Potential and Limitation of Biocontrol Methods Against Vibriosis: A Review

Aquaculture International
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-023-01091-x
Potential and limitation of biocontrol methods

against vibriosis: a review
Nurul Ashikin Elias1 · Mohamad Sofi Abu Hassan1 · Nor Asma Husna Yusoff1 ·

Okomoda Victor Tosin1,2 · Noor Aniza Harun1,3 · Sharifah Rahmah1,4 · Marina Hassan1
Received: 9 January 2023 / Accepted: 12 March 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
Abstract
The shrimp industry has an urgent challenge of managing the outbreak of diseases majorly
caused by bacteria and viruses. Vibriosis is one of the most common diseases encountered
in hatchery and aquaculture shrimp farms. The vibriosis-affected shrimps exhibit symp-
toms including an empty gut, loss of appetite, and red to brown gills, leading to body mal-
function and mortality. Better management practices in hatcheries and grow-out ponds are
prerequisites to preventing and controlling Vibrio sp. infection. Chemicals and antibiotics
have been applied to control and treat disease-causing pathogens. However, many of these
chemicals are not approved for use in several countries for the fear of bioaccumulation
in the body and environment of treated organisms as well as the establishment of chem-
ical-resistant strains over time. Therefore, biological control alternatives that are effec-
tive, economical, and environmentally safe have been suggested and are reviewed herein.
In this review, we advanced the potentials of probiotics and prebiotics, medicinal plants,
biofloc, bacteriophages, and nanoparticle technology as bioactive measures in preventing
and curing different vibriosis infections in addition to evaluating the limitations and future
perspectives.
Keywords Antibiotics · Bacteria · Control methods · Diseases · Vibrio spp.
Handling editor: Brian Austin.
* Marina Hassan
marina@umt.edu.my
1
Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, 21030 Terengganu, Malaysia
2
Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, College of Forestry and Fisheries, Joseph Sarwuan
Tarka University (Formerly, Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi), P.M.B. 2373, Makurdi,
Nigeria
3
Advance NanoMaterials (ANOMA) Research Group, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, 21030 Terengganu, Malaysia
4
Faculty of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus,
21030 Terengganu, Malaysia
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
Introduction
Aquaculture is rapidly expanding and has increased total production year in and year out,
exceeding the capture fisheries for many species. It has become the fastest-growing food
production, hence an important part of securing global food security (Ottinger et al. 2016;
Sun et al. 2016; FAO 2019). Across the region, Asia is dominating world aquaculture pro-
duction with an estimated 89% share, among which China, Vietnam, and Indonesia are the
top producers accounting for around 64% of the total production (Tacon 2020). Out of the
shellfish cultured in the world, it is dominated by shrimp aquaculture (e.g., Litopenaeus
vannamei and Penaeus monodon) (Amatul-Samahah et al. 2020). There is a large export
market for this commodity beyond what capture fisheries can sustain, hence, because of
the demand for shrimp products, aquaculture intervention to enhance the stock (e.g., rear-
ing systems, stocking density) have shifted from intensive to super-intensive systems,
hence resulting in the outbreaks of diseases (FAO 2016, 2017; Ina-Salwany et al. 2019).
Disease-causing pathogens are commonly viral (e.g. WSSV, IHHNV, Taura Syndrome,
Yellow-Head virus), bacterial (e.g. EMS/AHPND, Luminescent syndrome, brown-spot
diseases, white feces syndrome), spores (e.g., microsporidiasis) and parasites (e.g., Amoe-
bic gill disease), with bacterial being the most prominent and vibriosis the most nota-
bly of the diseases (Amatul-Samahah et al. 2020). An overview of some common shrimp
diseases is given in Table 1. So far, bacterial species belonging to 13 genera that affect
marine aquatic species have been reported (Fitzsimmons et al. 2011; Chiew et al. 2019).
Vibriosis is a well-known bacterial disease caused by gram-negative facultative anaer-
obic bacteria, Vibrio spp. such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. harveyi, V. anguillarum,
V. splendidus, and V. vulnificus (Aguilera-Rivera et al. 2018; 2019; Situmorang et al. 2020;
Anirudhan et al. 2021). They can cause complete mortality of infected marine and shell-
fish aquaculture in hatcheries and grow-out ponds (Dash et al. 2017; Ina-Salwany et al.
