IEEE STD C57.147

IEEE Guide for Acceptance and
Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in

Transformers
TM
C57.147
IEEE Power & Energy Society

Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std C57.147™-2008
New York, NY 10016-5997, USA
11 July 2008
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Queensland. Downloaded on August 18,2013 at 04:33:07 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std C57.147™-2008

Transformers
Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Approved 9 May 2008

IEEE-SA Standards Board
Figure B.1 and Table B.1 through Table B.4 have been modified with permission from Doble Engineering
Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric
liquids,” Proceedings of the 86th Annual International Conference of Doble Clients, Doble Engineering
Company, Watertown, MA, USA, 2001.
Figure B.2, Figure B.3, and Figure B.4 have been reprinted with permission from McShane, C. P., Luksich,
J., and Rapp, K. J., “Retrofilling aging transfomer with natural ester based dielectic coolant for safety and
life extension,” Proceedings of the IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, Dallas, TX,
USA, May 2003.
Abstract: The evaluation and handling procedures for natural ester transformer insulating fluids
are covered. The transformer operator is assisted by the purpose of the guide, which is to evaluate
the serviceability of new, unused fluids being received by the equipment manufacturer or service
company and fluid in new equipment. The operator is also assisted by the guide in maintaining the
fluids in serviceable condition.
Keywords: dielectric coolant, high fire point fluid, insulating fluid, less flammable fluid, natural
ester fluid, transformer, vegetable oil
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997, USA
Copyright © 2008 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published 11 July 2008. Printed in the United States of America.
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National Electrical Code and NEC are both registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
National Electrical Safety Code and NESC are both registered trademarks and service marks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.147-2008, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester
Fluids in Transformers.
This guide was prepared by the Insulating Fluids Subcommittee of the Transformers Committee of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society. The purpose of this guide is to identify standards for acceptance and
maintenance of natural ester fluids in transformers.
The ASTM D27 Committee formed a working group in May 2006 to establish a method and value limits
for oxidation stability of natural esters. Also, a power factor valued oxidation test method for the stability
of mineral insulating oil used for decades by some in the electrical power industry, developed by a private
testing firm, appears suitable to a wide range of natural esters dielectric coolants. See B.1 for details.
Notice to users
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iv
Copyright © 2008 IEEE. All rights reserved.
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Participants
At the time this guide was submitted to the IEEE-SA Standards Board for approval, the Natural Ester Fluid
Working Group had the following membership:
C. Patrick McShane, Chair

C. Clair Claiborne, Vice Chair
Susan McNelly, Secretary
Paul Boman N. Kent Haggerty Stanley Lindgren

Donald Cherry Richard Hollingsworth Jerry Murphy
Bill Chiu Rowland James, Jr. T. V. Oommen
John Crouse Joseph Kelly Thomas Prevost
Joseph Cultrera Gael Kennedy Scott Reed
Larry Dix Brian Klaponski H. Jin Sim
Norman Field Barry Ward
v
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
David Aho Gary Engmann Jerry Murphy

Steven Alexanderson Donald Fallon Paul Myers
Stan Arnot Joseph Foldi Michael S. Newman
Barry Beaster Jalal Gohari Joe Nims
Thomas Bishop James Graham Shawn Patterson
Thomas Blackburn Randall Groves J. Patton
William Bloethe Kenneth Hanus Christopher Petrola
W. Boettger Robert Hartgrove Donald Platts
Paul Boman Gary Heuston Alvaro Portillo
Harvey Bowles Michael Horning Michael Roberts
Steven Brockschink David Horvath John Rossetti
Chris Brooks James Huddleston Dinesh Pranathy Sankarakurup
Kent Brown R. Jackson Bartien Sayogo
Michael Brown Joseph Kelly C. Patrick McShane
Carl Bush Gael Kennedy Devki Sharma
Thomas Callsen Jim Kulchisky Stephen Shull
Juan Castellanos Saumen Kundu H. Jin Sim
Donald Cherry John Lackey James E. Smith
Bill Chiu Stephen Lambert Jerry Smith
C. Clair Claiborne Thomas La Rose John Spare
Tommy Cooper Thomas Lundquist John Sullivan
John Crouse John W. Matthews James Thompson
Willaim Darovny Lee Matthews John Vergis
Alan Darwin William McDermid David Wallach
Gene Del Fiacco Susan McNelly Kenneth White
Dieter Dohnal Gary Michel Alan Wilks
Randall Dotson Frank Muench William Wimmer
Donald Dunn Daniel Mulkey Theodore Zeiss
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 9 May 2008, it had the following membership:
Robert M. Grow, Chair
Thomas Prevost, Vice Chair
Steve M. Mills, Past Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Victor Berman Jim Hughes Ron Petersen

Richard DeBlasio Richard Hulett Chuck Powers
Andy Drozd Young Kyun Kim Narayanan Ramachandran
Mark Epstein Joseph L. Koepfinger* Jon Walter Rosdahl
Alexander Gelman John Kulick Anne-Marie Sahazizian
William Goldbach David J. Law Malcolm Thaden
Arnie Greenspan Glenn Parsons Howard Wolfman
Ken Hanus Don Wright
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

Michael H. Kelley, NIST Representative
Lisa Perry
IEEE Standards Project Editor
Matthew J. Ceglia
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
vi
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 System design ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester fluids with other dielectric liquids .................. 2
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2
3. Acronyms and abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 5
4. Fluid tests and the significance of each test................................................................................................ 5
4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 5

4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923 and ASTM D3305) .................................................................. 6
4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974) ................................................................................... 6
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816).................................................................................... 6
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—Impulse conditions (ASTM D3300) ................................................. 7
4.6 AC loss characteristics—Dissipation factor and relative permittivity (ASTM D924)........................ 7
4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)........................................................................................................ 8
4.8 Color (ASTM D1500) ......................................................................................................................... 8
4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445)..................................................................................................... 8
4.10 Flash point and fire point—Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM D92).......................................... 8
4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298)....................................................................................................... 9
4.12 Pour point (ASTM D97).................................................................................................................... 9
4.13 Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169) .................................................................................................. 9
4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3612)........................................................................................................... 10
4.15 Oxidation stability ........................................................................................................................... 10
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D1533) ................................................................... 11
4.17 Visual examination field test (ASTM D1524 and ASTM D1500) .................................................. 11
4.18 Gassing of insulating oils under electrical stress and ionization (ASTM D2300) .......................... 12
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275, Method B) ............................................................................ 12
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059) ........................................................................ 12
5. Fluid compatibility with transformer materials ........................................................................................ 12
6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester fluids for use in filling transformers at the installation site ..... 12
6.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 12

6.2 Shipping containers ........................................................................................................................... 13
6.3 Check tests on receipt ........................................................................................................................ 13
6.4 Handling of the fluid by the user and placing the fluid in storage ..................................................... 14
6.5 Handling and testing of natural ester fluids for installation into apparatus ....................................... 15
7. Evaluation of natural ester fluids received in new equipment and after filling apparatus on-site ............ 16
vii
8. Maintenance of natural ester fluids........................................................................................................... 17
8.1 Field screening................................................................................................................................... 17

8.2 Laboratory screening ......................................................................................................................... 18
8.3 Test limits for service-aged natural ester fluids................................................................................. 18
8.4 Reconditioning................................................................................................................................... 18
8.5 Reclaiming......................................................................................................................................... 20
8.6 Mixtures of different types of dielectric fluids .................................................................................. 20
9. Safety and environmental care procedures ............................................................................................... 21
9.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 21

