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Chapter 1

NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS AND POTENTIAL

USES OF SAFFLOWER (CARTHAMUS
TINCTORIUS L.) IN LIVESTOCK

P. G. Peiretti
Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Italian National Research
Council, Grugliasco, Italy

ABSTRACT
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is used in many countries as a
grain, forage or silage crop for many animals, including cattle, sheep and
goats. The aim of this review is to reveal the potential benefits of
safflower in animal nutrition. The nutritional properties of safflower
forage, hay, silage, seed and cake are described here in order to increase
knowledge on the chemical composition, in vitro organic matter
digestibility, gross energy and nutritive value of the plant during growth,
of the crop submitted to different forage preservation methods (wilting,
drying and ensiling) and of the seed, to allow its use in animal nutrition as
an alternative fibre and protein source, and as a source of bioactive
components (fatty acids and phenolic compounds, including serotonins,
flavonoids and lignans).

Keywords: safflower, forage, silage, nutritive value, digestibility, ruminant

2 P. G. Peiretti

INTRODUCTION
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is an annual oil-seed crop that
originated in the eastern Mediterranean area, and is usually grown for its
seeds, which are used as a source of pigments, and for its oil, which is used
both by food producers and in industry. Safflower seeds and cake are also used
in animal feeds (Stanford et al., 2001).
Safflower, which has been cultivated successfully in areas with relatively
low temperatures (Koutroubas and Papadoska, 2005) and in arid and semiarid
regions with limited water resources, because it is a drought-resistant plant
(Leshem et al., 2000; Quiroga et al., 2001; Bassil and Kaffka, 2002; Yau,
2007; Bar-Tal et al., 2008), has the potential of becoming a valuable fodder.
Safflower is moderately salt tolerant and can produce profitable crops on
saline soils (Kaya et al., 2003). It can also be grown successfully on poorly
fertile soil, and its yield and feed value are similar to or better than those of
alfalfa and oats (Smith, 1996). Furthermore, safflower is a readily available,
natural and economic source of polyunsatured fatty acids (PUFA), and it
provides good nutritive value forage, when harvested at the early flowering
stage. Moreover, as occurs in other forages, the chemical composition and in
vitro organic matter digestibility of the safflower plant is closely connected to
the stage of maturity, and when forage advances in maturity, the nutritive
value of the herbage tends to decrease (Peiretti, 2009). The safflower crop is
usually harvested to obtain an optimal compromise between yield and
nutritional value. This crop can be grazed directly by livestock, or preserved
either by ensiling or by hay-making, but the latter is only possible when the
crop can dry quickly and uniformly, because the process may be interrupted by
rain (Weinberg et al., 2002). Corleto et al. (2005) determined the biomass
yield and quality of the crop, grown under Mediterranean conditions, during
the reproductive stages, and determined the most appropriate harvesting period
for ensiling and hay purposes.
The aim of this review is point out the potential benefits of safflower for
animal nutrition purposes.

FORAGE
Safflower pastures are usually more than adequate for growing ruminants,
which have moderate requirements for pasture quality (Landau et al., 2005).
 Nutritional Aspects and Potential Uses of Safflower … 3