2019; Amatul-Samahah et al. 2020). In India, early mortality syndrome (EMS) caused by
V. parahaemolyticus was reported to cause large-scale mortality of L. vannamei in grow-
out ponds (Kumar et al. 2014). Another report from India indicated that 7 out of 40 shrimp
aquaculture farms were harboring V. parahaemolyticus of which contained 1 multidrug-
resistant (MDR) strain (Narayanan et al. 2020). Southeast Asia including China, Thailand,
and the Philippines also reported losses in shrimp farming caused by this EMS/AHPND
(Tran et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2014; de la Peña et al. 2015). In Malaysia, the total eco-
nomic losses from EMS/AHPND (2011–2014) was estimated to reach USD 0.49 billion
(Annual Fisheries Statistics 2014); however, the prevalence slowly decreased year by year.
The estimation of FAO (2013) revealed the fact that vibriosis outbreaks caused approxi-
mately USD 1 billion in losses in Asia, with 100% losses recorded for infected post-larvae.
Recently in late 2019, a new lethal disease caused by Vibrio spp. called “glass post-larval
diseases” was reported in shrimp hatcheries in China causing mass mortality of about 90%
in less than 48 h of infection (Zhou et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2022). Novriadi (2016) had
earlier summarized the impact of vibriosis in aquaculture around the world as presented in
Table 2. According to Butt et al. (2021), aside from the pathogen itself, stressful environ-
mental factors such as salinity fluctuations, temperature changes, and low dissolved oxy-
gen in shrimp culture may cause rapid bacteria multiplication in shrimp blood, thereby
causing an outbreak. The current review paper perused through some of the most recent
information on the Web of Science indexed journal as regards the application of biological
methods in improving shrimp immunity and reducing the detrimental effects of vibriosis in
shrimp species.
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Table 1 Common types of shrimp diseases and their causative agents
Causes Pathogen Diseases References
Bacteria • Vibrio alginolyticus, • Vibriosis Aguilera-Rivera et al. (2018), 2019; Han et al.. (2019);
• V. anguillarum, • White feces disease (WFD) (commonly associ- Vinay et al. (2019); Bachand et al. (2020), Situmorang
• V. campbelli, ated with several pathogens including Vibrio et al. (2020); Setiawan et al. (2015)
• V. damsela, • Brown spot disease, Black splinter, Seagull Hou et al. (2018); Tran (2019); Huang et al. (2020);
• V. harveyi, syndrome Wang et al. (2020)

• V. parahaemolyticus, • Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease Stern and Sonnenholzner (2014); Valente and Wan
• V. penaeicida, (AHPND) or Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) (2021)
• V. vulnificus, • Running Mortality Syndrome (RMS) Restrepo et al. (2018); Muthukrishnan et al. (2019); Holt
• V. nereis, et al. (2020); Peña-Navarro et al. (2020a, b); Tran et al.
• V. tubiashi, (2013); Peña-Navarro et al. (2020a, b)
• V. fluvialis, Alavandi et al. (2019); Venkateswarlu and Venkatrayulu
• V. splendidus, (2019); Rao and Satyanarayana (2020)
• V. nigripulchritudo
• Aeromonas hydrophila • Haemorrhagic, ulcers, fin rot, mass mortality Yang et al. (2019); Zhou et al. (2019)
• Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis bacterium (NHP-B) • Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis Tran et al. (2013); Mai et al. (2020)
• Mycobacterium sp. • Mycobacteriosis Chiew et al. (2019)
• Photobacterium damselae subsp. • Black gill disease Venkateswarlu and Venkatrayulu (2019); Wang et al.
(2020); Gooding et al. (2020)
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Table 1 (continued)
Causes Pathogen Diseases References
13
Viruses • White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) • White spot syndrome disease Wang et al. (2019a); Pilotto et al. (2019); Huang et al.
(2020)
• Hepatopancreatic parvovirus (HPV) • Hepatopancreatic parvovirus disease Kerdmusik et al. (2018); Alavandi et al. (2019); Nguyen
et al. (2020)
• Spawner-isolated mortality virus (SMV) • Spawner-isolated mortality virus disease Dhar et al. (2019); Nian et al. (2020)
• Lymphoidal parvo-like virus (LPV) • Lymphoidal parvo-like virus disease Dhar et al. (2019); Owens (2019)
• Baculovirus penaei (BP) • Baculovirus penaei disease Varela-Mejías (2019); Varela-Mejí and Valverde-Moya
2019; Cruz-Flores et al. (2019)
• Penaeus monodon nudivirus (PmNV) formerly • Monodon baculovirus disease Gangnonngiw and Kanthong (2019); Cruz-Flores et al.