9.2 Leaks.................................................................................................................................................. 21
9.3 Minor spills........................................................................................................................................ 21
9.4 Spills on soil ...................................................................................................................................... 21
9.5 Spills on water ................................................................................................................................... 22
Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 23
Annex B (informative) Additional technical information ............................................................................ 25
viii
Transformers
IMPORTANT NOTICE: This standard is not intended to assure safety, security, health, or
environmental protection in all circumstances. Implementers of the standard are responsible for
determining appropriate safety, security, environmental, and health practices or regulatory
requirements.
This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers. These
notices and disclaimers appear in all publications containing this document and may be found under the
heading “Important Notice” or “Important Notices and Disclaimers Concerning IEEE Documents.”
They can also be obtained on request from IEEE or viewed at http://standards.ieee.org/IPR/
disclaimers.html.
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide recommends tests and evaluation procedures, as well as criteria and methods of maintenance,
for natural ester-based transformer insulating fluids. These base fluids are also known as vegetable seed
oils. Methods of reconditioning natural ester-based insulating fluids are also described. Where instructions
given by the transformer or fluid manufacturer differ from those given in this guide, the manufacturer’s
instructions are to be given preference.
1.2 Purpose
There is growing interest in and usage of natural ester dielectric coolants for transformer applications.
These fluids are currently being used in the range of small distribution class transformers to medium power
transformers. They are being applied in new equipment and for retrofilling existing equipment. It is
important that a guide be developed to assist the transformer operator in maintaining the fluid in
serviceable condition. This guide, therefore, recommends standard tests and evaluation procedures,
methods of reconditioning and reclaiming natural ester fluids, and the analysis results at which reprocessing
becomes necessary. It will also address the routines for restoring resistance to oxidation, where desired, by
the addition of inhibitors.
1
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in Transformers
1.3 System design
The reliable performance of natural ester fluids in an insulation system depends upon certain basic fluid
characteristics that can affect overall apparatus characteristics. Such fluid characteristics are integral to
equipment design for which the manufacturer should have final responsibility. The reliable operation of the
equipment in service, for which the transformer operator should have final responsibility, also depends on
maintaining certain basic fluid characteristics. Adherence to the recommended fluid characteristics will
assist in obtaining the desired equipment characteristics. Other tests or verification of the integrity of the
insulation system may be necessary.
The essential properties of insulating fluids used in transformers must be maintained if the fluid is to
perform its multiple roles as an electrical insulating and a heat transfer agent. It must have adequate
dielectric strength to withstand the electric stresses imposed in service. It must have a certain combination
of thermal conductivity, specific heat, and viscosity so that its ability to transfer heat is sufficient for the
particular equipment. It must have sufficiently high flash point and fire point to meet safety requirements.
The natural ester fluid should not be allowed to become so deteriorated or contaminated that it adversely
affects other materials in the apparatus. If the purpose of using a natural ester fluid is to comply with
Article 450-23 of the National Electrical Code® (NEC®) (NFPA 70)1, 2 (for example, to use a transformer
indoors without a vault), it is required that less flammable transformer liquids have an ASTM D92 fire
point of not less than 300 °C and that the installation complies with all restrictions provided for in the
product listing of the fluid (see Article 100 of the NEC).
1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester fluids with other

dielectric liquids
Natural ester fluids are miscible and compatible with hydrocarbon, as well as with halogenated
hydrocarbon insulating liquids. Mixing with conventional transformer oil of petroleum origin will lower the
flash point and can lower the fire point of the natural ester fluid. If the fire point (ASTM D92) of the
contaminated natural ester fluid is less than 300 °C, the transformer will not meet the requirements of
Article 450-23 of the NEC. In general, key properties values of mixtures of mineral oil and natural ester-
based dielectric fluids are relative to the ratio of the mixture. (See B.5 for examples.)
Although in many cases different types of less flammable fluids [e.g., synthetic esters, synthetic
hydrocarbons, and high molecular weight hydrocarbons (HMWHs)] are miscible, such mixtures should
generally be avoided in transformers and fluid processing equipment. Silicone oils are not miscible with
natural esters or HMWH dielectric fluids, and mixtures should be avoided. Silicone content as low as
1 µL/L can cause foaming during processing. Consult with the manufacturer of each fluid for advice if
mixing has occurred or is necessary.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
National Electrical Code and NEC are both registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
2
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Accredited Standards Committee C2, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®).3, 4
ASTM D92, Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester.5
ASTM D97, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Petroleum Products.
ASTM D445, Standard Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and
Calculation of Dynamic Viscosity).
ASTM D664, Standard Test Method for Acid Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Titration.
ASTM D923, Standard Practices for Sampling Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D924, Standard Test Method for Dissipation Factor (or Power Factor) and Relative Permittivity
(Dielectric Constant) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D971, Standard Test Method for Interfacial Tension of Oil Against Water by the Ring Method.
ASTM D974, Standard Test Method for Acid and Base Number by Color-Indicator Titration.
ASTM D1169, Standard Test Method for Specific Resistance (Resistivity) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D1275, Standard Test Method for Corrosive Sulfur in Electrical Insulating Oils.
ASTM D1298, Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), or API Gravity of
Crude Petroleum and Liquid Petroleum Products by Hydrometer Method.
ASTM Dl500, Standard Test Method for ASTM Color of Petroleum Products (ASTM Color Scale).
ASTM D1524, Standard Test Method for Visual Examination of Used Electrical Insulating Oils of
Petroleum Origin in the Field.
ASTM D1533, Standard Test Methods for Water in Insulating Liquids by Coulometric Karl Fischer
Titration.
ASTM Dl816, Standard Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Oils of Petroleum
Origin Using VDE Electrodes.
ASTM D2112, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Inhibited Mineral Insulating Oil by
Pressure Vessel.
ASTM D2300, Standard Test Method for Gassing of Insulating Liquids Under Electrical Stress and
Ionization (Modified Pirelli Method).
ASTM D2440, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Mineral Insulating Oil.
ASTM D2945, Standard Test Method for Gas Content of Insulating Oils.
3
The NESC is available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
(http://standards.ieee.org/).
4
National Electrical Safety Code and NESC are both registered trademarks and service marks of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc.
5
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, USA (http://www.astm.org/).
3
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
ASTM D3284, Standard Practice for Combustible Gases in the Gas Space of Electrical Apparatus Using
Portable Meters.
ASTM D3300, Standard Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Oils of Petroleum
Origin Under Impulse Conditions.
ASTM D3305, Standard Practice for Sampling Small Gas Volume in a Transformer.
ASTM D3455-2002, Standard Test Methods for Compatibility of Construction Material with Electrical
Insulating Oil of Petroleum Origin.
ASTM D3612, Standard Test Method for Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Electrical Insulating Oil by Gas
Chromatography.
ASTM D4059, Standard Test Method for Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Insulating Liquids by
Gas Chromatography.
ASTM D5837, Standard Test Method for Furanic Compounds in Electrical Insulating Liquids by High-
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
ASTM D6871-2003, Standard Specification for Natural (Vegetable Oil) Ester Fluids Used in Electrical
Apparatus.
FCC Rules, Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 Part 112 (40CFR112), Protection of Environment—Oil
Pollution Prevention and Response; Non-Transportation-Related Onshore and Offshore Facilities (Final
Rule).6
IEEE Std 62™, IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus—Part 1: Oil Filled
Power Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors.7, 8
IEEE Std 637™-1985 (Reaff 2007), IEEE Guide for the Reclamation of Insulating Oil and Criteria for Its
Use.
IEEE Std 980™, IEEE Guide for Containment and Control of Oil Spills in Substations.
IEEE Std C57.104-1991™, IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed
Transformers.9
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code® (NEC®).10
Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the AOCS, American Oil Chemists Society.11
6
CFR publications are available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, P.O. Box 37082,
Washington, DC 20013-7082, USA (http://www.access.gpo.gov/).
7
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
8
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Clause 2 are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
9
IEEE Std C57.104-1991 has been withdrawn; however, copies can be obtained from Global Engineering, 15 Inverness Way East,
Englewood, CO 80112-5704, USA, tel. (303) 792-2181 (http://global.ihs.com/).
10
The NEC is published by the National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269, USA
(http://www.nfpa.org/). Copies are also available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane,
Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
11
AOCS publications are available from The American Oil Chemists Society, 2710 S. Boulder, Urbana, IL 61802-6996, USA
(http://www.aocs.org).
4
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
3. Acronyms and abbreviations

CFR Code of Federal Regulations
cSt centistokes, units of measurement for kinematic viscosity
DGA dissolved gas analysis
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
HMWH high molecular weight hydrocarbon
MSDS material safety data sheet
NEC National Electrical Code®
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
SIC specific inductive capacity
4. Fluid tests and the significance of each test
4.1 General
Many established ASTM tests of practical significance can be applied to insulating fluids.
The list of tests (see Table 1) and the significance of each test (see 4.3 through 4.18) are offered for
classification purposes. (See Clause 2 for ASTM standards referenced in this clause.)
Table 1 —Insulating fluid tests suitable for natural ester-based dielectric fluids
Significance ASTM method

Test
(subclause) number
4.2 Practices for sampling D923, D3305
4.3 Neutralization number D664, D974
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage D1816
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage, impulse conditions D3300
AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative
4.6 permittivity D924
4.7 Interfacial tension D971
4.8 Color D1500
4.9 Kinematic viscosity D445
4.10 Flash point and fire point—Cleveland Open Cup Method D92
4.11 Relative density (specific gravity) D1298
4.12 Pour point D97
4.13 Volume resistivity (specific resistance) D1169
4.14 Gas analysis D2945, D3284, D3612
4.15 Oxidation stability TBD
a
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method D1533
4.17 Visual examination field test (and color) D1500, D1524
4.18 Gassing of insulating oils under electrical stress and ionization D2300
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test D1275
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) D4059
a
Alternate reagents as listed in ASTM D1533.
5
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923 and ASTM D3305)
ASTM sampling practices are as follows:
⎯ Practices for sampling electrical insulating fluids (ASTM D923)

