention for K-, to the same set of M
componentsfor K = 3" and 3-oxygen microwavelines. K
values (see Figure 6), which leads to the limits of
is total rotational angular momentum quantum number in odd
integers,J = K and K + 1 is the rotational quantum number, M specifiedin Table 6. An 02 line breaks up into
M is the magnetic quantum number (Table 6), and g is the numerouscomponents,which are organizedin three
+ --
Land6 splitting factor. groups labeled ,r, cr , and cr .

TABLE 6. Relativefrequencyshift •1 (M, K) and relativeintensityfactor •(M, K) for Zeemancomponents

of O2 microwave
lines.

Attenuation Zeeman
K + line K- line

rate transitions n(M, K) < + 1 I•(M, K) < 1 n(M, K) < + 1 I•(M, K) < 1
M(1-K) 3[(K+ 1)2-M 21 M(K + 2) 3(K + 1)(K2- M 2)
K(K + l) (K + 1)(2K + I)(2K + 3) K(K + 1) K(2K + 1)(2K2 + K- 1)
(aM = o) M limits: + M _< K K- I_>M_>-(K- 1)

+
M(1-K)- K 3(K+M+ 1)(K+M+2) (M + 1)(K + 2) - 1 3(K + 1)(K - M)(K- M- 1)
o•2 o'
K(K + 1) 4(K + 1)(2K + 1)(2K + 3) K(K + 1) 4K(2K + 1)(2K2 + K- 1)
(aM= M limits: +M _< K K- 2_>M_> -K

M(1-K)+ K 3(K-M+ 1)(K-M+2) (M-1)(K+2)+I 3(K+ 1)(K+M)(K+M-1)

{x3 tI
K(K + 1) 4(K + 1)(2K + 1)(2K + 3) K(K + 1) 4K(2K + 1)(2K2 + K- 1)
(aM = -•) M limits: + M _< K K_> M_> -(K - 2)
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1195

0,3 GAUSS
0,6 20 1.5 1.5
+ •.066
L•6• h=30 40 60
km
1.522

• 1.513
/ 1 1.157
1.190/t .

ß842

•1 i• 1.0

' •2

1.528
•--• • = 1.866
• -40
,.. 0 •o,,. ,:'•
.......
,.....
40 -8 ...... 0 8 -4 ...... 0 ...... 4 -2 o
,,o

2
o
0.25 0.06 O.Ol
0.8

.0076

.0,•5

A.n064

2-2 'ø 0 'ø 2-

.o3
0 • 2
Frequency Deviation av, MHz

Fig. 7. Zeemanattenuationpatternsof the oxygenmicrowaveline K -- 3+ for altitudesh -- 30-100 km (seeTable 3). Each
framedisplays•(o•), a+ (o•2),and 0r-(a3) patternsfor the magneticfield strengths
H = 0.3 (left hand)andH = 0.6 G (right
hand). The patternsare symmetricwith respectto the center axis (interchange0r+ and or-). The frequencydeviationAv =
f- vo is between_+40MHz for h - 30 and _+2MHz for h -- 60--100kin. The maximumattenuationrate -•o is that of
the isolatedunsplitline (H -- 0); the value in parenthesesis calculatedwith programPI. The valuesof a•(Vo) in decibels
per kilometer are for 0.3 (see Figure 9) and 0.6 G.

In principle,threedifferentZeemanpatternsa •,2,3 calculations,the Lorentzian (equation(15)) in (28)

are possiblefor any K -+line. These patternsare may be replacedby the Voigt profile (Figure 5).
obtainedby evaluatingall of the •1and ( coefficients Additional information has to be provided before
in the -rrand •r-+groupsand applyinga line shape themesospheric O2linepatterna• canbe calculated,
such as (25). Each sum of sublinesdetermines a that is, the polarization of the radio wave and its
Zeeman pattern according to orientation with respect to the geomagneticfield
H. For linearly polarized radiation an angle of
o•,,•,•
= aoZ ((M,K)/(1+ [(f- v;(M,K))/•/n
] •} orientation0 is definedbetweenthe wave'smagnetic
field componentin a plane of constantphase(i.e.,
(28) perpendicularto the directionof propagation)and
where the geomagneticfield direction H; for circularly
polarized radiation the angle 0 is defined between
ao= O.182f(alp/'yn)O
3exp [a2(1- 0)] dB/km
the plane of constantphaseand H. A mesospheric
The unsplitlineH = 0 followsfrom (28) by assuming O: line • then generally consistsof a mixture of
I}(M, K) = 1 and vo = vo. For more accurate the three Zeeman patterns:
1196 H.J. LIEBE