known as Monodon baculovirus (MBV) (2019); Abraham et al. (2020)
• Baculovirus midgut gland necrosis virus (BMNV) • Baculovirus midgut gland necrosis virus disease Yi et al. (2019)
• Shrimp hemocyte iridescent virus (SHIV) • Shrimp hemocyte iridescent virus disease Sun et al. (2019); Chen et al. (2020a, b)
• Taura syndrome virus (TSV) • Taura syndrome virus disease Vergel et al. (2019); Yi et al. (2019); Wyban (2019);
Alavandi et al. (2019)
• Yellow head virus (YHV) • Yellow head virus disease Cowley et al. (2019); Tran et al. (2019); Yi et al. (2019)
• Lymphoid organ vacuolization virus (LOVV) • Lymphoid organ vacuolization virus disease Kibenge (2016); Owens (2019)
Fungi • Pleistophora, • Cotton shrimp disease Zhou et al. (2019); Han et al. (2016)
• Thelohania,
• Perezia,
• Agmasoma,
• Ameson
Parasite • Paramoeba sp. • Amoebic gill disease (AGD) Han (2019)
• Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (EHP) • Hepatopancreatic microsporidiosis Cruz-Flores et al. (2019); Rathipriya et al. (2019); Shen
et al. (2019); Mai et al. (2020)
Table 2 Impact of Vibriosis in aquaculture (Source: Novriadi 2016)

Country Vibrio sp. Loss and impact
China V. fluvialis > US$ 120 M annual losses between 1990–1992

India V. harveyi, V. parahaemo- Poor growth, red discoloration, and mortality of Penaeus mono-
lyticus, V. alginolyticus, V. don
anguillarum
Thailand V. harveyi Mass mortality of P. monodon
Japan V. carchariae Mass mortality of Japanese abalone (Haliotis diversicolor)
Indonesia Luminescent Vibrio > US$ 100 M loss at shrimp hatchery
Italy V. harveyi, V. ordalii, Mass mortality in bivalves farm located at Mar Piccolo in Taranto
V. salmonicida, V. vulnificus
Mexico V. parahaemolyticus Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) in L. van-
namei
Egypt V. anguillarum, V. algi- Red spots on ventral and lateral areas, necrosis and hemorrhagic
nolyticus, V. ordalii, V. areas
harveyi
Vibriosis in shrimp and other associated diseases
Vibrio is a gram-negative bacterium that can be found abundantly in freshwater and marine
environments. Their role of carbon cycling in aquaculture ecosystems makes it nearly
impossible to eradicate them from shrimp farms (Zhang et al. 2021). Though some species
do not cause adverse effects on aquatic life, however, others have lethal effects on the hosts
once infected. Vibrio sp. infection has been recorded in crustaceans, fish, and mollusks
under different culture environments (Austin and Austin 2007; Han et al. 2019; Vinay et al.
2019; Valente and Wan 2021). The symptoms of this disease include; tissue and append-
age necrosis, slow metamorphosis, retarded growth, bioluminescence, and melanization
(Bachand et al. 2020). Shrimps suffering from vibriosis may also display skin discolora-
tion, hemorrhagic septicemia, ulcers, the presence of a red necrotic lesion in the abdominal
muscle, and reduced feeding (Mastan and Begum 2016; Istiqomah and Isnansetyo 2020;
Mulyadi Indriyani and Wa 2020). Many other emerging bacterial diseases that can cause
high mortality in the shrimp industry have been identified in the past few decades. Of all
the species of this pathogen, V. harveyi and V. parahaemolyticus, have been most impli-
cated in most shrimp diseases, including hepatopancreas necrosis disease (APHND), and
luminescent vibriosis, etc. (Zhou et al. 2020).
Early mortality syndrome
Early mortality syndrome (EMS), also known as an acute hepatopancreatic disease

(APHND), has been identified as the most prevalent disease in shrimp aquaculture.
AHPND first occurred in China and subsequently spread to Southeast Asia including Viet-
nam, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Mexico, and South America (Jha et al. 2016;
Dabu et al. 2017; Dang et al. 2019; Muthukrishnan et al. 2019). This disease caused huge
loss to the shrimp industry due to its potential to kill up to 100% post-larvae or juvenile
shrimp during the first month after stocking in a culture pond (De Schryver et al. 2014;
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Restrepo et al. 2018; Muthukrishnan et al. 2019; Amatul-Samahah et al. 2020; Kumar et al.
2020). Initially, this disease was linked solely to V. parahaemolyticus because it carries
a plasmid containing two subunits pirA and pirB toxins (Amatul-Samahah et al. 2020).