⎯ Practice for sampling small gas volume in a transformer (ASTM D3305)
Accurate sampling, whether of the complete contents or only part thereof, is extremely important from the
standpoint of evaluation of the quality of the product sampled. Careless sampling procedures or
contamination in the sampling equipment will result in a sample that is not truly representative, leading to
erroneous conclusions concerning quality. The appropriate procedures and precautions outlined in
ASTM D923 should be followed.
4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)
The acid (neutralization) number for service-aged fluids is, in general, a measure of the acidic constituents
of the fluid. It may be useful, if compared to the value for the new product, to detect contamination by
substances with which the fluid has been in contact. It may also reveal a tendency toward chemical change
or deterioration or to indicate chemical changes in additives. Natural ester fluids have naturally higher acid
numbers than hydrocarbon-based fluids, even when new. The acid number may be used as a general guide
for determining when oil should be replaced or reclaimed, provided suitable rejection limits have been
established and confirmation is received from other tests. ASTM D664 is the preferred method when
testing dielectric fluids that have become discolored, because it uses a potentiometric endpoint rather than a
colorimetric endpoint used in ASTM D974.
Although the acid number indicates relative acid content, the cited methods do not indicate the chemical
activity of the acids. Long-chain fatty acids produced by natural ester fluids are less reactive than short-
chain organic acids produced by mineral oils.
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)
The dielectric breakdown voltage of an insulating fluid is of importance as a measure of its ability to
withstand electric stress. It is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two electrodes under
prescribed test conditions. ASTM D1816 prescribes the use of spherically capped electrodes of the VDE
type (see VDE 0370-1978 [B14]).12 It serves primarily to indicate the presence of contaminating agents
(e.g., water, dirt, conducting particles in the liquid), one or more of which may be present when low
dielectric breakdown values are found by test.
Care must be taken when filling the test cell with natural ester fluids to guard against trapping air bubbles,
which can lead to misleading, low breakdown voltages.
Due to their higher viscosity, a longer sample rest time (equal to or greater than 15 min at room
temperature) is recommended for natural ester fluids than for mineral oils to allow air bubbles to escape.
While the suitability of ASTM D1816 has not been determined for oils having viscosities of more than
19 cSt at 40 °C, several manufacturers and users have reported satisfactory results.
12
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.
6
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—Impulse conditions (ASTM D3300)
Insulating fluids used in transformers are subjected to transient voltage stresses while being subjected to
steady-state voltage stresses associated with continuous operation of the apparatus at commercial power
frequencies. The ability of the insulating fluid to withstand transient voltage stresses has become important
to the designers of transformers. Transient voltages may be either negative or positive in polarity. Although
polarity of the voltage wave has little or no effect on the breakdown strength of an oil in uniform fields,
polarity does have a marked effect on the breakdown voltage of an oil in nonuniform electric fields.
Transient voltages may also vary over a wide range in both the time to reach crest value and the time
to decay to half-crest or to zero magnitude. The standard impulse test, ASTM D3300, specifies a 1.2 μs
× 50 μs negative polarity wave. The standard wave shape for switching surge tests on transformers is
100 μs to crest and greater than 1000 μs to zero.
The purchaser of an impulse generator may want to specify the necessary features to make switching surge
tests possible. Consideration may be given to other electrode configurations such as VDE electrodes, which
are similar to those used in ASTM D1816, since it may be desirable to obtain the ratio between power
frequency and impulse breakdown under similar conditions.
Care must be taken when filling the test cell with natural ester fluids to guard against trapping air bubbles,
which may result in misleading, low breakdown voltages.
Due to their higher viscosity, a longer sample rest time (equal to or greater than 15 min at room
temperature) is recommended prior to impulse testing natural ester fluids than for mineral oils to allow air
bubbles to escape.
4.6 AC loss characteristics—Dissipation factor and relative permittivity

(ASTM D924)
This method describes the determination of dissipation factor and relative permittivity of new electrical
insulating fluids as well as liquids in service or subsequent to service in transformers. Dissipation factor
(power factor) is a measure of the dielectric losses in an electrical insulating fluid in an alternating electric
field and of the energy dissipated as heat. A low dissipation factor indicates low dielectric losses. Losses
due to dissipation factor should not be confused with transformer load and excitation losses, which are
indicative of the transformer’s energy efficiency. The losses associated with dissipation factor are several
orders of magnitude lower than the load and excitation losses.
New natural ester fluids have inherently higher dissipation factors than mineral oils. Field data indicates a
higher rate of increase in the dissipation factors under normal operating conditions relative to mineral oils.
Before acceptance limits for service-aged natural esters can be established, additional field data must be
collected and analyzed.
Relative permittivity, often referred to as dielectric constant and occasionally as specific inductive capacity
(SIC), is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using the material to be measured as the dielectric to the
capacitance of a capacitor with vacuum as the dielectric, both having identical electrodes.
The relative permittivities of materials in contact with each other affect the local voltage stress distribution.
New natural esters have inherently higher relative permittivity than mineral oils, closer to that of cellulose
insulation leading to an improvement in electrical stress distribution.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)
This method covers the measurement, under nonequilibrium conditions, of the interfacial tension of
insulating fluids against water. The interfacial tension between electrical insulating fluids and water is a
measure of the molecular attractive force between their unlike molecules at the interface. It is expressed as
millinewtons per meter (mN/m). This test has been used as one means of detecting soluble polar
contaminants and products of deterioration in mineral oil. Soluble-contamination or fluid-deterioration
products generally decrease the interfacial tension value.
However, ASTM has not published an acceptance value limit for interfacial tenstion of new natural ester
fluids. Natural ester fluids have inherently lower interfacial tension than new mineral oils, typically
between 25 mN/m to 30 mN/m (ASTM D6871-2003, Appendix X 2.1.2). This difference is due to an
inherent difference of ester and mineral oil chemistry, including higher absorption levels for water. Until
ASTM has published a limit for interfacial tension of new natural ester fluids, this guide will not include
such a limit value. Additional field data will also be required before limits for field-aged fluid can be
established for this guide. However, a greater than 40% decrease from the initial values in fluid as received
in a new transformer from an operating unit should trigger further investigation.
4.8 Color (ASTM D1500)
A low color number of a mineral insulating oil is desirable to permit inspection of assembled apparatus in a
tank. An increase in color number during service is an indicator of oil deterioration or contamination. New
natural ester fluids may initially be slightly darker in color, typically a slight amber appearance, than highly
refined new mineral oil. Other tests (such as dissipation factor and neutralization number) are better
measures of fluid deterioration or contamination. Note that natural ester fluid manufacturers may add clear
colorants for identification purposes. Such tints should not impact the ASTM color and visual
examinations.
4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445)
The viscosity of dielectric coolants within the range of normal operating temperatures is important because
it can impact both the cooling and performance of some internal components, such as internal load tap
changers.
Viscosity is the measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the viscosity
of a fluid to its density. The viscosity of insulating oil and natural ester fluids is usually measured by the
time of flow of a given quantity of oil under controlled conditions. The viscosity at the operating
temperatures of electrical insulating fluids influences their heat transfer properties in natural and forced
(pumped) convective flow and, consequently, the temperature rise of operating transformers containing
them. Natural esters typically have higher viscosity than mineral oils. An increase in viscosity over time
may indicate excessive oligomerization of natural esters, typically due to abnormal exposure to air and
heat.
4.10 Flash point and fire point—Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM D92)
The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which the vapor pressure is sufficient to
form a flammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. The fire point is the lowest temperature at
which a liquid in an open container will attain a vapor pressure sufficient to continue to burn when once
ignited. Low values of either flash or fire point may be used to provide a qualitative indication of
contamination with lower flash and fire point materials, such as conventional mineral oil. Fire point values
less than 300 °C may require reclassification or replacement of the natural ester fluid classified by the NEC
as “less-flammable liquids,” depending upon the particular installation involved. If the purpose of the
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
natural ester fluid installation is to comply with NEC, Article 450-23 requires a fire point of at least 300 °C.
See also National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®) (Accredited Standards Committee C2).
This method should only be used to measure and describe the properties of liquids in response to heat and
flame under controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used to describe or appraise the fire hazard
or fire risk of liquids under actual fire conditions. Results of this test may be used as elements of a fire risk
assessment, which takes into account all of the factors that are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard
of a particular end use.
Natural esters have significantly higher flash and fire points than that of conventional mineral oil.
ASTM D6871 requires a minimum 300 °C fire point.
4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298)
The relative density (specific gravity) of an insulating fluid is the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of
fluid and water at 15 °C (60 °F). Relative density is not significant in determining the quality of a fluid; it
may be pertinent in determining suitability for use in specific applications. In certain cold climates, ice may
form in equipment exposed to subzero (< 0 °C) temperatures and may float on fluids that have densities
higher than 0.91. Although density measurements are too insensitive to be useful for detecting many
contamination issues, when results are significantly different from the typical value listed by the
manufacturer, the cause should be investigated.
4.12 Pour point (ASTM D97)
The lowest temperature at which insulating fluids will just flow under the prescribed conditions is known
as the pour point.
The pour point of an insulating fluid is important because it indicates the temperature below which oil
circulation may be difficult, if not impossible Even above the pour point temperature, oil circulation can be
limited by viscosity. Natural ester fluids have higher viscosities than conventional mineral oil and lower
viscosities than HMWH and silicone oil dielectric fluids at normal operating temperatures. For
transformers using natural esters with operational (particularly mechanical) internal accessories, a higher
minimum temperature may be required before operation than required for mineral oil. In addition, it is
possible for the pour point of natural esters to increase after long-standing times at low temperatures.
The pour point has little significance as far as contamination or deterioration is concerned; but it may be
useful for fluid-type identification and for determining the type of equipment in which it can be used. The
pour point and viscosity, along with the range of possible ambient temperatures, should be factored in
selection of the processing equipment (pumping) for reconditioning or reclamation.
4.13 Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)
The volume resistivity (specific resistance) of a liquid is a direct-current measurement at opposite faces of a
centimeter cube of its electrical insulating capability. The resistivity in ohms/centimeter (ohm-cm) of a fluid is
the ratio of the direct potential gradient in volts/centimeter (V/cm) paralleling the current flow within the
sample to the current density in amperes/square centimeter (A/cm2), at a given instant of time and under
prescribed conditions. A lower resistivity normally indicates the presence of conductive contaminants; but the
test has not been widely applied to service-aged fluids. New natural esters have inherently lower volume
resistivity than mineral oils.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3612)
Thermal and electrical stresses can generate gases within the tank. The gases can appear both as dissolved
gas in the liquid and as free gas in the transformer gas space. In IEEE Std C57.104-1991, “condition” and
“key gases” combined with “gassing rates” are helpful in the analysis of natural ester dielectric coolants.
However, currently there is insufficient field data relative to mineral oil to indicate if any specific
modifications are warranted. The key ASTM tests related to gases generated in liquid-insulated
transformers are as follows:
⎯ Test method for gas content of insulating oils (ASTM D2945)

