SLP 5 system prepares the body for “fight-or-flight”

responses, while the parasympathetic nervous

NERVOUS SYSTEM
system is active during restful periods.
• The nervous system uses electrical
impulses to collect, process and respond
to information about the environment. NEURON
• The nervous system is composed of cells,
• The basic unit of the nervous system is
tissues, and organs that regulate the
the nerve cell, called neuron. Neurons
body’s responses to internal and external
have dendrites and axons that aid in
stimuli.
transmitting the message.
• Each component of the nervous system
• The unique structure of neurons makes
has a specific role to do as an important
them specialized for receiving and
part of a team.
transmitting electrical impulses
• The nervous system has two main
throughout the body. Neurons are
divisions, which are the Central Nervous
supported by glial cells, which surround,
System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous
protect, and insulate them.
System (PNS).
• All neurons have several features in
• The Central Nervous System (CNS)
common, including a cell body,
serves as the main “processing center”
dendrites, and an axon. These structures
for the entire nervous system. It has two
are important for transmitting neural
main components, which are the brain,
impulses, electrical signals that allow
and the spinal cord. Commands to the
neurons to communicate with one
body originate in the brain and the spinal
another.
cord connects the brain with the rest of
• Neurons are specialized, depending on
the nerves in the body.
their required functions:
• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
contains all nerves that extend outside - Sensory neurons carry impulses from sense
the brain and spinal cord. It has two main organs, such as the eyes or ears.
divisions, which are the Somatic Nervous
- Motor neurons carry impulses to muscles and
System and the Autonomic Nervous
glands.
System.
- Interneurons transfer signals between sensory
- The somatic nervous system (SNS) regulates
and motor neurons, as well as in between other
voluntary activities such as muscular movement.
interneurons.
It also controls reflexes, such as pulling your hand
away from the hot surface of a stove. • In a resting neuron, there is a separation
of ions in the cell regulated by sodium-
- The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates
activities that are not under conscious control potassium pumps. If a neuron receives a
large enough signal, the resting potential
and has two divisions that are opposite of one
another: the sympathetic and parasympathetic changes, producing an electrical impulse
called an action potential. Once an
nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous
impulse begins, it moves down the axon
until it reaches the axon terminal.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM many physiological activities including
growth, metabolism, appetite, puberty
• Like the nervous system, the endocrine
and fertility.
system is a regulatory system. However,
• Hormones affect various processes in the
instead of using electrical impulses for
body as they regulate and balance the
signaling, it produces and uses chemical
functioning of organs, tissues, and cells.
signals called hormones, which travel
Hormones greatly influence growth,
through the bloodstream and control the
appearance, emotions, and reproductive
actions of cells and organs. This control
functions. It plays an essential role in the
system usually brings about slow changes
prevalence of disorders such as diabetes,
in the body because chemical agents
thyroid disease, growth and/or sexual
move more slowly than nerve impulses.
dysfunction. Hormones act in very small
The major glands in the body are the
amounts. An increase or decrease in the
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus,
said amount may result in a body
adrenal, pancreas, ovaries and testes.
disorder due to hormonal imbalance.
• A hormone is a chemical that is made by
specialist cells, usually within an
endocrine gland, and it is released into
the bloodstream to send a message to
another part of the body. It is often
referred to as a ‘chemical messenger’.
Hormones are found in all multicellular
organisms and their role is to provide an
internal communication system between
cells located in distant parts of the body.
• In the human body, hormones are used
for two types of communication. The first Regulation of the endocrine system
is for communication between two
endocrine glands, where one gland • The endocrine system is regulated by
releases a hormone which stimulates negative feedback mechanisms that
another target gland to change the levels work to maintain homeostasis. The
of hormones that it is releasing. The concentration of hormones, and how
second is between an endocrine gland they affect other body systems, are
and a target organ, for example when the controlled in this manner.
pancreas releases insulin which causes • For example, blood glucose regulation is
muscle and fat cells to take up glucose controlled by insulin and glucagon,
from the bloodstream. hormones produced by the pancreas.
• Since hormones are released into the • When blood glucose increases, the
bloodstream and can therefore be pancreas releases insulin, which
carried around the entire body, they can stimulates the uptake of glucose from
perform both of these actions on many the blood. This prevents blood glucose
different targets. The complex interplay from getting too high.
between the glands, hormones and other • When blood glucose concentration
target organs is referred to as the drops, the pancreas releases glucagon
endocrine system. Hormones affect which stimulates the breakdown of
 glycogen and releases glucose into the
blood. This raises blood glucose back to
normal levels.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The Reproductive System is a collection
of organs in an organism that function
together for sexual reproduction. The
male reproductive organs are the penis,
the testicles, the epididymis, the vas
deferens, and the prostate gland. The
female reproductive organs are the
vagina, uterus (womb), fallopian tubes
and ovaries.
