Instruments

1
 Objectives
Upon completion of this module, the student will
understand the application fundamentals for:

• Barometers
• Barographs
• Psychrometers
• Sea Temperature Thermometer
• Anemometers
 Barometers
•Air has weight!
•The barometer is the tool used for measuring the
weight of the air using “barometric pressure”
expressed in inches, millibars, or millimeters.
 Types of Barometers

• Mercurial

• Aneroid
 Mercurial Barometers
• Most accurate type
• Employs mercury and an open ended glass tube
 Aneroid Barometers
• Safer than mercurial barometers.
• Found on most ships.
• Employ an air vacuum or “cell”.
 Barometer Corrections
• Temperature Correction

• Altitude Correction

• Latitude Correction

• Index Correction
 Temperature Correction
(Mercurial)
• Mercurial barometers are set to be read at a
standard temperature. (either 54° or 32° F)

• The correction can be performed using the Marine

Observer’s Handbook.
Altitude Correction (Mercurial)

• Atmospheric pressure is less at higher altitudes.

Even from the bridge of the ship to sea level is
enough change in height to warrant a correction.
• The density of the air is also affected by the air
temperature, and has to be taken into account to
find the correction.
• The correction can be performed using the
Marine Observer’s Handbook.
 Latitude Correction (Mercurial)
• The flattening of the earth at the poles, and the
earth’s rotation, affect the force of gravity on the
mercury in the barometer.
• A negative correction needs to be applied in
latitudes lower than 45°
• A positive correction needs to be applied in
latitudes higher than 45°
• The correction can be performed using the
Marine Observer’s Handbook.
 Index Correction (Mercurial)
• The index correction is a constant number.

• It is determined for each specific barometer

by it’s Capillarity.

• The correction can be found on the

barometer’s certificate.
 Correction Example
Millibars
Uncorrected reading 1018.3
Index Correction +0.3
1018.6
Temperature Correction -4.3
1014.3
Altitude Correction (at temp.) +1.8
1016.1
Gravity (Latitude Correction) -1.6
CORRECTED READING 1014.5
 Aneroid Barometer Corrections
• These barometers need only be corrected
for index error, and altitude.
• Index error changes frequently.
• Their readings should be compared to
mercurial barometers often. (Any National
Weather Service office will make no cost
comparisons for you.)
 Aneroid Barometers
• Meteorologists, NOAA, and the National
Weather Service all use millibars on their
weather charts and in their forecasts.
• When we report weather, we will use the
same type of measurements.
– With the next slide you can practice reading
millibars on a barometer.
 Barograph
• A barograph is an aneroid barometer with a means
of recording pressure changes on a chart (called a
barogram) attached.
 Barograph
• Hurricane Hugo’s barogram
 Barograph
• The next slide will show you a normal
shipboard barograph readout.
– Note the time listed across the top.
– Note the date must be added.
– Note the latitude and longitude added.
– Will have a signature at the beginning of the
roll by the officer installing a new roll, with
date and time included.
Barograph Readout
 Practical Assessment
• Read the pressure from the Barometer in the next
slide, and apply these corrections.

– Index Correction +0.3

– Temperature Correction -4.3

– Altitude Correction (at temp.) +1.8

– Gravity (Latitude Correction) -1.6

Dry Bulb-Wet Bulb Temperature
Wet Bulb-Dew Point Temperature
 Psychrometer
• Consists of two thermometers.

• One “wet” bulb, and one “dry” bulb.

• Used to find dewpoint temperature and

relative humidity.
 Psychrometer
• The wet bulb is covered with muslin that
must be moistened before taking a reading.
• Evaporation of the water in the muslin
causes the wet bulb temperature to be lower
than that of the dry bulb.
• The two temperatures used with a table give
both the dewpoint temperature, and relative
humidity.
Psychrometer
Psychrometer Nomogram
 Sea Temperature Thermometer
• Either a continuously immersed sensor that
is intake or hull mounted, or;
• A sea water bucket making use of a special
temperature logger.
 Anemometer
• A device that measures wind speed and
direction.
 Anemometer
• On ships, the anemometer measures “apparent”
wind speed and direction.
• Apparent wind must be converted to true wind for
recording, reporting, or use in forecasting.
 RADAR
• RADAR can be used to “see” storms or
squalls ahead.
• Although not used in forecasting the
RADAR can be helpful in immediate
routing to avoid “micro bursts” and other
small but violent weather conditions.
 Instrument Calibration

• Your equipment has to be accurate, and

properly calibrated.
– The Barograph should be calibrated every 3
months.
– Your Psychrometer should be checked every ship
visit. (visit by a Port Meteorological Officer)
– Sea-water thermometers should be calibrated
annually, and checked every time your vessel is
serviced in a yard.
– Anemometers should be calibrated every 6 months.
 True Wind
• True direction and speed of wind in
relationship with the earth.

• Ship’s heading and speed does not affect

true wind (obviously.)
 Relative Wind
• Relative direction and speed of true wind in
relationship to your ship.

• You will always know relative wind.

– Ship’s anemometer will provide this info.
 Relative Wind
• Relative wind is always on the same side of the
ship as true wind. (i.e. it will never “cross your
bow.”)

• As ship’s speed increases, relative wind moves

forward towards the bow.

• Relative wind will ALWAYS be between ship’s

head and True wind.
 Difference between apparent and
true wind
• True wind is the actual direction and speed the
air is moving in.
• A moving vessel experiences apparent wind,
which is a combination of the movement of the
vessel and the true wind.
• A vessel going 000T at 10 knots in calm weather
will experience an apparent northerly wind of 10
knots. If the wind is blowing from the north at
10 knots the apparent wind will have a speed of
20 knots. If the vessel reverses course in that
wind the apparent wind will be calm.
 Plotting Wind
• Always referred to as direction FROM
which the wind is coming.

• Plotted in the opposite direction, e.g. plotted

as where wind is going?
True Wind
Wind vector
315° 15kts
Plotted in the
135° direction.
 Wind Vectors
• er vector
– ship’s course and speed

• Wr vector
– relative wind direction and speed

• Wt vector
– true wind direction and speed

• Remember wind comes from somewhere. Plot

where it is going.
Determining
True Wind
 Setup
• Information you NEED to know:
– Your course and speed (er vector)
– Apparent wind direction and speed (Wr vector)
 Determining True Wind
1. Plot your course and speed.

270° 15kts

r e
 Determining True Wind
2. Plot relative wind (relative to ship’s head).

Relative Wind
045°R 15kts
Wr
45°

r e
Apparent Wind
315°T 15kts
 Determining True Wind
3. Create a vector connecting “Ship-to-Wind”
and move it to center to determine True wind
Direction.
Wr True wind comes
from 022ºT

r e
Apparent Wind
315°T 15kts
 Determining True Wind

4. Measure the length of the True Wind

vector to determine True Wind Speed.
Wr
True Wind
022ºT 11.5 Kts

r e
Apparent Wind
315°T 15kts
 Estimating the wind direction from
the appearance of the sea surface
• Because waves are not deflected by
Coriolis force, the direction the wave is
traveling generally indicates the true
direction of the wind.
 Sea State Appearance Fatcors
• Factors, other than the wind speed, which
affect the appearance of the sea surface.
• Water depth
• Fetch
• Currents
• Duration of wind
• Stage of development of the wave can affect its
steepness
 True Wind
• Demonstrate how to find the true wind
velocity by using a vector diagram, given
the apparent wind and the ship’s course
and speed.
 Summary
• What equipment is used to measure atmospheric
pressure?

• What equipment helps you find relative humidity?

• What has to be done to “apparent wind” before

recording it?