⎯ Practice for combustible gases in the gas space of electrical apparatus using portable meters
(ASTM D3284)
⎯ Test method for analysis of gases dissolved in electrical insulating oil by gas chromatography
(ASTM D3612)
Limited testing and field experience indicates that
⎯ The same fault gases are produced in natural esters as are produced in mineral oil.
⎯ Under the same magnitude of electrical overstress, natural esters typically produce somewhat less
volume of the gases compared to mineral oil. Under the same thermal overstress, natural esters
typically produce significantly more volume of the gases. Refer to B.3 for results of a published
study on thermal overstress gas generation.
⎯ There are differences in gas solubility coefficients between natural esters and mineral oils and their
respective values should be used for data interpretation.
⎯ There are differences between mineral oil and natural ester gassing tendency per ASTM D2300
(see 4.17).
⎯ During normal operation, the levels of dissolved hydrogen and ethane gases can increase at a rate
greater than the typical rate in mineral oil.
All methods of ASTM D3612 are suitable. The “head space” dissolved gas analysis (DGA) technique
(ASTM D3612, Method C) results in less column maintenance compared to direct injection
(ASTM D3612, Method B) when testing DGA in natural ester fluids.
4.15 Oxidation stability
For natural esters, ASTM D6871 does not recommend oxidation stability testing methods or limits. Section
X 2.3.4 of ASTM D6871-2003 states that “oxidation stability requirements and appropriate test methods
for natural ester insulating fluids have not been established.” ASTM D6871 deems appropriate all other test
methods listed in Table 1 for testing in natural esters.
Natural esters are not as resistant to oxidation as mineral oils. For this reason, their application in free-
breathing transformers and other equipment (e.g., bladderless conservator design) is not recommended and
all practical measures should be taken to avoid continuous, long-term exposure(years) to unlimited air
exchange, particularly at operating temperatures.
Oxidation essentially occurs only at the surface of the fluid exposed to air, so thin film exposure is of greater
concern than fluid in the transformer tank. It is recommended to minimize the time and temperature that
surfaces with thin films of natural esters be exposed to air, including untanked core and coils, hoses, fittings,
etc. Different types of natural esters formulations will have different recommended air exposure time limits
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
depending on the type of base oils and the type and amount of oxidation inhibitors.13 Exposure to air should
also be limited to prevent moisture contamination, which occurs at a much faster rate. If exposure to air over
long periods is of concern, refer to the manufacturer’s recommended air exposure limits, detection and
maintenance of antioxidants methods, and recommended exposure prevention guidance for each particular
fluid brand. Natural esters oxidize differently than mineral oils. Oxidation causes oligomerization of the
fluids, forming larger molecules that remain in solution, the rate of which is highly temperature-dependent.
Conversely, mineral oil oxidation forms reactive short-chain acids and carbonaceous sludge, which can
precipitate out of the oil. Polymerization of natural esters does not impact the dielectric strength of the fluid or
cellulose insulation. However, if the surface of the fluid is exposed to continual exchange of air in the head
space over several years, the viscosity of natural esters can measurably increase, resulting in lowered cooling
capability of the fluid, leading to possible derating of the transformer.
NOTE—The methods of ASTM D2112 and ASTM D2440 were developed for the evaluation of the oxidation stability
of mineral insulating oils. The methods note that there is no established relationship between test results and field
performance. ASTM D2112 is a control test of oxidation stability of new, inhibited mineral insulating oils for
determining the induction period of oxidation inhibitors under prescribed accelerated aging conditions. Per
ASTM D2440, the test can be used as a control test for evaluating oxidation inhibitors and to check the consistency of
oxidation stability of production mineral oils. Neither was deemed suitable for vegetable oil testing. See B.1, which
describes an alternative method for measuring relative oxidative resistance of liquid insulating fluids that is suitable for
14
natural esters.
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D1533)
Water may be present in insulating fluids in several forms. The presence of free water can be detected by
visual examination in the form of separated droplets or as a cloud dispersed throughout the fluid. This type of
water invariably results in decreased dielectric strength. Water in solution cannot be detected visually and is
normally determined by either physical or chemical means. The dielectric strength of the fluid decreases as the
dissolved water increases, more significantly as the level approaches the saturation point. The method of
ASTM D1533 is suitable for the determination of water in insulating fluids and, depending upon the
conditions of sample handling and the method of analysis, can be used to estimate the total water content of
fluids. The unit measure of the water is in milligrams/kilogram (mg/kg). This test is significant in that it can
indicate the presence of water even if the presence of water may not be evident from electrical tests.
Some reagents that are suitable for mineral oils may not be suitable for natural ester fluids. The fluid
manufacturer should be contacted for recommended reagents.
It is important to note that absolute dissolved water limit values set for mineral oil are not applicable for
natural esters. The absolute amount of dissolved water needed to get to a particular percent of saturation
varies by fluid type. Natural esters have significantly higher water saturation values (approximately 15 to
20 times at room temperature) than mineral oil at a given temperature. However, the impact of water
content on dielectric strength as a function of percent of saturation is essentially the same for both natural
ester and mineral oil. See Annex B for an example graph of water saturation versus temperature for both
natural ester and mineral oil.
4.17 Visual examination field test (ASTM D1524 and ASTM D1500)
This visual test gauges the color and turbidity (cloudiness) of a fluid, which may indicate the presence of
free water or sediment (e.g., metal particles, insoluble materials, carbon, fibers, dirt). If insoluble
contaminants are present, valuable information may be obtained by filtering the fluid and identifying the
residue. Excessive contaminates may significantly lower the dielectric strength of dielectric coolants.
13
Contact the manufacturer of the specific fluid for recommended inhibitor test method and trigger point values.
14
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
4.18 Gassing of insulating oils under electrical stress and ionization

(ASTM D2300)
For certain applications, when an insulating fluid is stressed at high-voltage gradients, it may be desirable
to be able to determine the rate of gas evolution or gas absorption under specified test conditions. At the
present time, correlation of ASTM D2300 test results with equipment performance is limited, regardless of
the fluid type. Natural esters have inherently lower gassing tendency than mineral oils, well below the
lower range of mineral oils and generally fairly negative or gas absorbing. The typical range for natural
esters is −50 μL/min to −90 μL/min.
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275, Method B)
This visual test indicates the presence of corrosive sulfur in the fluid. Corrosive sulfur is undesirable as it
may lead to premature coil failures. Natural esters naturally do not contain corrosive sulfur.
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059)
U.S. regulations require that electrical apparatus and electrical insulating fluids containing PCBs be
handled and disposed of through the use of specific procedures. The procedure to be used for a particular
apparatus or quantity of insulating fluid is determined by the PCB content of the fluid. The results of this
analytical technique can be useful in selecting the appropriate handling and disposal procedures (refer to
40CFR761.1 [B4]). Naturally, natural ester does not contain PCBs.
5. Fluid compatibility with transformer materials