However, recent research has demonstrated that V. harveyi strain BpShHep24 is also capa-
ble of causing the AHPND disease and is even more virulent than that caused by V. para-
haemolyticus (Muthukrishnan et al. 2019). AHPND-infected shrimp will have symptoms
such as lethargy, slow growth, loosed shells, and body discoloration. Histological exami-
nation shows sloughing of the hepatopancreas tubule, epithelial cells, and haemocytic
infiltration which indicates the malfunctioning of the HP within 24–48 h post-infection
(Muthukrishnan et al. 2019). In addition, this disease causes necrosis, an emptiness of the
stomach with pale to white hepatopancreas, and subsequently mortality within 20–30 days
of culture (Tran et al. 2013; Lai et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2020). Since 2011 until date,
reports have shown that this disease is still a fundamental threat in shrimp farms. Visi-
ble symptoms such as pale/shrunken hepatopancreas, gut emptiness, as well as behavioral
changes such as spiral swimming, reduced feeding, and sluggishness can help in the detec-
tion of APHND in infected species (De Schryver et al. 2014; Restrepo et al. 2018; Muth-
ukrishnan et al. 2019). Shrimps infected with AHPND also were found to develop worm-
like structures in their hepatopancreatic tubules and mid-gut that are similar to gregarines,
which cause white feces syndrome (WFS) (Sriurairatana et al. 2014).
Luminescence diseases
Luminescence disease in shrimp is commonly caused by V. harveyi and was reported in

India to cause large-scale mortality in L. vannamei in 2014 (Dash et al. 2017; Defoirdt
et al. 2007). This disease is characterized by several symptoms such as slow growth, leth-
argy, and muscle opacity. Setiawan et al. (2015) stated that an important sign of lumines-
cent vibriosis is that the shrimp’s body glows in the dark, hence the name tag of the dis-
ease. This is common in white-leg shrimp larvae.
Brown spot diseases
Brown spot disease, or seagull syndrome as it is so-called, is another type of vibriosis pre-
viously reported (Stern and Sonnenholzner 2014). This disease has been found to affect
L. vannamei and its prominent symptom include infected shrimp remaining on the surface
of the water and being easily picked up by seagulls (Stern and Sonnenholzner 2014). Other
clinical signs also include the presence of septic hemocyte nodules on the lymphoid organ,
the heart, and loose connective tissue of the infected shrimp. Earlier in 1989, this disease
was reported to occur in Ecuador resulting in high mortalities (Valente and Wan 2021).
Among the important pathogenic agents of the seagull syndrome are several Vibrio spp.
such as V. harveyi, V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, and V. alginolyticus (Valente and
Wan 2021). Also, the summer syndrome caused by Vibrio strains (specifically carried by
Vibrio nigripulchritudo) was first reported in New Caledonia, in cultured shrimp by Rey-
naud et al. (2008). Another disease that occurred in New Caledonia known as “syndrome
93” was observed during the winter season, however, this was linked to another Vibrio
strain. Although these diseases only occur on a seasonal base, they pose a serious threat in
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the affected region causing significant economic losses to the shrimp farmers. Table 1 con-
tained some of the common diseases of shrimps emphasizing different Vibrio spp.
Use of antibiotics against vibriosis and their limitations
Vibrio infection in shrimps starts with attachment followed by the establishment, and mul-
tiplication of the pathogen on the host; therefore, efforts have to be geared toward control
and prevention to avoid and minimize the effect of the pathogen (Anirudhan et al. 2021).
To prevent the spread of vibriosis in farms, several methods have been used at various
stages, not excluding broodstock selection and stocking for seed production (i.e., selecting
only healthy and disease-free shrimp for breeding) (Tacon 2020). Providing good water
quality through water treatment and reducing environmental stressors such as high stocking
densities, variation in salinity, temperature, and reduced handling stress are also important
in reducing the susceptibility of shrimps to infection and the spread of Vibrio (Defoirdt
et al. 2007). All these are part of the good management practices and sanitization initia-
tives responsible for the prevention of Vibrio outbreak in the hatchery or farm. However,
avoiding vibriosis is a difficult task, especially in intensive and semi-intensive farming sys-
tems, because of their presence naturally in water at sublethal levels (Ina-Salwany et al.
2019). As a result, controlling Vibrio spread is critical to improving shrimp production,
controlling infection, and reducing economic losses.