Furthermore, this quality can be manipulated, because it is negatively

correlated to the date of sowing and to the biomass accumulation. It should
also be taken into account that the flowering of safflower is day-length
dependent (Leshem et al., 2001). Sheep and cattle can graze succulent
safflower regrowth and stubble fields after the harvest, because safflower,
under arid Mediterranean conditions, has the potential of lengthening the
duration of lush green pastures. Landau et al. (2004) showed that a safflower
monoculture at the pre-blooming stage can be used safely as the only feed for
grazing sheep. Vonghia et al. (1992) reported that the intake of safflower green
fodder, cut to a 30 cm height, can exceed the protein and energy maintenance
requirements of sheep. These authors concluded that safflower, utilized as a
fodder crop in Southern Italy, showed a similar digestibility value to those of a
vetch–oat mixture when it was offered to rams.
Sheep are usually able to utilise safflower forage better than cattle,
because their superior chewing ability of spines likely prevents mouth
ulceration, since they selectively consume the most nutrient-dense parts of the
forage, choose not to eat the coarse stems and consume only leaves and buds
(Stanford et al., 2001). These authors did not observe any mouth irritation in
sheep due to the consumption of spines, although the sheep did reject low-
quality high-fibre stems of safflower more than sheep fed alfalfa. Mündel et al.
(2004) reported that cattle fed safflower forage are more susceptible to mouth
ulceration and have less ability to select the most nutritious feed particles than
sheep and goats. Spineless safflower cultivars have recently been introduced
as fodder for cattle (Leshem et al., 2001; Landau et al., 2004).
The yields and quality of forage safflower depend on the plant
development stages, which have already been described by Tanaka et al.
(1997) and Uslu (1997).
Peiretti (2009) studied the effects of the growth stage on the chemical
composition and gross energy of safflower harvested at five different stages of
development (Table 1), and found that safflower forage quality declined with
time as the DM content gradually increased. This author also found that the
ash and crude protein contents decreased, while the DM, OM and fibrous
fraction contents increased with time as the plant aged. The ether extract
content at the late vegetative and full branching stages was higher than in the
other stages, and this was probably due to the progressive translocation of the
lipid cell contents from the stems and leaves to the seeds. The variations in the
ash content during growth development, which was at its lowest in the early
flowering stage, determined the trend of the GE content, which increased
slowly with increasing growth stage, and reached its maximum at the last
4 P. G. Peiretti

analyzed stage. The mean nutritive value of the safflower crop decreased by
3.3 g/kg OM/day with advancing maturity (Peiretti, 2009). It can therefore be
said that plants cut at an early stage of growth yield less forage, but have fewer
cell wall constituents and a higher CP content, which together result in a high
nutritive value of the young herbage.
The DM content was very low throughout the growth period, and
increased by 83 to 157 g/kg fresh matter (FM) as the morphological stage
advanced, from the first to the last stage, respectively (Peiretti, 2009). Landau
et al. (2005) reported similar trends in safflower cultivated in Sardinia and
harvested during the first spring growth cycle for hay and ensiling purposes,
and found a DM content that increased from 110 to 220 g/kg FM. In different
trials conducted in Southern Italy, the DM content of safflower was found to
increase from 123 to 520 g/kg FM, at the bud initiation stage and at the seed
filling stage, respectively (Corleto et al., 2005). Conversely, Landau et al.
(2005) found that safflower cultivated in Israel showed a DM content that
remained steady, at less than 400 g/kg FM, throughout the growth cycle.
As far as the CP content of the safflower plant is concerned, Peiretti
(2009) found that it decreased from 272 to 124 g/kg DM as the maturity stage
increased, with an average daily decline of 5.5 g/kg DM/day. Corleto et al.
(2005), in a study conducted in South Italy, instead found a value of 2.2 g/kg
DM/day. These authors observed an increase in the fibrous components in
safflower harvested from bud initiation to the seed filling stage, and found that
the ADF and NDF contents varied from 193 to 403 g/kg DM and from 295 to
585 g/kg DM, respectively. The increase in ADF and NDF with increased
stage of maturity is due to the progressive translocation of the soluble cell
contents from the stems and leaves to the seeds. The authors also concluded
that the crop quality resulted in a decrease in the nutritive value, which was
related to a decrease in the leaf portion and an increased proportion of stems of
the biomass when the maturity stage increased.
Landau et al. (2005) found that the CP content in safflower grown in Isreal
declined from 140 to approximately 110 g/kg DM, while the CP content in the
DM of ingested safflower in Sardinia decreased from 190 to approximately
130 g/kg DM, the NDF content ranged from 410 and 490 g/kg DM and the in
vitro DM digestibility ranged from 650 to 660 g/kg. These authors found that
the NDF content of safflower DM ingested by sheep grazing in Sardinia was
in a range of 270 and 370 g/kg DM, and that in vitro DM digestibility
decreased from 790 to 720 g/kg during the spring growth cycle.
Safflower has been found to constitute an acceptable livestock forage in
North Dakota, if cut at or just after the bloom stage (Berglund et al., 1998).
 Nutritional Aspects and Potential Uses of Safflower … 5

Wichman et al. (2001) assessed the forage production potential of

safflower in the Nothern Great Plains and inter-mountain regions, and reported
a dry matter yield that ranged that from 2.46 to 11.55 Mg/ha.
Safflower could be used as a forage crop in Canada, but only in situations
where the seed could be predicted to be of an inferior quality, such as after an
early frost (Mündel et al., 2004).
Once seeds are fully mature, safflower has little value as forage, because
all the nutritional substances are in the seed (Mündel et al., 2004).