0,3 G•uss0,6 O6 06-• 0.3

5O
ß502
.475

;-.374
ß

0 .............. 8-z 0 .... 4-

• O. 0006
• 0.02 80 o. 4 lOO

-2 " 0 " 2 -2 .... 0 2 ' "' 0 " 2-

Frequency Deviation av, MHz

Fig. 8. Same as Figure 7, except K = 19- oxygenmicrowaveline.

Wave polarization Zeeman pattern a z

linear O•I COS2 0 -•-(O•
2 -•-O•3)sin2 0
circular, right-handed 2Or
2 sin2 0 + 0.5(O•1-•-O•2 -•-O•3)COS
20 (29)
circular, left-handed 2a3 sin2 0 + 0.5(al + a2 + a3) cos2 0

Equations (29) imply that mesospheric0 2 line
attenuationis polarizationanddirection(anisotropic
medium) dependent. Further coordinate trans-
formation is necessary when a fixed antenna re-
ceivesradiation from a mesosphericspaceelement.
The patternsOL1.2,3,
of the 0 2 linesK = 1-+to
29-+havebeencalculatedfor localp-T-Hconditions The K -+ = 19 line pair has otvaluesindependent
over the height range 30-100 km at two magnetic
field strengths,H = 0.3 and 0.6 G. Two examples,
K = 3+ and 19-, are depictedin Figures7 and
8. (The completeset K -+= 1-29 is availableupon
request (to be published in a report).) Above h
= 70 km the individual, now mostly Doppler-
broadened components become discernable. Al-
though the details depend on specific K values,
the overall features at given heights are similar to
the casesillustratedin Figures7 and 8 except for
different scale factors.
The maximumof thepatternOtl(vo)for h = 30-100
km is shownin Figure 9 coveringK = 1-+to 29-+,
so far as a threshold of 0.02 dB/km is exceeded.
of height (temperature)over the range h = 20-50
km. The results, in combinationwith a beginning
dissociationto atomic oxygen (e.g., at h = 120
km, 02/0 = 0.25), establish h = 100 km as the
plausible boundary to outer space for radio path
modeling.The cutoff heightfor water vapor is much
lower (h = 20 km).
Having a full Zeeman picture at hand, one might
 ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1197

Zeemn Effect

I I I I Iq •' •[ J [•=•o
I I I•m] I I I i i
H = 0.$ Gauss Anomalius
Norma•
Anomalous

•o 0,5

0.1

0.02

Fig. 9. Maximumattenuationot•(vo, H = 0.3 G) for the oxygenmicrowavelines, K = 1ñ to 29ñ (Table

4a) at altitudes h = 30-100 km (see Table 3).