For many years, antibiotics were used as one of the methods to treat vibriosis in shrimp
aquaculture. In Thailand for instance, 56 out of 70 farmers used antibiotics (e.g., quinolo-
nes, trimethoprim, chloramphenicol, gentamycin, tiamulin, sulfonamides, and tetracy-
clines) to treat vibriosis in their farms according to the reported interviewed conducted
by Ibrahim et al. (2020). The continuous use of antibiotics in shrimp aquaculture over
time has led to the development of resistant strains in the host (Valente and Wan 2021;
Camacho-Jiménez et al. 2020; Dash et al. 2017). Consequently, the host animals no longer
react to the antibiotic treatment and, in the worst-case scenario, this becomes a threat even
to humans (Zago et al. 2020). Wongtavatchai et al. (2010) had earlier agreed that the use
of antibiotics can not only increase the availability of antibiotic-resistant bacteria strains
but also can leave the residues of the antibiotics within the shrimp which can be passed
to humans who consume them. This is complicated by the general abuse of antibiotics in
aquaculture thus surging the availability of these resistant bacteria colonies and the antibi-
otic residues in the host animals (Tan et al. 2020).
This is the story of tetracycline and oxytetracycline which were previously used to treat
AHPND in shrimp aquaculture, however, their use is currently limited due to the increased
resistance of V. parahaemolyticus to its treatment (Jun et al. 2016). Similar to the use of
chloramphenicol and nirofuran which were banned from being used in food animal pro-
duction due to their carcinogenicity and mutagenicity (Islam et al. 2014). Karunasagar
et al. (1994) have also observed that luminous V. harveyi became resistant to streptomycin,
chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, therefore resulting in mass mortality of infected P.
monodon larvae despite regular and continuous treatment with these antibiotics. Another
study by Saifedden et al. (2016) revealed that V. parahaemolyticus isolated from shrimps
farmed in Selangor, Malaysia was resistant to ampicillin (90%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid
(63.3%), cefotaxime (60%), ceftazidime (46.7%), cefepime (50%), tetracycline (36.6%),
and amikacin (26.7%). Therefore, attention has been shifted from chemical treatments to
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seeking biological treatments for grow-out ponds and hatcheries to limit the risk of con-
tinuous antibiotics application (Anirudhan et al. 2021).
Potential biocontrol methods against vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture
Probiotic and prebiotic
Probiotic
The use of probiotics in shrimp is one of the most effective options and is widely used
by farmers worldwide in treating vibriosis (Ayisi et al. 2017; Cordero 2014; Zheng et al.
2020a, b; Dawood et al. 2021). Probiotics are living microorganisms (e.g., bacteria and
yeast), which can be applied singly or in mixtures to improve the host’s health (Dash et al.
2017). The microorganisms in the probiotics are composed of friendly or healthy bacteria
which benefits human or animals, including aquatic organisms (Zheng et al. 2018). Hence,
the hydrobionts are not just considered an important alternative for disease treatment but
also useful for water quality improvement (Chauhan and Singh 2019; Ringø 2020). These
probiotics can be administered in aquaculture through several approaches such as feeding
(incorporated in the feed formulation), injection, or water additives (Chen et al. 2020a, b;
Kumar et al. 2018a, b). Application of probiotics through various means has been proven
to improve shrimp growth, health, and survival by stimulating the host’s innate immune
responses and encouraging anti-inflammatory actions against disease-causing pathogens
(Gerbino et al. 2020; Dawood et al. 2021). Probiotics improve the health of a host by main-
taining intestinal equilibrium through improved integrity of the intestinal epithelium, stim-
ulation of host digestive function, enzymatic contribution to digestion, and inhibition of
the colonization of pathogenic microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract (Perales-Puchalt
et al. 2018; Duan et al. 2018). Probiotics can also enhance host health via immune modu-
lation (e.g., monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells) (Dawood and
Koshio 2016; Adel et al. 2017a, b; Hoseinifar et al. 2018). Hence, probiotics have a diverse
mode of action in the improvement of host performance such as by competing with the
pathogens in the gastrointestinal mucosal epithelium, and reduction of pH following the
production of organic acids which inhibits pathogenic bacteria (Dawood et al. 2019; 2020).
Additionally, Sun et al. (2014) stated that probiotics can activate the host immune system
by presenting conserved microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) including pep-
tidoglycan, lipoteichoic acids, S-layer protein, exopolysaccharides, flagellin, and microbial
nucleic acids.
The most used probiotics in aquaculture include genera of the Lactobacillus, Bacil-
lus, Enterococcus, and Carnobacterium, and yeast (Zheng et al. 2018; Van Nguyen
et al. 2019; Van-Doan et al. 2020). From several studies, however, some of the different
types of probionts earlier reported to give protection to shrimps include lactic acid bac-
teria (e.g., AMET 1506; strain B6, Lactobacillus plantarum MR 03.12) (Karthik et al.