SILAGE
Knowledge on an appropriate conservation technology, such as ensiling, is
fundamental when safflower or another new forage crop is introduced for
animal feeding. The quality of a silage depends on the quality of the herbage
and on the fermentation process, and it is therefore necessary to have
knowledge on the relationship between the DM, pH, buffering capacity (BC)
and water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) contents of safflower at harvesting as
well as on the evolution of the fermentation process and silage quality.

Table 1. Chemical composition (g/kg DM) and gross energy (GE, MJ/kg
DM) of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) at five morphological stages
(adapted from Peiretti, 2009)

Stage Late Stem Initial Full Early

Vegetative Extension Branching Branching Flowering
DM 83a 108b 125c 145d 157d
OM 829a 859b 866b 871b 893c
a b
Ash 171 141 134b 129b 107c
a b
Crude protein 272 214 147c 125cd 124d
a bc
Ether extract 29 24 22c 26ab 23bc
a a
NDF 313 336 376b 469c 491c
a b
ADF 172 217 279c 374d 415e
GE 16.2a 16.5ab 16.5ab 16.9b 17.8c
Within a row, values with different letters differ (P < 0.05).

As far as the DM content of safflower at ensiling is concerned, Peiretti

(2009) reported that the low DM content of this crop, before the flowering
6 P. G. Peiretti

stage, prolongs the wilting period, and could have a negative effect on the
drying speed during wilting for ensiling purposes. In fact, at the early stage of
harvesting, safflower forage could be wilted for one or more days. This
practice increases the DM content and, at the same time, allows the intensive
fermentation and proteolysis processes of the silage to be reduced. Corleto et
al. (2008) stated that wilting is not necessary if harvesting is performed at the
flowering stage, or even at more mature stages.
Younger safflower plants have been found to have a lower DM yield, but
a higher nutritional value (Weinberg et al., 2002). These authors reported that
the BC and WSC values found in fresh safflower at ensiling were higher after
an earlier harvesting, and were found to favour the maintainance of lactic acid
fermentation.
Safflower silage has shown potential as an alternative fodder in semiarid
regions (Weinberg et al., 2002), and vegetative safflower has been made into
good quality silage, which could be used to substitute cereal silages in the diet
of high-yielding dairy cows, without affecting their dairy performance
(Landau et al., 2004). Safflower silage could also be used as a livestock feed,
especially when the quality and yield of the seed have been reduced by frost,
or, as an alternative, safflower forage could be made into silage, if harvested
prior to spine development, and it could thus be more easily used in cattle
feeds.
Research on the use of safflower as a silage was first initiated because this
plant is drought-resistant and adaptable to severe water shortage and the
frequent occurrence of droughts in arid and semi-arid regions, such as in Israel
(Weinberg et al., 2002). These authors studied the ensiling characteristics and
subsequent aerobic stability of safflower with the aim of developing an
adequate preservation technology for the introduction of this new forage crop.
They found that safflower, wilted to 290 and 411 g/kg fresh matter and sealed
in laboratory silos, was preserved satisfactorily by ensiling, and that
fermentation was enhanced by the addition of a suitable Lactobacillus
plantarum inoculant (at a rate of 3.3 x 105 colony-forming units/g crop).
Moreover, these silages, extracted from the laboratory silos after 60 days of
conservation, were found to be stable upon aerobic exposure, while safflower
ensiled in a concrete silo at 363 g/kg fresh matter was found to be unstable
once exposed to air. It is very important to determine the DM content of this
crop at wilting in order to avoid secondary fermentation by clostridia, which is
indicated by a lack of butyric acid in the silages at the end of conservation.
Weinberg et al. (2006) studied the effects of nitrogen fertilization,
irrigation and their interactions on the ensiling characteristics of safflower, and
 Nutritional Aspects and Potential Uses of Safflower … 7