considerapplicationsfor this information. The uni-
form mixingof.0 2 affordsopportunitiesto remotely
sense mesospheric temperature profiles T(h) or
geomagnetic field strength including variations, H
_+ dH, via emmissionsoriginating from a,(h). A
multiplet pattern is expanded, with increasing H,
like an accordion (see Figure 7), at the most to
vo _+ 2.5 MHz (equation (26)). Variations in the
geomagneticfield strength H translate into height
dependentchangesof selective attenuationa,(h).
The example in Figure 10 reveals that the response
•(dH) for a• (Vo) is most pronouncedin the region
h = 60-70 km.
Power saturation of a mesospheric02 Zeeman
pattern is our final concern. An active system (i.e.,
radar), in principle, can diminish or even eliminate
the calculatedattenuationa•. A rough estimatefor
the onset of saturation effects yields that the radiat-
ed power density at vo needs to exceed values on
the orderof 0.5p2 in unitsof W cm-2 Pa-2, which
is not out of the question above h = 70 km.
5. CONCLUSION
Moist air was characterized as an atmospheric
propagationmedium. The basic physics of molecu-
lar absorption in a radio path have been cast into
a model with optimum computer run time, but
1198 H.J. LIEBE
100 I tuations in amplitude, phase, and group velocities,
K+ Lines
B=.•(H=0.3)-1
el(H= 0,6)
K- Lines
60 80
Altitude h (km)
Fig. 10. Response5 of the maximum attenuationo•l(Vo) in
percentto an equalpercentagedropin the magneticfield strength
H over the altitude range h = 40-100 km (see Table 3) for
the oxygenmicrowavelinesK = 1ñ to 29ñ.
without undue approximations. The paper has
expanded upon an EHF version (30-300 GHz) by
Liebe and Girnrnestad [1978] in terms of frequency
and height coverages and has provided graphical
and numerical examples. In addition, the formula-
tion of dispersionhas been clarified. Shortcomings
of the presentmodel lie in the omitted spectroscopic
data base for trace gases, and in the lack of a
model that describes the RH-dependent water up-
take (i.e., w) by various atmosphericaerosol dis-
tributions [Nilsson, 1979].
Use of programs P1 and P2 is straightforward.
The routines (available in FORTRAN IV upon re-
quest) are operated, even by nonexpert users,
simplyby callingthe programname, choosingfrom
a battery of model atmospheres,and typing in the
interactively requestedinput parameterswithin the
limits of (9): meteorologicaldata are convertedinto
propagationdata. Detrimental effects such as flue-
and the direction of the radio wave may be predicted
from spatial and temporal variations of P-RH-T.
A priori assessments
can be made of rare .events
for reliable system operationsand of possibleband-
width limitations.
The model may serve as a reference for compari-
sonwith current research.This is especiallyvaluable
with respect to studies of water vapor excess
absorption, which is accounted for only by an
empirical correction. A reliable expression for re-
fractivity N(f, P, RH, T, H, 0) would be a boon
to workers in the field since N (equation (2)) is
at the hub of all millimeter and submillimeter
propagationproblems through the nonprecipitating
atmosphere. An important task ahead is research
into the nature of H20 excessabsorption,already
underway in several laboratories including ours at
the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences,
NTIA.
Acknowledgments. The author wishesto thank B. Shaw for
his skillful computer programing.The work was supportedby
the U.S. Army ResearchOffice under contract ARO 42-80.
100
REFERENCES
Birnbaum, G. (1953), Millimeter wavelengthdispersionof water
vapor, J. Chem. Phys., 21(1), 57-61.
B/Sgel,W. (1977), Neue N•iherungsgleichungenfiir den S•itti-
gungsdruckdesWasserdampfes,DFVLR Ber. DLR-FB 77-52,
WissenschaftlichesBerichtswesen,Deutsche Forschungs-und
Versuchsanstalt fiir Luft- und Raumfahrt, Cologne, West
Germany.
Carlon, H. R., and C. S. Harden (1980), Mass spectrometry
of ion-inducedwater clusters:An explanationof the infrared
continuumabsorption,Aœœ1. Opt., 19(11), 1776-1786:(Adden-
da, Aœœ1.Opt., 20(5), 726-727.
Chang, A. T., and T. T. Wilheit (1979), Remote sensing of
atmosphericwater vapor, liquid water, and wind speed at
the ocean surfaceby passivemicrowavetechniquesfrom the
NIMBUS 5 satellite, Radio $ci., 14(5), 793-802.
Crane, R. (1980), Attenuation estimates for millimeter wave
windows near 94, 140 and 220 GHz, ERT Doc. P-A502,
Environ. Res. & Technol., Inc., Concord, Mass., May.
Crane, R. (1981), Fundamental limitations causedby RF propa-
gation, Proc. IEEE, 69(2), 196-209.
Ellsaesser, H. W., J. E. Harries, D. Kley, and R. Penndorf
(1980), StratosphericH20, Planet. Space$ci., 28, 827-835.
Emery, R. J., A.M. Zavody, and H. A. Gebbie (1980), Measure-
mentsof atmospheric
absorption
in therange5-17cm-I and
its temperature dependence,J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 42, 801-
807.
Faddeyea, V. N., and N.M. Tarentev (1961), Tables of the
Probability Integral for ComplexArgument, Pergamon, New
York.