2014; Vieira et al. 2007; Kongnum and Hongbpattarakere 2012), Vibrio spp. (Vibrio
gazogenes NCIMB 2250) (Thompson et al. 2010), Pseudomonas spp. (strains MCCB
102, 103, I-2), and Bacillus spp. (e.g., B. licheniformis and B. subtilis) (Jamali et al.
2015; Dash et al. 2017). Previous research has shown that feeding probiotics to
Litopenaeus vannamei improves growth performance and feed utilization significantly
compared to those without probiotics (Chen et al. 2020a, b). Fernandes et al. (2021)
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reported that using probiotics as a water additive significantly increases the immunity
(e.g., total plasma content (TPC), total hemocyte content (THC), and phagocytosis) in
P. vannamei when compared to the control group. In addition, the inclusion of Rhodo-
bacter sphaeroides SS15 probiotic in shrimp feeds resulted in a 27% higher survival rate
in shrimps challenged with V PAHPND compared to those fed commercial feed without
the probiotic inclusion (Chumpol et al. 2019). The bacterial strain Bacillus aryabhattai
TBRC8450 has been demonstrated by Tepaamorndech et al. (2019) to have antimicro-
bial activity against many pathogenic strains of V. harveyi and V. parahaemolyticus. The
findings of the authors suggest that the supplementation of the probiotic in the diet of
Pacific white shrimp L. vannamei not only decreased the abundance of Vibrio popula-
tions in the gut, but also triggered shrimp innate immunity (including C-type lectin,
penaeidin-3, heat shock protein 60, thioredoxin, and ferritin) and antioxidant enzyme
activities (phenoloxidase activity in the hemocytes and the total antioxidant activity in
the plasma). Shrimps challenged using V. harveyi 1562 thereafter also showed signifi-
cantly higher survival rates in groups fed B. aryabhattai compared to the control group.
The study by Lim et al. (2019) on the other hand demonstrated that Bacillus B2
and its blend with red seaweed (Gracilaria sp.) exhibited synergistic in vitro inhibi-
tion against V. parahaemolyticus strain. The in vivo challenge test done thereaf-
ter confirmed that the seaweed-probiotic blend significantly reduced the mortality of
shrimps challenged with the AHPND-causing V. parahaemolyticus as against observa-
tion in the control. Four isolates of the indigenous lactic acid bacterial (LAB) from the
L. vannamei intestine were also demonstrated to individually stimulate the cellular
immune system of the tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) treated and challenged with
V. harveyi (Sriwulan et al. 2019). The authors hypothesized that the improved sur-
vival rate of challenged shrimp was probably due to an increase in the total haemocyte
count (THC) and phagocytosis index which suppressed the population of Vibrio in the
treatment group compared to the control. The single-cell protein of some yeast such as
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida species have also been wildly used as probiot-
ics in aquaculture (Li and Gatlin 2003; Ayiku et al. 2020). The probiotics effects of
S. cerevisiae include enhancement of host immunity, better growth performance, and
protection against pathogenic infections (Yuan et al. 2019).
While single probiotic treatments have been proven effective in many studies, many
researchers are demonstrating better performance with probiotic mixtures than with
single probiotic treatments. The probiotic efficiency of the mixture of Lactobacillus
pentosus BD6, Lactobacillus fermentum LW2, Bacillus subtilis E20, and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae P13 has been demonstrated to be better than treatment with single probiotics in
terms of growth performance, health status, and survival of L. vannamei challenged with
V. alginolyticus (Wang et al. 2019b). The observed improved performance in the probiotic
mixture was hypothesized to have been due to increased phenoloxidase activity, respiratory
bursts, and lysozyme activity of hemocytes. In another study, the administration of mixed
Bacillus spp. (i.e., B. thuringiensis, B. megaterium, B. polymyxa, B. licheniformis, and
B. subtilis), or mixed yeasts (Debaryomyces hansenii and Rhodotorula sp.), or Bacillus
sp. mixture in combination with mixed yeasts resulted in significant improvement
of the growth, survival, and reduced prevalence of potentially pathogenic bacteria
(V. parahaemolyticus and V. cholerae) in the digestive tract of juvenile L. vannamei
(Nimrat et al. 2019). Similarly, water quality was improved during the shrimp cultivation
period consequent upon probiotic application (Torpee et al. 2021). Maintaining optimum
water quality (i.e., salinity, pH, nitrate, and ammonium content) during shrimp farming is
important to promote good shrimp health and growth performance.