found that it can be ensiled successfully when it is harvested at the budding

stage.
A few experiments have been conducted to evaluate the commercial
ensiling of safflower and its feeding value. Cazzato et al. (2011) determined
the yield, fermentation characteristics and feeding value of safflower ensiled in
sterile 4 liter anaerobic glass jars at different growth stages (at appearance of
the primary buds, at appearance of the secondary and tertiary buds and at the
25% flowering stage), and determined whether the use of an Lactobacillus
plantarum inoculant (at a rate of 106 colony-forming units/g crop) and a forage
wilting technique influenced the fermentation and nutritional quality of the
silage. These authors found that the harvest and ensilage of this crop in the
early harvesting stage, after 1 day of wilting, was very effective, as it increased
the DM and reduced the intensive proteolysis and fermentation processes in
the silage. They also concluded that wilting was not necessary when
harvesting was performed at the beginning of the flowering stage.
Landau et al. (2004) found that cows fed a mixed ration that included 4 kg
(as DM) of safflower silage consumed less DM than those fed corn plus a
wheat (CW) silage, although the diet did not affect the body live-weight or
condition score. The production and quality of the milk (fat, lactose and urea)
were similar between groups, while the crude protein content tended to be
lower in the milk of the cows fed safflower silage. The authors concluded that
safflower silage could be adopted extensively as a feed in Mediterranean
countries.

HAY
Safflower cut at the blooming stage and stored as hay is probably more
suitable as a feed for sheep and goats (Stanford et al., 2001). These authors
found that safflower hay was superior to alfalfa-grass hay for mature Canadian
ewes, and improved their fertility. Leshem et al. (2001) reported a DM yield of
up to 22 t/ha, and a high DM digestibility for safflower hay fed to heifers.
Spineless safflower hay, harvested at the late budding stage, has been used
successfully as the only feed for pregnant Holstein cows. The CP and NDF
contents of the hay were 148 and 406 g/kg DM, respectively. The in vitro and
in vivo DM digestibilities were 646 and 723 g/kg DM, respectively, while the
in vitro DM digestibilities of the orts, stems and leaves were 505, 546 and 729
g/kg, respectively (Landau et al., 2004).
8 P. G. Peiretti

The thorny nature of the plant naturally causes concern, and Mündel et al.
(2004) suggested that safflower hay should first be chopped to improve its
utilization as a feed for ruminants. Lardy and Anderson (2009) conducted
trials on ewes fed safflower hays, and they found that the intakes were similar
to those of conventional alfalfa hay-based diets, and that the ewes showed no
aversion to this forage.
Arslan et al. (2012) determined the effect of sowing ratios on forage yield
and quality in fodder pea-safflower mixtures (fodder pea 75% + safflower
25%, fodder pea 50% + safflower 50% and fodder pea 25% + safflower 75%)
and found that the crude fiber, ADF and NDF contents increased and CP
decreased as the safflower rates in the mixture increased. These authors
reported that pure safflower hay has high contents of ADF (36.4%) and NDF
(44.7%).