• Hormones play an important role in both
male and female reproductive systems.
The pituitary gland controls the functions
of both the testes and the ovaries. These
hormones keep the reproductive system
properly functioning.
• Hormones secreted by the ovaries and a
small gland in the brain called the
pituitary gland control the menstrual
cycle.
• A feedback mechanism is the process
through which the level of one substance
influences the level of another
substance. A negative feedback affects
the production of hormones in the
menstrual cycle. High levels of one
hormone may inhibit the production of
another hormone.
HORMONES IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION
• Hormones are the drivers of human
reproduction, responsible for sexual
development and controlling the
menstrual cycle.
• Sex hormones are responsible for driving
sexual development (puberty). The main
reproductive hormones are estrogen and
testosterone. Estrogen causes eggs to
mature in ovaries once a girl hits puberty.
These are then released at regular
intervals during the menstrual cycle.
Testosterone stimulates sperm
production in males.
• Other hormones involved in the
menstrual cycle include:
- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), causing
maturation of an egg in the ovary.
- Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulating the
release of the egg.
- Estrogen and progesterone are involved in
maintaining the uterus lining.
• When these reproductive hormones do
not work as they should, fertility
problems can occur. Our understanding
of these hormones and their functions
means we can assist fertility, for example
through in vitro fertilization, also known
as IVF.
TESTOSTERONE
• Testosterone is a hormone that is
responsible for many of the physical
characteristics specific to adult males. It
plays a key role in reproduction and the
maintenance of bone and muscle
strength.
• Testosterone is produced by the gonads
(by the Leydig cells in testes in men and
by the ovaries in women), although small
quantities are also produced by the
 adrenal glands in both sexes. It is an
androgen, meaning that it stimulates the
development of male characteristics.
• Present in much greater levels in men
than women, testosterone initiates the
development of the male internal and
external reproductive organs during
foetal development and is essential for
the production of sperm in adult life. This
hormone also signals the body to make
new blood cells, ensures that muscles
and bones stay strong during and after
puberty and enhances libido both in men
and women.
• Testosterone is linked to many of the
What happens if I have too much testosterone?
changes seen in boys during puberty
(including an increase in height, body and
pubic hair growth, enlargement of the
penis, testes and prostate gland, and
changes in sexual and aggressive
behaviour). It also regulates the
secretion of luteinising hormone and
follicle stimulating hormone. To effect
these changes, testosterone is often
converted into another androgen called
dihydrotestosterone.
• In women, testosterone is produced by
the ovaries and adrenal glands. The
majority of testosterone produced in the
ovary is converted to the principle female
sex hormone, oestradiol.
How is testosterone controlled?
• The regulation of testosterone
production is tightly controlled to
maintain normal levels in blood, although
levels are usually highest in the morning
and fall after that. The hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland are important in
controlling the amount of testosterone
produced by the testes. In response to
gonadotrophin-releasing hormone from
the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland
produces luteinising hormone which
travels in the bloodstream to the gonads
and stimulates the production and
release of testosterone.
• As blood levels of testosterone increase,
this feeds back to suppress the
production of gonadotrophin-releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus which,
in turn, suppresses production of
luteinising hormone by the pituitary
gland. Levels of testosterone begin to fall
as a result, so negative feedback
decreases and the hypothalamus
resumes secretion of gonadotrophin-
releasing hormone.
• The effect excess testosterone has on the
body depends on both age and sex. It is
unlikely that adult men will develop a
disorder in which they produce too much
testosterone and it is often difficult to
spot that an adult male has too much
testosterone. More obviously, young
children with too much testosterone may
enter a false growth spurt and show signs
of early puberty and young girls may
experience abnormal changes to their
genitalia. In both males and females, too
much testosterone can lead to
precocious puberty and result in
infertility.
• In women, high blood levels of
testosterone may also be an indicator of
polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with
this condition may notice increased acne,
body and facial hair (called hirsutism),
balding at the front of the hairline,
increased muscle bulk and a deepening
voice.
• There are also several conditions that
cause the body to produce too much
testosterone. These include androgen
resistance, congenital adrenal
hyperplasia and ovarian cancer.