Each transformer design and insulating fluid shall be shown to be compatible under standard service
conditions to the satisfaction of the transformer manufacturer. Verification of compatibility is necessary to
have assurance that no excessive interaction or reaction occurs between materials in contact with the
dielectric coolant. Per the standard test method of ASTM D3455-2002, “compatibility for construction
material with electrical insulating oil of petroleum origin” may be used with the exception of the 8.2.5 of
ASTM D3455-2002, “the aged properties for the reference oil specimen.” The values must be modified for
vegetable oil. See Table 5 and B.4 for suggested (non-normative) values for the natural ester fluid
specimens.
6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester fluids for use in filling

transformers at the installation site
6.1 General
Instructions for field preparation, fluid filling, and start-up by manufacturers of natural ester fluid-filled
equipment may vary because of differences in their designs of units and individual preferences. Certain
installations may require more rigorous quality control than others. The user and the manufacturer should
agree on minimum requirements. All handling equipment (e.g., hoses, pipes, tanks) shall be kept clean and
should be dedicated to natural ester fluid service. Equipment with residual ester fluid should be sealed from
continuous air exchange and contaminants.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
6.2 Shipping containers
Natural ester fluids are ordinarily shipped in drums, totes, tank trailers, and rail cars, all of which should be
clean, dry, and airtight. A nitrogen or other dry inert gas blanket is recommended.
6.3 Check tests on receipt
The inspection of natural ester fluids should follow similar procedures as those now being used for mineral
oil. Fluid received in tank trailers should be tested prior to unloading.
Upon receipt, natural ester fluids meeting or exceeding the values presented in Table 2 are considered to be
acceptable. Values shown in Table 2 are generic to natural ester fluids as a class. Specific typical values for
each different brand of fluid should be obtained from the fluid manufacturer.
Table 2 —Acceptable values for receipt of shipments of new natural ester fluidsa, b
Results
Test and ASTM method
Minimum Maximum
Flash point, ASTM D92, °C 275
Fire point, ASTM D92, °C 300
Kinematic viscosity, ASTM D445, mm2/s (cSt)
0 °C — 500
40 °C — 50
100 °C — 15
Pour point, ASTM D97, °C −10
Color, ASTM D1500 L1.0
Relative density ASTM D1298, at 25 °C 0.96
Neutralization number, ASTM D974, mg KOH/g 0.06
Water content, ASTM D1533, mg/kg at 20 °C
c
Sampled from bulk tanker 200
Sampled from drums/totes 100
Dielectric breakdown, ASTM D1816,
Sampled from bulk tanker
kV (1mm gap) 20 —
kV (2 mm gap) 35 —
Sampled from drums/totes
kV (1mm gap) 35 —
kV (2 mm gap) 60 —
Dissipation factor, ASTM D924, %
25 °C — 0.2
100 °C — 4.0
Impulse voltage (kV), ASTM D3300, 25 °C,
25.4 mm gap 130
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to as-received natural ester fluids as a class. Due to differences
in their chemistry, certain values are significantly different than the standard limits for mineral oil. See
Clause 4 for details.
b
Specific typical values for each brand of fluid should be obtained from the fluid manufacturer. If test
results, while in compliance with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is
recommended that the fluid manufacturer be contacted.
c
This value is based on the mandatory processing of bulk oil shipments prior to filling transformers. The
processing shall include small particle filtering, degassification, and moisture extraction.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
6.4 Handling of the fluid by the user and placing the fluid in storage
6.4.1 General
Because the location and style of a storage tank will depend on the user’s physical plant arrangement, direct
transfer from the delivering bulk container directly to the transformer or other equipment is not always
possible. It may be necessary to transfer the natural ester fluid in storage tanks. Purchase of the fluid in
drums or totes can be more practical for certain projects.
Using indoor tanks is ideal. Except for very warm climates, indoor tanks can reduce the amount of heating
required to maintain proper pumping and filtering temperatures. For cold climate regions, outdoor tanks
should be heated and well insulated to minimize the effect of temperatures near or below the pour point of
the natural ester fluid.
Normally, natural ester fluids can be pumped directly from either the inside or underground storage tanks.
If temperatures near the pour point are anticipated, then heating the fluid may be required. If heating of the
fluid is required, care should be taken in heater selection. To prevent fluid scorching, the watt density
should not exceed 2 W/cm2 (12 W/in2) and the localized heater surface temperature should not exceed
180 °C. Indications that scorching has occurred include one or more of the following: high dissipation
factor value, darkened appearance of the fluid, burnt smell, and coke-like deposit on the heater surface.
A heater placed directly in the tank can be used if heating the fluid to a satisfactory pumping temperature is
required. This approach is usually the most economical because heat need only be applied when fluid is to
be pumped from the tank. A circulation pump and electric heater can be piped to the storage tank to
maintain warm temperatures.
Standard storage tanks, such as those used for transformer oil, are satisfactory. All tanks should conform to
local codes and standards. New tanks should be specified with openings that are properly threaded and
should have at least one manhole. The inside of the tanks should be sandblasted and painted with a coating
that is compatible with the natural ester fluid, such as an alkyd paint. Generally, any coating that is
compatible with conventional transformer oil will prove satisfactory for natural ester fluid use. Nitrogen
blanketing is highly recommended. To keep the fluid quality from degrading, free-breathing tanks should
be avoided and should not be used in high ambient temperature (> 30 °C) or high humidity locations
(unless desiccants are available and maintained).
Existing storage tanks that have been used for transformer oil can be used for natural ester fluids if the
following conditions are met:
⎯ Transfer pumps and lines are of adequate capacity to pump the more viscous fluid. If the tank and
transfer system are situated so that the fluid may have to be moved while it is cold, use of electric-
or steam-line tracing and tank-heating apparatus may be necessary.
⎯ The tank is thoroughly cleaned and inspected for rusting conditions or leakage.
⎯ The tank should be thoroughly drained and flushed with 60 °C to 80°C natural ester fluid before
being filled to avoid contamination.
6.4.2 Venting
Equipping a tank with a proper pressure/vacuum vent valve and a desiccant-type vent dryer lowers the dew
point of the air in the tank to help prevent water condensation. Each vent dryer should have a color
indicator to show when maintenance is required. Changes should be planned in advance of the anticipated
indicator change.
Dehumidification of the air in the storage tank can also be used.
14
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
A tank vent filter between the desiccant canister and the tank is also recommended. Filtering incoming air
to the tank may prevent introduction of airborne particulate material into the fluid during storage.
6.4.3 Pumps
⎯ Capacity. Since the viscosity of natural ester fluids is generally higher than ordinary transformer
oil, care must be used in selecting a pump with the horsepower and capacity required. First,
determine the maximum flow rate required and then select a pump and motor that will handle this
flow rate at the lowest temperature (highest fluid viscosity) that will be encountered.
⎯ Type. The most commonly recommended pump for natural ester fluids is the positive displacement
gear pump. A standard iron pump with either mechanical seal or stuffing box is also satisfactory.
So that pump suppliers can specify the correct pump size, they should be made aware of the fluid viscosity
and the required pumping rate, suction lift, and discharge head.
For capacities up to 4.8 L/s (75.8 gpm), direct-driven pumps have proven to be satisfactory. For higher
pumping rates, a reduction-gear or belt-driven pump may be required.
Other pumps that have been used successfully are the air-operated diaphragm pump, progressive cavity
pump, and flexible impeller pump.
6.5 Handling and testing of natural ester fluids for installation into apparatus
The preferred method of filling transformers is under vacuum conditions. Additional vacuum processing of
the natural ester fluid is recommended to sufficiently degas the fluid if excessive bubbling occurs.
Where instructions given by the transformer manufacturer differ from recommendations made in this guide,
the manufacturer’s instructions should be given preference.
CAUTION
Do not exceed the transformer tank vacuum limits (see nameplate or contact the transformer
manufacturer for information) or tank damage may result.
Commercial dehydration and degassing units are available that can process fluids to acceptable levels of
dissolved water and dissolved air.
The degassing of natural ester fluids should be carried out at temperatures somewhat higher than those
required for ordinary transformer oils. The processing temperature should be between 60 °C and 100 °C
and under vacuum [pressure of 220 Pa (0.032 psi) or less]. These conditions will ensure thorough
degasification and dehydration of the natural ester fluid prior to introduction into the transformer.
After the natural ester fluid is processed through the degasifier and particulate filter, it should be introduced
directly into the transformer under vacuum. If in doubt as to the filling procedure to be followed, seek
guidance from the transformer manufacturer. If guidance from the transformer manufacturer cannot be
obtained, a storage tank that can maintain a vacuum equal to or greater than the vacuum maintained during
transformer filling will be required. If the recommended vacuum cannot be achieved, the natural ester fluid
may exhibit excessive bubbling during the vacuum filling operation, depending on the amount of dissolved
gases in the natural ester fluid.
In instances where the equipment must be filled on-site, without the use of vacuum impregnation, consult
the fluid’s manufacturer for instructions concerning fill rate and characteristics of the fluid after filling.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
NOTE—Natural ester fluids are miscible and compatible with mineral oils. However, avoid contamination of natural
ester fluids with conventional transformer oil to prevent lowering the flash and fire points, and for possible
environmental regulations purposes. Article 450-23 of the NEC requires a minimum ASTM D92 fire point of 300 °C
for less flammable transformer liquids. Contact the fluid manufacturer for maximum percent oil contamination to
maintain a > 300 °C fire point. Dedicated equipment is the preferred means to avoid contamination. Otherwise, it is
recommended to flush the equipment with an appropriate volume of at least 5% natural ester fluid.
7. Evaluation of natural ester fluids received in new equipment and after

filling apparatus on-site
In sampling fluid that is contained in apparatus, care must be used in order to obtain a representative
sample. The method of ASTM D923 should be followed. Natural ester fluids exhibiting the characteristics
presented in Table 3 are considered acceptable.
After the filling is completed and the standing time is also completed, tests on the natural ester fluid should
be made before energization of the transformer (see Table 3).
Table 3 —Test limits for new natural ester fluids received in new equipment,
below 230 kV, prior to energizationa
Value for voltage class

≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV
Dielectric strength, ASTM D1816, kV, minimum
1 mm gap 25 30
2 mm gap 45 52
Dissipation factor, ASTM D924, %, maximum,
25 ºC 0.5 0.5
Color, ASTM D1500, ASTM units, maximum L1.0 L1.0
Visual examination, ASTM D1524 Bright and clear Bright and clear
Neutralization number (acidity), ASTM D974,
mg KOH/g, maximum 0.06 0.06
Water content, ASTM D1533, mg/kg, maximum 300 150
Fire point, ASTM D92, ºC 300 300
at 40 ºC, maximum 50 50
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester fluids as a class. Due to differences in their
chemistry, certain values are significantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for details.
Specific typical values for each brand of fluid should be obtained from each fluid manufacturer. If test results,
while in compliance with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is
recommended that the fluid manufacturer be contacted.
Most manufacturers have found it advisable to allow natural ester fluid-filled transformers to stand at least
several hours after filling and vacuum breaking, or until the transformer has cooled to room temperature
before energizing or high-voltage testing. Natural esters generally take significantly longer to impregnate
cellulose insulation than mineral oil under the same conditions. Transformers with heavy thicknesses of
pressboard insulation will require standing times that are adequate to allow the required impregnation. The
impregnation rate of natural ester fluids is a function of fluid temperature and the thickness of the cellulose
material to be saturated. Refer to the transformer and insulating paper/pressboard manufacturers and fluid
manufacturers for guidance concerning impregnation rates. Recommended minimum standing times will
vary depending on the type of pressboard, thickness, initial fluid temperature, ambient temperature, voltage
class, etc.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Fluid-circulating pumps, if any, should be operated for at least several hours of this time. Most transformer
manufacturers have specific written procedures for this standing time and pump operation, and they should
be consulted for their recommendations.
8. Maintenance of natural ester fluids
8.1 Field screening
Field screening of natural ester fluids should follow the procedures now being used for transformer oil.
Experience in this matter indicates that visual condition and dielectric breakdown voltage are the most
applicable screening methods. A sample should be drawn in a clean, clear glass or high-density
polyethylene jar and allowed to reach room temperature prior to testing. The sample jar should be sealed as
soon as practical to avoid moisture contamination from the air. Aluminum or tin-plated steel cans may also
be used as containers for the samples. The fluid should then be checked for clarity, color, odor, and
viscosity (relative to a known clean sample). Dielectric breakdown voltage should then be measured.
Portable dielectric test sets have been available for some time and have proven quite satisfactory in
determining whether additional laboratory screening is necessary.
Table 4 —PROVISIONAL ONLY—Test limits for new natural ester fluids

received in new equipment, ≥ 230 kV, prior to energizationa, b
Value for voltage class

≥ 230 kV < 345 kV 345 kV and above
Dielectric strength, ASTM D1816, kV, minimum
1 mm gap 32 35
2 mm gap 55 60
Dissipation factor, ASTM D924, %, maximum,
25 ºC 0.5 0.5
Color, ASTM D1500, ASTM units, maximum L1.0 L1.0
Visual examination, ASTM D1524 Bright and clear Bright and clear
Neutralization number (acidity), ASTM D974,
mg KOH/g, maximum 0.06 0.06
Water content, ASTM D1533, mg/kg, maximum 100 100
Fire point. ASTM D92, ºC 300 300
at 40 °C, maximum 50 50
Total dissolved gas, ASTM D2945, % 0.5% or per 0.5% or per
manufacturer’s manufacturer’s
c c
requirements requirements
a
Insufficient data exists to establish firmer guidelines or values for this voltage class range. This table is meant
to encourage the development of consensus data for future revisions of this guide.
b
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester fluids as a class. Due to differences in their chemistry,
certain values are significantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for details. Specific typical
values for each brand of fluid should be obtained from each fluid manufacturer. If test results, while in
compliance with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is recommended that the
fluid manufacturer be contacted
c
This value should be obtained from a sample collected 24 h to 48 h after the transformer is filled, and applies
only to transformers with diaphragm conservator systems.
17
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
8.2 Laboratory screening
Fluids that have unsatisfactory appearance and dielectric values should be further evaluated. The following
tests are adequate for classifying service-aged natural ester fluids:
⎯ Visual condition (ASTM D1524)

⎯ Color (ASTM D1500)
⎯ Neutralization number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)
⎯ Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)
⎯ Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)
⎯ Water content (ASTM D1533)
⎯ AC loss characteristic (dissipation factor) (ASTM D924)
⎯ Fire point (ASTM D92)
The following ASTM tests are usually not required for classifying service-aged fluids. However, they may
be useful, in more completely characterizing the condition of insulating fluids.
⎯ Viscosity (ASTM D445)

⎯ Relative density (ASTM D1298)
⎯ Pour point (ASTM D97)
⎯ Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)
⎯ Furanic compounds (ASTM D5837)
NOTE—The American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS) Official Method, Cd 18-90, p-Anisidine Value, developed for
edible oils, may also prove to be a useful indicator of the condition of aged natural esters fluids used in transformers.
The method determines the amount of aldehydes (principally 2-alkenals and 2,4-dienals) in vegetable oils. The
aldehydes are formed as byproducts during oxidation of the oils. As field data is received and evaluated, recommended
values will be determined.
8.3 Test limits for service-aged natural ester fluids
As a guide to be used in the absence of the manufacturer’s recommendations, acceptable limits for service-
aged natural ester fluids are shown in Table 5.
8.4 Reconditioning
8.4.1 General
For the purposes of this guide, reconditioning is defined as “the removal of water and solid materials by
mechanical means,” while reclaiming is defined as “the removal of acidic and colloidal contaminants and
oxidized matter by chemical and adsorbent means.”
The mechanical means that are used for removing water and solids from fluids include several types of
filters, centrifuges, and vacuum dehydrators. In general, water removal filters and vacuum dehydrators
should be placed before the final particulate removal filters.
18
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Table 5 —Suggested limits for continued use of service-aged natural ester fluids
(grouped by voltage class) (see also IEEE Std 62)a
IEEE value for voltage class