SEED AND MEAL

Safflower is primarily grown for its seeds, which are used to make oil,
meal and cake (residue from oil processing) for the food and feed markets.
Safflower oil is important because of its linoleic acid (LA, C18:2 n-6) content
(Bozan andTemelli, 2008). Rahamatalla et al. (1998) showed that the chemical
composition of safflower seeds changed when they were harvested at different
stages of development (10, 20, 30, and 40 days after flowering). The oil and
crude protein contents increased up to day 30, and then slightly decreased.
This trend may be due, as deductible from the rapid increase in seed volume
over time, to the stabilization of the oil content after completion of seed
maturation, while the decrease in CP content during the latter stage of
development could be due to the seed protein utilized for growth and
development and to the differences in the crude fibre content, which decreases
the CP content of the seed and meal. Furthermore, the seed yield can vary
considerably in function of the water disponibility, precipitation, humidity,
light, temperature and nutrient competition (Koutroubas et al., 2004).
Safflower seeds, meal and cake can be used as protein and energy
supplements for animal nutrition. Whole safflower seeds are mainly used for
pet food (birds and rodents), because they are normally too expensive to be
used as a feed ingredient for farm animals (Mündel et al., 2004), even though
whole safflower seeds are good sources of fat for lactating dairy cows
(Stegeman et al., 1992; Alizadeh et al., 2010). When the hulls are included in
the raw meal, it is relatively low in energy and high in fibre, with a protein
 Nutritional Aspects and Potential Uses of Safflower … 9

content of about 24%. On the other hand, when most of the hulls are removed,
the obtained safflower decorticated meal has a protein content of about 40%,
and a reduced fibre content. Raw safflower meal can be used in
backgrounding, diets where a source of natural protein is needed, or as a
protein supplement for low-protein forages (Lardy and Anderson, 2009).
Safflower cake is a high protein by-product that remains after the extraction of
the oil from safflower seeds, and it can be used as a protein supplement for
low protein forages in ruminant diets (Bolte et al., 2002; Bottger et al., 2002;
Dixon et al., 2003; Kott et al., 2003; Scholljegerdes et al., 2004) or in poultry
backgrounding diets (Yadav and Mathur, 2009; Ehsani et al., 2014), but it is
inadequate for other monogastric species, due to its deficiency in lysine,
methionine and isoleucine (Scholljegerdes et al., 2004). Ragni et al. (2015)
assessed the effects of a diet containing safflower cake (200 g/kg) on the
growth performance, carcass parameters and meat quality of Garganica breed
kids, and they concluded that safflower cake supplementation may be
considered as an economically and sustainably viable strategy, due to the low
cost of this byproduct. According to Peng et al. (2010), the nutritive value of
safflower cake is highly variable, and depends on the amount of hulls, the
cultivar and on the oil extraction extent, considering that safflower seeds may
be solvent extracted, expeller pressed or cold pressed. The oil content ranges
from 15%, for mechanically extracted safflower cake, to 1% for solvent-
extracted meals, whereas the protein content is about 40% in dehulled cake
and 20-25% in hulled cake (Dajue and Mundel, 1996).
The nutrient contents of the common safflower coproducts used for
livestock are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Nutrient content (g/kg DM) of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)

coproducts (adapted from Lardy and Anderson, 2009)

Seeds Meal Hay mature Hay immature

DM 930 920 909 901
CP 175 254 131 97
ADF 400 410 390 230
TDN (%) 91.2 57.0 55.0 58.0
NEm (Mcal/lb) 1.00 0.55 0.52 0.56
NEg (Mcal/lb) 0.65 0.29 0.26 0.31
CP = Crude Protein; ADF = Acid Detergent Fiber; TDN = Total Digestible Nutrients;
NEm = Net Energy for Maintenance; NEg = Net Energy for Gain.
10 P. G. Peiretti