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Prebiotics
Prebiotics (i.e., glucan, inulin, fructo-oligosaccharide), are the indigestible fibres that are
supplied to the host to promote the growth and activity of health-promoting bacteria in
the intestine, as well as improve immune responses and help defend against pathogenic
microbes or abiotic stressor of the organism (Ringø et al. 2010a, b; Mohan et al. 2019).
They can change the colony microflora to benefit the host’s immune support (Akhter et al.
2015; Guerreiro et al. 2018). They act by modulating the growth, composition, and activi-
ties of beneficial gut microbiota such as those producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFA)
(Bindels et al. 2015; Valcheva and Dieleman 2016; Nawaz et al. 2018). Many polysac-
charides are prebiotic substances that can boost immune responses, improve resistance to
pathogens and increase the growth performance of shrimps (Bai et al. 2015; Mohan et al.
2016). In this regard, the immune system is divided into innate (non-specific) and adap-
tive (specific) immune systems, with the innate serving as the first line of defense. The
primary mechanisms that respond to protect the cell include monocytes, macrophages, lys-
osomes, and granulocytes (Harikrishan et al. 2009). These immunostimulants (i.e., prebi-
otics chitosan and glucan), will directly activate the immune system’s innate defense line
by activating intracellular genes and causing the cell to produce antimicrobial molecules
(Logambal and Michael 2001; Bricknell and Dalmo 2005). Example of commonly used
immunostimulants prebiotics in aquaculture includes Mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS),
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS), galactooligosaccharides (GOS), arabinoxylan-oligosaccha-
rides (AXOS) and inulin (Carbone and Faggio 2016; Tran et al. 2018; Mustafa et al. 2019).
These prebiotics have been applied for over 2 decades in aquaculture systems, and their
success and failure are dependent on a number of factors such as environmental changes
and the efficacy of the biological agents used (Dash et al. 2017).
Previous research by Zhou et al. (2020) has demonstrated the benefits of prebiotics when
the authors found that feeding the shrimp with 0.2% and 0.4% inulin in the diets signifi-
cantly improved growth and reduced the shrimp hepatopancreas oxidative stress. Contrary
to this, the findings of Mustafa et al. (2020) suggest that a 35-day feeding supplementation
with FOS at different percentages by weight did not significantly improve stress, immune
response, growth, and survivability of Pacific white shrimp, L. vannamei, cultured in a
recirculating system. However, the enteric microbial community of shrimp fed the control
diet differed markedly (< 80.0% similarity coefficient) from those fed FOS-supplemented
diets suggesting that the study limitation may have been due to the short period of the
feeding trial. An earlier study with prebiotic GOS for the same duration (35 days) was also
observed not to significantly influence the growth and survival of L. vannamei (Mustafa
et al. 2019). However, stress reduction (glucose) and increased immune responses (total
haemocyte counts and phagocytic capacity) were noticed in GOS-supplemented groups
compared to the control group. A 60-day trial by Gainza and Romero (2020) on the supple-
mentation of MOS in the diet of L. vannamei on the other hand showed better performance
in all parameters tested. The observation of these authors suggests that MOS improved
shrimp survival by about 30% compared to the control and suppressed the prevalence of
potential opportunistic pathogens like Vibrio, Aeromonas, Bergeyella, and Shewanella.
This suggests that besides the differences in the duration of the study, host-specific prefer-
ence of the different prebiotics may be responsible for the discrepancies in the performance
observed in these different studies.
Although the single dietary application of AXOS and inulin improved growth,
survival, gut microbiota, and immune response in Pacific white shrimp L. vannamei,
13
the findings of Li et al. (2020) further observed that the synergistic effects of the
application of both prebiotics were far better than either alone. The prebiotics was
also reported to upregulate gene expression of chitinase, cathepsin L, chymotrypsin,
and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) with remarkably high result observed
with co-application than a single application. In the same vein, combined prebiotics
supplementation boosted notably the survival rate and expression levels of immune-
related genes in shrimp infected with V. alginolyticus or white spot syndrome virus
compared with any of the single prebiotic treatments and the control (Li et al. 2020).
Yeast culture (YC) is a complex fermented product, which contains yeast cells with high
protein, lipid, and B-vitamins (Guo et al. 2019). It is a source of prebiotics as it contains
β‐glucan, deacylated chitin, nucleic acid, and oligosaccharides polyamines (Pongpet
et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2018). Mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) and β-glucan structural
components of yeast cell walls have the capacity of enhancing immunity (Ayiku et al.
2020). The B-glucan component in yeast culture can also activate the macrophage and
release various immunoglobulins, interleukins, and cytokines to give the host sufficient
defense against various infectious pathogens (Jayachandran et al. 2018). Ayiku et al.