Test and ASTM method 230 kV
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV
and above b
Dielectric strength c, ASTM D1816, kV,
minimum
1 mm gap d 23 28 30
2 mm gap d 40 47 50
Dissipation factor (power factor), ASTM D924,
%, maximum (see footnote c) (see footnote c) (see footnote c)
25 °C
100 °C
Water content: ASTM D1533, mg/kg, maximum (see footnote d) (see footnote d) (see footnote d)
Fire point, ASTM D92, ºC 300 300 300
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester fluids as a class. Due to differences in their chemistry,
certain values are significantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for details. Specific typical
values for each brand of fluid should be obtained from each fluid manufacturer. If test results, while in compliance
with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is recommended that the fluid
manufacturer be contacted.
b
Provisional for ≥ 230 kV.
c
At the time this guide was written, there was insufficient field data available to provide reliable recommended limit
values. Users are encouraged to forward data to any working group member for possible future use. See B.4 for non-
normative guidance for threshold values indicating possible abnormalities or normal aging limit reached.
d
Recommended limit is application- and user-specific. Suggested limit would be the same relative saturation limit
used for mineral oil at a given temperature.
8.4.2 Water removal
If, during the transport or storage of the fluid, water is introduced into the fluid above a limit that would not
permit the fluid to be introduced into a transformer, additional treatment will be required.
8.4.2.1 Free water removal
If the water is in the form of free water, filter elements utilizing blotter paper have been used effectively.
Filter cartridges packed with a desiccant are recommended to ensure dryness. Otherwise, the filter elements
should be oven-dried before use. Take care not to exceed the manufacturer’s temperature rating of the
elements.
Most types of filters now being used on transformer oil can be used for natural ester fluids.
The cartridge-type filter is well suited for this service. It is offered in various nominal pore size ranges, and
sizes for either low- or high-flow rates are available.
Filters of the adsorption type, such as activated Fuller’s earth, can be used; however, certain pour point
depressant and antioxidant additives may be removed from the fluid by these filters if the vacuum is too
high. The manufacturer of the fluid should be consulted to determine whether the possibility of additive
removal is a concern.
Just as when selecting pumps, care should be taken in selecting a filter for natural ester fluids. Since natural
ester fluid viscosities are higher than those for transformer oil, larger filters or higher fluid temperature may
be required to achieve the same flow rate.
19
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
If filters for mineral oil are used, a decrease in flow rate may be necessary unless steps are taken to
decrease the fluid viscosity by heating.
8.4.2.2 Dissolved water removal
If the dissolved water content must be lowered, a high vacuum dehydration system may be required. The
vacuum dehydrator is an efficient means of reducing the gas and water content of an insulating fluid to a
very low value. Two types of vacuum dehydrators are in general use today. The operating principle of both
is the same, i.e., the fluid is exposed to a high vacuum and heat for a short interval of time. In one method,
the exposure of the fluid is accomplished by spraying the fluid through a nozzle into a vacuum chamber. In
the other type of vacuum dehydrator, the fluid is allowed to flow over a series of baffles inside a vacuum
chamber, thus forming thin films so that a large surface is exposed to the vacuum. If the fluid contains solid
matter, it is advisable to filter it before processing it in the vacuum dehydrator because solid contaminants
may plug the nozzle of one type of dehydrator or pass through either type without being removed from the
fluid.
In addition to removing water, vacuum dehydrators will degas the fluid and remove any volatile acids.
Most dissolved acids, however, will be relatively unaffected, and it is doubtful whether the overall acidity
of the fluid will be much improved by the vacuum dehydration method. In either type of dehydrator, some
means of automatically recirculating a very wet fluid should be provided to prevent excessive water content
in the outgoing fluid.
Molecular sieve filters have been found effective for removing dissolved water from natural esters.
Activated grade 3A or 4A molecular sieves are recommended for water removal from natural ester fluids
and are effective over a broad temperature range, provided adequate care is taken in filter selection to
ensure sufficient residence time in the filter and a particulate filter is used downstream of the molecular
sieve filter (to catch fine particulates from the sieves).
8.5 Reclaiming
The removal of deterioration products is usually accomplished by the use of reclaiming processes involving
Fuller’s earth. A number of these processes are outlined for use with transformer oil in IEEE Std 637-1985.
The manufacturer of the fluid should be consulted for recommendations regarding reclaiming, as the
recommended treatments may vary from those outlined in IEEE Std 637-1985. Some additives provided
with new fluid may be removed by the reclamation process and may need to be added back to the reclaimed
fluid.
8.6 Mixtures of different types of dielectric fluids
Although in most cases different types of dielectric liquids are miscible (with the exception of silicone
fluid), such mixtures should be avoided in transformers and fluid processing equipment when possible due
to potential negative impact on key environmental or fire safety characteristics. Obviously, some low
percentage contamination cannot be avoided when retrofilling, particularly transformers and other
equipment with impregnated cellulose material. Successful retrofills with natural ester fluids replacing
conventional mineral oil, HMWH, and askarel have been reported. Consult the manufacturers of the fluids
or the transformer for advice if mixing is permissible or has occurred.
20
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
9. Safety and environmental care procedures
9.1 General
Typically, natural esters covered by this guide have been formulated to minimize health and environmental
hazards. Although no known hazard is involved in the normal handling and use of natural ester fluids,
additives to the base oil may differ. Users should obtain a material safety data sheet (MSDS) for each
natural ester fluid in use. Another way to determine the relative environmental safety is to obtain a report
from the U.S. EPA for fluids that carry the U.S. EPA Environmental Technologies Verification (ETV) logo
(see ETV Reports EPA 600/R-02/042 and EPA 600/R-02/043 [B12]).
Where manufacturer’s instructions differ from recommendations made in this guide, the manufacturer’s
instructions should be followed. Personnel should avoid eye/fluid contact and inhalation of spray mists, and
take appropriate steps if such incidents occur. MSDSs should provide appropriate guidelines with respect to
handling these fluids. Although not listed as a hazardous substance or waste by any federal agency,
disposal of natural ester fluids may require certain precautions. Environmental regulations can vary by
country, province, state, county, and local community. Currently, the U.S. EPA Spill Prevention, Control,
and Countermeasure (SPCC) regulation (40CFR112) makes no practical distinction between mineral oils
and vegetable oils, except for possible reduction in spill remediation requirements.
9.2 Leaks
During scheduled routine maintenance, or a regular equipment maintenance schedule, routine checks
should be made for leaks. For units with pressure gauges, constant periodic readings of zero gauge pressure
is a strong indication of a head space leak or some other problem that should be investigated. Areas to
check and repair should include valves, bushings, gauges, tap changers, welds, sample ports, manhole
covers, pipe fittings, and pressure relief valves. If the leak does not involve a replaceable seal, welding or
epoxy sealing kits may be used to seal it.
Proper care must be taken to protect the integrity of the natural ester fluid and equipment insulation if leak
repair requires lowering the liquid level. Clean and dry temporary fluid storage containers should be used.
Testing of the fluid before returning it to the equipment is recommended. The recommendations on
sampling, testing, and filling of transformers presented in this guide should be followed.
9.3 Minor spills
Minor spills, such as those occurring in the manufacture or repair of transformers and in testing natural
ester fluid, can be cleaned using absorbent rags. Using suitable cleaners facilitates the cleanup. Many
common solvents suitable for use with petroleum fluids may not be effective with natural esters. Common
household detergents are recommended. If thin films of natural esters have partially or completely
polymerized, household detergents may not be effective. The surface area should be saturated with a
suitable cleaner (water-based, biodegradable, non-flammable, non-conductive cleaner/degreaser) and then
steam or hot water spray should be applied. Contact the fluid manufacturer for recommended cleaners. See
IEEE Std 980.
9.4 Spills on soil
States typically have jurisdiction for spills onto soils. Many states currently do not list natural esters as soil
spill-regulated material. However, state and local regulations should be consulted to enable compliance
with any applicable regulations. Soil acts as an absorbent and typically offers excellent conditions for
natural biodegradation. Some natural esters can be classified as having “ultimate biodegradability,” an EPA
21
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
classification for materials that meet certain test criteria for relatively very fast biodegradation (U.S. EPA
Test Method OPPTS 835.3110 [B13]). If the presence of natural ester fluid is objectionable to the
authorities having jurisdiction, the soil can be treated with a bioremediation catalyst to maximize the
biodegradation rate. The two most frequently used technologies for oil spill cleanups in the United States
are fertilization and seeding. Fertilization helps speed up the biodegradation process by adding nutrients to
stimulate the growth of micro-organisms. Seeding adds additional micro-organisms to assist the native
organisms in the degradation process.
Natural ester fluids in spill situations behave much the same as motor oil or hydrocarbons of comparable
viscosity in terms of potential physical hazard (e.g., slippage). The same cleanup requirements may be
applicable. See IEEE Std 980.
9.5 Spills on water
Because natural ester fluids float on water, a spill can be contained by floating booms or dikes. If
containment equipment is unavailable or impractical, the natural ester fluid can be treated by applying
surface-active dispersant chemicals, also known as detergents, designed to remove the oil from the surface
of the water and into the water column. Only chemical dispersants that are listed on the National Product
Schedule (NCP) should be used to treat oil spills. For spills into water surfaces, check with the authorities
having jurisdiction for reporting and remediation requirements.
Once the natural ester fluid has been concentrated, it can be removed from the water surface by systems
normally used for vegetable oil spills. These systems include pumps, skimmers, and physical absorbents.
When collected, the fluid may be reclaimed or incinerated in a suitable burner. See IEEE Std 980.
22
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
A.1 Sources
[B1] ASTM D88-2007, Standard Test Method for Saybolt Viscosity.15

[B2] ASTM D117-2002, Standard Guide for Sampling, Test Methods, and Specifications for Electrical
Insulating Oils of Petroleum Origin.
[B3] Doble Engineering Power Factor Valued Oxidation Test Method, Doble Engineering, Boston, MA,
USA, pp. 1–23.
[B4] FCC Rules, Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 Part 761.1 (40CFR761.1), Protection of
Environment—Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Manufacturing, Processing, Distribution IN Commerce,
AND Use Prohibitions—Applicability.16
[B5] Factory Mutual Global, FM Approval Guide—Electrical Equipment, 2006.
[B6] IEC 61099:1992 (Corrigendum 1, 12/1993), Specifications for Unused Synthetic Organic Esters for
Electrical Purposes.17
[B7] IEC 61203:1992, Synthetic Organic Esters for Electrical Purposes—Guide for Maintenance of
Transformer Esters in Equipment.
[B8] IEEE Standards Collection; Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers, 1998 Edition.18, 19
[B9] McShane, C. P., Luksich, J., and Rapp, K. J., “Retrofilling aging transfomer with natural ester based
dielectic coolant for safety and life extension,” Proceedings of the IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry
Technical Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003.
[B10] Underwriters Laboratories Gas and Oil Equipment Directory, 2006.
[B11] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Technology Verification, Joint Verification
Statement for Vegetable Oil-Based Insulation Dielectric Fluid, Statement VS-R-02-02, June 2002, and VS-
R-02-03, June 2002.
[B12] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Technologies Verification (ETV) Reports,
EPA 600/R-02/042 and EPA 600/R-02/043, Office of Research and Development, National Center for
Environmental Research, Washington, DC.
15
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, USA (http://www.astm.org/).
16
CFR publications are available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, P.O. Box 37082,
Washington, DC 20013-7082, USA (http://www.access.gpo.gov/).
17
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, Case Postale 131, 3,
rue de Varembé, CH-1211, Genève 20, Switzerland/Suisse (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United
States from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036,
USA.
18
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
19
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Annex A are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
23
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
[B13] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Test Method OPPTS 835.3110, Office of Prevention,
Pesticides, and Toxic Substances Test Guidelines, Washington, DC, Sept. 1995.
[B14] VDE 0370-1978, Insulating Oils in Service in Transformers and Switchgear.
A.2 Reference papers and articles
[B15] Claiborne, C. C., Oommen, T. V., Le, H. D., Walsh, E. J., and Baker, J. P., “Enhanced cellulosic
insulation life evaluation in a high oleic vegetable oil dielectric fluid,” Paper 3C, Doble Conference,
Apr. 2002
[B16] McShane, C. P., “New safety dielectric coolants for distribution and power transformers,” IEEE
Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 24–32, May/June 2000.
[B17] McShane, C. P., Rapp, K. J., Corkran, J. L., Gauger, G. A., and Luksich, J., “Aging of paper
insulation in natural ester dielectric fluid,” IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exposition, Oct. 28–Nov.2, 2001.
[B18] Oommen, T. V., Claiborne, C. C., Walsh, E. J., and Baker, J. P., “A new vegetable oil based
transformer fluid: development and verification,” IEEE Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, Vancouver, BC, Canada, Oct. 2000, pp. 308–312.
24
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Annex B
(informative)
Additional technical information
B.1 Alternative oxidation stability tests
Power factor valued oxidation (PFVO) and sludge-free life (SFL) tests20 have been developed as indicators
of the oxidation stability of a dielectric fluid for transformer application (see Doble Engineering Power
Factor Valued Oxidation Test Method [B3]). The PFVO and SFL test results provide useful information
that can be applied to natural esters in a realistic operating environment. The SFL is determined by
withdrawing periodic samples that are monitored for evidence of sludge formation. Power factor
measurements of a fluid are recorded over time during fluid oxidation at 95 °C with a copper catalyst.
B.2 Relative moisture saturation of natural esters compared to conventional