Some researches have studied the effects of the dietary manipulation of

conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) on the muscle and adipose tissue composition
of ruminants, because their anticarcinogenic and antiatherogenic properties
may have positive effects on the health of consumers (McGuire and McGuire,
2000). Bottger et al. (2000) demonstrated that the fatty acid (FA) composition
of dietary, full-fat safflower seeds affected the adipose tissue composition of
CLA and trans-vaccenic acid in beef cattle, while Scholljegerdes et al. (2001)
reported a similar effect on the intestinal supply of these FAs. Bolte et al.
(2002) determined the effects of dietary supplementation of cracked high
linoleate safflower seeds (16.6%) and high oleate safflower seeds (14.7%) on
the FA content of the adipose tissue and muscle of lamb, and they reported
that lambs fed high linoleate safflower seeds had three- to four-fold higher
CLA and trans-vaccenic acid values than those of lambs fed a control diet. Mir
et al. (2000) studied the effect of a 6% safflower oil dietary supplementation
on the FA and CLA contents of lamb tissues (pars costalis diaphragmatis, leg,
rib, subcutaneous adipose and liver) and found that the CLA content of all the
tissues increased by more than 200%, the fat content only increased in the
subcutaneous adipose tissue, the α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n-3) and oleic
acid (OA, C18:1 n-9) contents decreased in all tissues, LA increased in all
tissues and palmitic acid (PA, C16:0) only increased in the diaphragm.
Dietary supplementation with oilseeds, such as safflower seed, may be one
way of meeting the nutritional demands associated with the growth, lactation
and post-partum reproduction of young beef cows (Bottger et al., 2002).
However, these authors reported that the fertility of primiparous beef heifers
was not improved by feeding cracked safflower seed, although cows
supplemented with high-linoleate safflower seeds showed greater body
condition scores 90 d postpartum than both high-oleate safflower seed
supplemented and corn-soybean supplemented cows. On the other hand,
Lammoglia et al. (1997) found that supplementation with safflower seeds high
in either linoleate or oleate during the prepartum period increased the
conception rates of primiparous beef cows. Encinias et al. (2004) reported that
high linoleic safflower seed supplementation to prepartum ewes increased the
survivability of the lambs at parturition. Lake et al. (2006) determined the
immune response and serum immunoglobulin G concentrations in beef calves
that were suckling cows supplemented with high-oleate or high-linoleate
safflower seeds, and reported that postpartum oilseed supplementation appears
to decrease the production of antibodies in response to an antigenic challenge
in suckling calves. In a research in Montana, it was found that feeding
supplemental high-linoleic whole safflower seeds to calves subjected to cold
 Nutritional Aspects and Potential Uses of Safflower … 11

stress improved their survival. Research conducted in North Dakota indicates

that feeding safflower seed may improve the survival of ewes prior to lambing
(Lardy and Anderson, 2009).

CROP BIOACTIVE COMPOUND

Safflower seeds and plants could also be interesting sources of bioactive
components (fatty acids and phenolic compounds).
The FA profile of the oil in the seed differs from that of the plant during
growth. Safflower is one of the best examples of plants that show variability in
the FA composition of seed oil. Velasco et al. (2001) reported that safflower
oil contains about 71-75% LA, 16-20% OA, 6-8% PA and 2-3% stearic acid
(SA, C18:0).
Samancı and Özkaynak (2003) studied the effect of different planting
dates on the seed yield, oil content and FA composition of three safflower
cultivars, and found that the effect of genotype on FA was greater than that of
environment. The LA content increased, while the seed yield, oil content, PA,
SA and OA contents decreased as the planting date was delayed. Gecgel et al.
(2007) showed that the sowing and harvest dates affected the oil and the four
major FA contents in safflower seeds, and that the oil content increased 15
days after the flowering period to maturity. In particular, the PA levels of the
saturated fraction regularly decreased during seed development, while the SA
levels showed fluctuations. Hamrouni et al. (2004) found that slight decreases
in SA were accompanied by rapid decreases in PA at the end of ripeness. An
inverse relationship emerged for the development of the unsaturated fraction in
the seeds. The LA content increased and the OA content decreased in the high
linoleic variety, while the OA content increased and the LA content decreased
in the high oleic variety during seed development. Furthermore, changes in the
composition of the LA and OA during the growing season were generally
attributed to seasonal weather differences, and in particular to temperature and
moisture (Nagaraj and Reddy, 1997). ALA was the dominant FA in the
safflower plant during the growth cycle, and LA predominated in each lipid
class, while ALA was present in less than 3 g/kg of the total FAs of the seed
during the seed formation and ripening processes (Gecgel et al., 2007).
Nagaraj and Reddy (1997) reported that ALA decreased with increasing
maturation and was absent in fully mature safflower seeds.
12 P. G. Peiretti

Table 3. Fatty acid composition (g/kg of total FA) of safflower (Carthamus

tinctorius) at five morphological stages (adapted from Peiretti, 2009)

Stage Late Stem Initial Full Early

vegetative extension branching branching flowering
C16 101b 90a 104bc 108cd 111d
b a a
C18 10 8 9 10c 11d
a bc cd
C18:1 n-9 17 15 14 16ab 13d
a ab ab
C18:1 n-7 0.4 2.1 2.7 6.4c 4.0bc
C18:2 n-6 175a 158b 186a 188a 182a
ab a bc
C18:3 n-3 563 586 552 531cd 521d
a a a
Others 134 140 132 140a 158b
Within a row, values with different letters differ (P < 0.05).