 • The use of anabolic steroids
(manufactured androgenic hormones)
shuts down the release of luteinising
hormone and follicle stimulating
hormone secretion from the pituitary
gland, which in turn decreases the
amount of testosterone and sperm
produced within the testes. In men,
prolonged exposure to anabolic steroids
results in infertility, a decreased sex
drive, shrinking of the testes and breast
development. Liver damage may result
from its prolonged attempts to detoxify
the anabolic steroids. Behavioural
changes (such as increased irritability)
may also be observed. Undesirable
reactions also occur in women who take
OESTRADIOL
anabolic steroids regularly, as a high
concentration of testosterone, either
natural or manufactured, can cause
masculinisation (virilisation) of women.
What happens if I have too little testosterone?
• If testosterone deficiency occurs during
fetal development, then male
characteristics may not completely
develop. If testosterone deficiency
occurs during puberty, a boy’s growth
may slow and no growth spurt will be
seen. The child may have reduced
development of pubic hair, growth of the
penis and testes, and deepening of the
voice. Around the time of puberty, boys
with too little testosterone may also have
less than normal strength and
endurance, and their arms and legs may
continue to grow out of proportion with
the rest of their body.
• In adult men, low testosterone may lead
to a reduction in muscle bulk, loss of
body hair and a wrinkled ‘parchment-
like’ appearance of the skin.
Testosterone levels in men decline
naturally as they age. In the media, this is
sometimes referred to as the male
menopause (andropause).
• Low testosterone levels can cause mood
disturbances, increased body fat, loss of
muscle tone, inadequate erections and
poor sexual performance, osteoporosis,
difficulty with concentration, memory
loss and sleep difficulties. Current
research suggests that this effect occurs
in only a minority (about 2%) of ageing
men. However, there is a lot of research
currently in progress to find out more
about the effects of testosterone in older
men and also whether the use of
testosterone replacement therapy would
have any benefits.
• Estradiol is a powerful reproductive
hormone that has a wide range of actions
in both men and women.
• Estradiol is a steroid hormone made from
cholesterol and is the strongest of the
three naturally produced estrogens. It is
the main estrogen found in women and
has many functions, although it mainly
acts to mature and maintain the female
reproductive system. A natural increase
in blood estradiol concentrations during
the menstrual cycle causes an egg to
mature and be released; that is, to be
ovulated. Another important role of
estradiol is to thicken the lining of the
uterus so that the egg can implant if it
becomes fertilized. Estradiol also
promotes development of breast tissue
and increases both bone and cartilage
density.
• In premenopausal women, estradiol is
mostly made by the ovaries. Estradiol
levels vary throughout the monthly
menstrual cycle, being highest at
ovulation and lowest at menstruation.
Estradiol levels in women reduce slowly
 with age, with a large decrease occurring
at the menopause when the ovaries
‘switch off’. In pregnant women, the
placenta also produces a lot of estradiol
especially towards the end of the
pregnancy.
• Men also produce estradiol; however,
the amounts produced are much lower
than in women. Within the testes, some
What happens if I have too much estradiol?
testosterone is changed into estradiol
and this estradiol is essential for the
production of sperm. In both sexes,
estradiol is also made in much smaller
amounts by fat tissue, the brain and the
walls of blood vessels.
How is estradiol controlled?
• The production of estradiol in women’s
ovaries is controlled by hormones
released from both the hypothalamus in
the brain and the pituitary: this is called
the reproductive axis in the female and is
also known as the hypothalamic–
pituitary– ovarian (or gonadal) axis. The
hypothalamus in the base of the brain
releases a hormone called gonadotropin-
releasing hormone. Gonadotropin-
releasing hormone then acts on the
pituitary gland to cause the release of
two further hormones, luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH). LH and FSH enter the
blood and stimulate the ovary; in
particular, LH and FSH act on the cells
that surround each egg (these cells plus
the egg form a unit called a follicle)
stimulating the follicle to grow and
develop. In the last stages of growth and
development the cells surrounding the
egg will produce estradiol. After the egg
has been ovulated, the ovulated follicle
will become a corpus luteum. The corpus
luteum produces both progesterone and
estradiol and the primary role of these
What happens if I have too little estradiol?
two hormones is to ensure that the lining
of the uterus is fully prepared for
implantation, if fertilization occurs. The
amount of estradiol (and progesterone)
in the circulation communicates with the
hypothalamus and pituitary to control
the development of an egg, ovulation
and the menstrual cycle.
• In women, too much estradiol can have a
number of effects. In mild cases, excess
estradiol may cause acne, constipation,
loss of libido and depression. More
severe effects can include, weight gain,
female infertility, stroke, heart attack
and an increased risk of developing
uterine and/or breast cancer.