mineral oil
Natural ester water solubility equations
Fluid A: Log y = −802/K + 5.7080
Fluid B: Log y = −684/K + 5.3318
where
K = 273.1 + °C
y is milliliters/kilogram (mL/kg) (ppm)
Table B.1—Calculated water saturation values (mg/kg) for natural ester fluids
Temperature Natural ester

Typical mineral oil
(°C) (average)
0 22 632
10 36 787
20 55 967
30 83 1171
40 121 1402
50 173 1661
60 242 1948
70 332 2263
80 447 2607
90 593 2982
100 773 3385
Modified with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory evaluation of several
synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings of the 86th Annual International Conference of Doble
Clients, Doble Engineering Company, Watertown, MA, USA, 2001.
20
For more information, see Instructions for Doble Oil Comparator 12E-I-871, Doble Engineering Company, Watertown, MA, USA,
pp. 1–23.
25
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
a
b
Source: IEEE Std C57.106-2002, pages 8–10.
Figure B.1—Natural ester fluid versus mineral oil saturation curves
26
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
B.3 DGA data
Table B.2—Gas content after 22 days in dark room temperature storage

without copper (µL/L)
Natural ester Natural ester

Gas Mineral oil
fluid A fluid B
Hydrogen (H2) 0 0 0
Oxygen (O2) 3 780 2 365 4 722
Nitrogen (N2) 70 405 42 880 87 180
Methane (CH4) 0 0 8
Carbon monoxide (CO) 3 10 16
Ethane (C2H6) 2 0 2
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 943 536 783
Ethylene (C2H4) 2 2 20
T T
Acetylene (C2H2) (see NOTE) (see NOTE) 7a
NOTE—T = trace amount < 1 µL/L.
a
Possible result of sealing the test vial with a torch per author statement.
Table B.3—Gas content after 22 days at 250 °C without copper (µL/L)

Gas Mineral oil
fluid A fluid B
Hydrogen (H2) 442 2 256 30
Oxygen (O2) 9 011 7 881 11 023
Nitrogen (N2) 152 479 119 285 109 790
Methane (CH4) 274 477 179
Carbon monoxide (CO) 11 143 14 605 11
Ethane (C2H6) 165 737 156
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 7 579 10 865 533
Ethylene (C2H4) 274 154 34
Acetylene (C2H2) 0 0 0
Total combustible 12 298 18 229 410
27
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Table B.4—Gas content after 22 days at 250 °C with copper (µL/L)

Gas Mineral oil
fluid A fluid B
Hydrogen (H2) 86 2 060 64
Oxygen (O2) 1 564 7 733 11 970
Nitrogen (N2) 81 528 148 920 148 305
Methane (CH4) 339 261 185
Carbon monoxide (CO) 10 114 12 130 104
Ethane (C2H6) 338 691 136
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 9 609 9 000 659
Ethylene (C2H4) 343 121 31
Acetylene (C2H2) 0 0 0
Total combustible 11 220 15 263 520
B.4 Service-aged natural ester fluids
Table B.5—Provisional guidelines for key properties values of service-aged natural

ester fluids for triggering prompt additional investigationa, b
IEEE value for voltage class

Test and ASTM method 230 kV
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV
and above
Dissipation factor (power factor), ASTM D924,
at 25 °C, % ≥3 ≥3 ≥3
Water content, ASTM D1533, mg/kg ≥ 400 ≥ 200 ≥ 150
Viscosity increase from value at time of initial
energization, ASTM D445, at 40 °C, % ≥ 10 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
Acid number, ASTM D974, mg KOH/gm ≥ 0.3 ≥ 0.3 ≥ 0.3
Flash point, ASTM D92, °C ≤ 275 ≤ 275 ≤ 275
Color, ASTM D1500 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5
Inhibitor content (see footnote c) (see footnote c) (see footnote c)
a
Applies only for transformers originally designed for and filled with new natural ester fluid.
b
These values are based on very limited accelerated aging and field samples taken over a period of up to ten years.
As statistically significant data is developed for each property, the property listing will be moved to Table 5.
c
Contact the manufacturer of the specific fluid for recommended inhibitor test method and trigger point values.
28
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
B.5 Examples of key properties of mixtures of a new natural ester with a new
mineral oil (see [B9])
Reprinted with permission from McShane, C. P., Luksich, J., and Rapp, K. J., “Retrofilling aging transfomer with
natural ester based dielectic coolant for safety and life extension,” Proceedings of the IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry
Figure B.2—Effect on the viscosity of a natural ester fluid mixed with mineral oil
29
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Figure B.3—Effect on the pour point of a natural ester fluid mixed with mineral oil
30
IEEE Std C57.147-2008
Figure B.4—Effect on the fire point and flash point of a natural ester fluid
mixed with mineral oil
B.6 Relative cooling performance properties
Four cooling performance properties of the dielectric coolant are often used for transformer design. These
include viscosity, coefficient of expansion, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity. As viscosity is the most
significant, limits are listed within the main clauses of this guide. However, for thermal design
optimization, it is useful to have the values of the other three properties. Specific typical values of thermal
properties for each brand of fluid should be obtained from the fluid manufacturer.
31

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IEEE Guide for Acceptance and

Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in

IEEE Power & Energy Society

IEEE Guide for Acceptance and

Approved 9 May 2008

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2008 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-5426-8 STD95796

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

C. Patrick McShane, Chair

Paul Boman N. Kent Haggerty Stanley Lindgren

David Aho Gary Engmann Jerry Murphy

Victor Berman Jim Hughes Ron Petersen

Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

3. Acronyms and abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 5

4. Fluid tests and the significance of each test................................................................................................ 5

4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 5

5. Fluid compatibility with transformer materials ........................................................................................ 12

6.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 12

8.1 Field screening................................................................................................................................... 17

9. Safety and environmental care procedures ............................................................................................... 21

9.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 21

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 23

Annex B (informative) Additional technical information ............................................................................ 25

1.3 System design

1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester fluids with other

Accredited Standards Committee C2, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®).3, 4

ASTM D923, Standard Practices for Sampling Electrical Insulating Liquids.

NFPA 70, National Electrical Code® (NEC®).10

3. Acronyms and abbreviations

4. Fluid tests and the significance of each test

Significance ASTM method

4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923 and ASTM D3305)

ASTM sampling practices are as follows:

⎯ Practices for sampling electrical insulating fluids (ASTM D923)

4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)

4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)

4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—Impulse conditions (ASTM D3300)

4.6 AC loss characteristics—Dissipation factor and relative permittivity

4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)

4.8 Color (ASTM D1500)

4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445)

4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298)

4.12 Pour point (ASTM D97)

4.13 Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)

4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3612)

⎯ Test method for gas content of insulating oils (ASTM D2945)

Limited testing and field experience indicates that

4.15 Oxidation stability

4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D1533)

4.18 Gassing of insulating oils under electrical stress and ionization

4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275, Method B)

4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059)

5. Fluid compatibility with transformer materials

6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester fluids for use in filling

6.2 Shipping containers

6.3 Check tests on receipt

Dehumidification of the air in the storage tank can also be used.

7. Evaluation of natural ester fluids received in new equipment and after

Value for voltage class