Srinivas et al. (1999) analyzed safflower petals to establish their red

pigment carthamin, protein and oil contents. These authors concluded that
safflower petal oil had many medicinal and therapeutic values, and that its FAs
profile was characterized by high LA and ALA contents, while γ-linolenic acid
(GLA, 18:3 n-6) was present to an extent of 2-3%.
Peiretti (2009) determined the FA composition of the safflower plant at
five morphological stages (Table 3) and found that ALA, the dominant FA in
the safflower during the growth cycle, ranged from 521 to 586 g/kg of the total
FAs, and that the ALA content decreased by 11% between stem extension and
early flowering. LA and PA ranged from 158 to 188 and from 90 to 111 g/kg
of the total FAs, respectively. The remaining FAs were present in all the
safflower stages with variable trends.
Friedman (2002) monitored the value of pastures sown for ruminants in
the Northern Negev desert of Israel by means of an NIRS-aided methodology,
and found only 0.3-0.4% of condensed tannins in rain-fed safflower.
Yaginuma et al. (2002) showed that strong visible light caused a
significant increase in the polyphenol contents in the seedlings of safflower,
and that additional water stress further increased the polyphenol contents.
These authors hypothesized that the adaptation of safflower to drought could
be associated with polyphenol accumulation in the foliage, and this could
negatively affect the DM intake in cows fed safflower grown in a
Mediterranean environment.
The phenolic compounds in safflower seeds, including serotonins, lignans
and flavonoids, have recently been found to increase plasma high density
lipoprotein cholesterol levels of plasma, to stimulate bone formation in
 Nutritional Aspects and Potential Uses of Safflower … 13

estrogen deficient rats, and to inhibit melanin synthesis (Kim et al., 2006).
Kang et al. (1999) showed that steamed safflower seeds may be useful as
potential natural antioxidants. Kim et al. (2006) indicated that safflower seeds
steamed after harvesting in late July could be used as a potential dietary
supplement source of phenolic compounds for the prevention of osteoporosis,
atherosclerosis and aging. Kim et al. (2007) suggested that the phenolic
compounds in safflower seeds may play roles as protective phytochemical
antioxidants against several reactive oxygen-mediated pathological disorders.
Salem et al. (2011) quantified phenolic extracts obtained from different
colored safflower flowers (yellow, orange and red) harvested at three different
stages of development (Table 4), and they underlined the potential health
benefits that could be obtained from the consumption of safflower flowers.
These authors suggested that this part of the plant could be used as a
nutraceutical product or as a valuable flavour, which could add functional
properties to food on the basis of its high antioxidant activities, due to its
polyphenol content.

Table 4. The total polyphenol (mg gallic acid equivalents/g), flavonoid (mg
catechin equivalents/g) and condensed tannin (mg catechin equivalents/g)
contents of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) flower extracts at three
morphological stages (adapted from Salem et al., 2011)

Total Phenolic Total Flavonoid Condensed Tannins

Yellow flowers
Bud formation 8.7a 2.1a 1.3a
b a
Flower formation 7.8 2.2 1.3a
c a
Full flowering 6.8 2.6 1.3a
Orange flowers
Bud formation 16.4b 5.2b 4.3c
a a
Flower formation 31.6 7.3 11.4a
a c
Full flowering 30.9 3.8 5.2b
Red flowers
Bud formation 16.2a 4.0b 3.5b
b a
Flower formation 15.7 6.0 8.1a
c c
Full flowering 8.5 3.3 2.5c
Values with different superscripts are significantly different at P < 0.05.
14 P. G. Peiretti

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Mrs. Marguerite Jones for the English
editing.

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N.G.

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