• In men, too much estradiol can also
cause sexual dysfunction, loss of muscle
tone, increased body fat and the
development of female characteristics,
such as breast tissue. Estradiol becomes
more dominant as a man ages and his
testosterone production reduces, which
scientists think may be a contributing
factor in the development of prostate
cancer.
• The combined oral contraceptive pill (the
pill) contains synthetic forms of both
progesterone and estradiol. The pill
works by preventing ovulation, making it
nearly 100% effective in preventing
pregnancy. As well as preventing
ovulation, the synthetic hormones make
the cervical mucus thicker and therefore
more difficult for the sperm to move
through, thereby reducing their chances
of getting to the uterus and oviducts. The
synthetic estradiol was added to prevent
breakthrough bleeding, which
sometimes occurs with the
progesterone-only pill (the mini pill).
 • Estradiol is necessary for bone
development, so people with low
estradiol tend to have skeletal problems
like inadequate bone growth and
osteoporosis. Girls will also encounter
problems at puberty such as a delay in, or
failure of, breast development, a
disrupted or absent menstrual cycle and
infertility. Estradiol also has important
roles in the brain, where low levels can
cause depression, fatigue and mood
swings.
• A woman’s estradiol production falls
naturally at the menopause and causes
many of its symptoms. Initially these
include night sweats, hot flushes, vaginal
dryness and mood swings, while in the
long term she is more likely to develop
osteoporosis. Estradiol is used in
hormone replacement therapy to relieve
these symptoms of the menopause in
women. There are many recognized pros
and cons to hormone replacement
therapy. See the articles on menopause
and ‘What is HRT?’ for more information.
SLP 6
What is Evolution
• The change in inherited traits over
successive generations in populations of
organisms
• This allowed organisms to adapt and
survive in their environment
Types of Evolution
• Divergent Evolution
- Splitting in ancestral population
into two or more sub-
populations that are
geographically isolated from one
another
• Convergent Evolution
- Is an increase in similarities
among species derived from
different ancestors as a result of
similar adaptation to similar
environment.
Sources of Evolution
• Fossils are examples of evidences that
paleontologists use in studying evolution.
They are traces of organisms that lived in
the past and were preserved by natural
process or catastrophic events. They can
be remains of organisms which include
bones, shells, teeth and also feces
embedded in rocks, peat, resin, and ice.
• Paleontologist is a person who studies
fossils.
• Most fossils were commonly found in
sedimentary rocks. They were from the
hard parts of the organism like woody
stem, bones, or teeth.
• Another type of fossil is an imprint or
impression. Imprints are shallow external
molds left by animal or plant tissues with
little or no organic materials present.
Compression is the other side with more
organic material.
• Paleontologists make initial estimates of
the age through the position in the
sedimentary rocks. Fossils found in the
bottom layer are much older than those
found in upper layer of rocks.
RELATIVE DATING
• Relative dating is a method used to
determine the age of the rocks by comparing
them with the rocks in the other layer. The
younger sedimentary rock layer is assumed
to be found on top and the older rock is found
at the bottom layer. Fossils found at the
bottom layer are assumed to be older than
those on the upper layer.
 • The fossils of invertebrates found at various kinds of organisms in a
the bottom part of the rock layer particular period of time on earth.
suggest that invertebrates are
TYPES OF STRUCTURE
probably one of the first and oldest
organisms that lived on earth. • Another hint of evolutionary concept
is from the comparative anatomy.
ABSOLUTE DATING
• Structures from different species
• Another method is through the use which have similar internal
of radioactive isotopes such as framework, position, and embryonic
carbon-14. development are considered to be
• Radiometric dating is a method used homologous.
to determine the age of rocks using • Homologous structures may perform
the decay of radioactive isotopes different functions in the species
present in rocks. living in the different environment,
• All organisms have decaying carbon- or it may have the same origin but
14 in it. Plants and animals that are different functions.
still alive constantly replace the • Structures of unrelated species may
supply of carbon in their body and evolve to look alike, because the
the amount of carbon -14 in their structure is adapted to similar
body stays the same. When an function. These are called analogous
organism dies, carbon-14 starts to structures.
decay. • Analogous structures have similar
• Carbon dating is used to tell the age functions but different origin.
of organic materials. Art collectors
use carbon dating to determine if a
piece of art work is genuine or not
• Some fossils have no living
representatives today due to
extinction. By comparing the fossils
in the different rock layers, scientists
were able to predict the changes that
occurred in the characteristics of
various organisms and to reconstruct
the order of changes that these
generations of organisms have
undergone.
• Out of the examination of layers of
rocks and dating fossils, scientists
were able to develop the Geologic
Time Scale.
• The Geologic Time Scale shows the
major events in the Earth’s history. It
also shows the appearance of