Falcone, V. J., Jr., L. W. Abreu, and E. P. Shettle (1979),
Atmospheric attenaation of millimeter and submillimeter
waves: Models and computer code, Environ. Res. Paper 679,
October (available as Rep. AFGL-TR-79-0253, U.S. Air Force
Geophys. Lab., Hanscom Air Force Base, Mass.).
Harries, J. E. (1980), Atmospheric radiometry at submillimeter
wavelengths,Apœ1.Opt., 19(18), 3075-3081.
Hill, R. J., and S. F. Clifford (1981), Contributions of water
vapor monomer resonancesto fluctuations of refraction and
absorptionfor submillimeterthroughcentimeterwavelengths,
Radio Sci., 16(1), 77-82.
Hill, R. J., S. F. Clifford, and R. S. Lawrence (1980), Refractive
index and absorption fluctuations in the infrared caused by
temperature, humidity, and pressurefluctuations, J. Opt. Soc.
Am., 70(10), 1192-1205.
Hopponen,J. D. (1980), Simulationof EHF propagationthrough
the atmosphere,A GARD Conf. Proc., A GARD-CP-284, 6 / l-
6/ll.
Kemp, A. J., J. R. Birch, and M. N. Afsar (1978), The refractive
index of water vapor: A comparisonof measurementand
theory, Infrared Phys., 18, 827-833.
Lam, K. S. (1977), Application of pressure-broadening theory
to the calculationof atmosphericoxygen and water vapor
microwaveabsorption,J. •uant. $p½½tros.
Radiat. Transfer,
17, 351-383.
Lenoir, W. B. (1968),Microwavespectrumof molecularoxygen
in the mesosphere,J. G½ophys.Res., 73(1), 361-376.
Liebe, H. J. (1980), Atmosphericwater vapor: A nemesisfor
millimeterwave propagation,in AtmosphericWater Vapor,
edited by A. Deepak, T. Wilkerson, and L. Ruhnke, pp.
143-201, Academic, New York.
Liebe, H. J., and G. G. Gimmestad(1978), Calculationof clear
air EHF refractivity, Radio $½i., 13(2), 245-251.
Liebe, H. J., G. G. Gimmestad,and J. D. Hopponen(1977),
Atmospheric oxygen microwave spectrum--Experiment
versus theory, Iœœœ Trans. Antennas Propag., AP-25(3),
327-335.
ATTENUATION AND PHASE OF RADIO WAVES 1199
Nilsson, B. (1979), Meteorological influence on aerosol extinc-
tion in the 0.2-40-1xm wavelength range, Appl. Opt., •8(20),
3457-3473.
Pierluissi, J. H., P. C. Vanderwood, and R. B. Gomez (1977),
Fast algorithm for the Voigt profile, J. Quant. Spectros.
Radiat. Transfer, 18, 555-558.
Poynter, R. L., and H. M. Pickett (1980), Submillimeter, mil-
limeter, and microwave spectral line catalogue, JPL Publ.
80-23, Jet Propul. Lab., NASA, Pasadena,Calif., June.
Rosenkranz, P. W. (1975), Shape of the 5 mm oxygen band
in the atmosphere,IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., AP-23(4),
498-506.
Rothman, L. S. (1981), AFGL atmospheric absorption line
parameters compilation: 1980 version, Appl. Opt. 20(5), 791-
795.
Rothman, L. S., et al. (1981), AFGL trace gas compilation:
1980 version, Appl. Opt., 20(8), 1323-1328.
Simpson, O. A., B. L. Bean, and S. Perkowitz (1979), Far
infrared optical constants of liquid water measured with an
optically pumped laser, J. Opt. Soc. Am. Lett., 69(12),
1723-1726.
Smith, E. W. (1981), Absorption and dispersion in the 0 2
microwave spectrumat atmosphericpressures,J. Chern.Phys.,
74(12), 6658-6673.
Smith, E. W., and M. Guiraud (1979), Pressurebroadeningof
the 0 2 microwave spectrum,J. Chem. Phys., 71(11), 4209-
4217. (Errata, J. Chem. Phys., 74(1), 335.)
Stankevich, K. S. (1974), Absorption of submillimeter-range
radio waves in a dry atmosphere,Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved.
Radiofiz., 17(5), 764-766. (Radiophys. Quantum Electron.,
Engl. Transl., 17, 579-581, 1974.)
Van Vleck, J. H. (1947), The absorption of microwaves by
oxygen and uncondensedwater vapor, Phys. Rev., 7•(7),
413-433.
Waters, J. R. (1976), Absorption and emissionby atmospheric
gases, in Methods of Experimental Physics, vol. 12B, edited
by M. L. Meeks, chap. 2.3., Academic, New York.