(2020) demonstrated that dietary supplementation with different levels of yeast culture
(YC) improved growth, feed conversion ratio, body composition, intestinal morphology,
microflora, immune response, and resistance against V. harveyi infection in L. vannamei
compared to the control. Several other recent findings on the use of probiotics and
prebiotics to treat vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture are tabulated in Table 3.
Medicinal plants
Microalgae
Microalgae are unicellular plants, many of which are rich in protein, lipids, and bioactive
ingredients; hence they form an important part of the natural aquatic food chain
(Yarnold et al. 2019). They are also the most used bio-technique control for diseases
in aquaculture and are commonly referred to as “green water” control technology (Ran
et al. 2019). Microalgae production of extracellular and intracellular metabolites makes
them more potent for the prevention and control of aquaculture diseases such as those
caused by different Vibrio species (Lio-Po et al. 2002; Anaya-Rosas et al. 2019). For
instance, Chlorella vulgaris has been reported to increase the growth rate and enhance
immunity against pathogenic diseases in giant freshwater prawns (Maliwat et al. 2017).
The freshwater phytoplankton Ankistrodesmus sp. has also been demonstrated to inhibit
the growth of gram-positive coccus Streptococcus agalactiae (Sharifah et al. 2016).
Co-culturing the indigenous marine microalgae of Taiwan Picochlorum sp. strain S1b
with bacterium isolated from non-axenic S1b cultures was also reported to have growth
inhibitory effects against three Vibrio species namely, V. harveyi, V. campbellii, and
V. parahaemolyticus as reported by Chang et al. (2020). The inhibitory mechanisms
proposed by Desbois et al. (2010) are mainly due to the production of free fatty acids by
binding fatty acids with glycerol and sugar. Additionally, the long-chain saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids also act as bactericidal agents against a wide range of pathogenic
bacteria by inducing protoplasts to lyse (Dash et al. 2017). Furthermore, microalgal has
also been found to release growth-inhibitory compounds (e.g., terpenes, glycosides,
polyunsaturated aldehydes, and chlorophyll a derivatives which disrupt the pathogenic
bacteria (Ribalet et al. 2008; Seraspe et al. 2005). The findings of Medina-Félix et al.
13

13
Table 3 Recent use of probiotics and prebiotics method against vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture
Pathogen Species Types of probiotics/prebiotics Administration Result References
V. alginolyticus L. vannamei Basal diet supplemented with king oyster Feeding The result showed that (after a 96-h challenge Prabawati et al. (2022)
mushroom) (KOME), basal diet supple- test), the shrimp fed with SYN and LP had
mented with probiotics (LP), basal diet sup- the lowest mortality rate compared to the
plemented with king oyster mushroom and control diet groups
probiotics (SYN)
V. alginolyticus L. vannamei Basal diet contained cacao pod husk (CPH) Feeding After being challenged with V. alginolyticus, Kuo et al. (2021)
pectin, CPH pectin, and Lactobacillus the shrimp groups fed with CPH pectin, and
plantarum at 1 07 cfu/kg diet or at 1010 cfu/kg CPH pectin with L. plantarum at 107 cfu/
diet, and basal diet (control) kg and 1010 cfu/kg diet, respectively, they
showed higher survival rate compared to
control groups
V. parahaemolyticus L. vannamei Commercial diet coated with T1 (1 × 105 pro- Feeding After being challenged with VPAHPND strains, Kewcharoen and
biotic/kg diet), T2 (1 × 107 probiotic/kg diet), shrimps in groups T2 and T3 were found to Srisapoome (2019)
and T3 (1 × 109 CFU probiotic/kg diet) have lower mortality rate compared with T1
and control groups
(2019) showed that Dunaliella sp. improved growth as well as an enhanced immune
response during infection and survival against V. parahaemolyticus infection. The authors
hypothesized that the high levels of β-carotenes in the Dunaliella sp. which acts as a pro-
vitamin A was most likely responsible for the improved growth and enhanced immune
response in the challenged shrimp.
In two separate experiments, Anaya-Rosas et al. (2019) evaluated the effect of
co-cultivation of live macroalgae (Gracilaria vermiculophylla, Dictyota dichotoma, and
Ulva lactuc) and shrimp (L. vannamei) against the pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus and
WSSV infection. Their findings suggest that algae improved the resistance of the shrimp
to bacterial and viral infection by improving the immune response of the shrimp through
the production of haemocytes in response to oxidative stress. Other studies have observed
that compounds or substances excreted by phytoplankton play a vital role in enhancing
the effectiveness of probiotics in the prevention of vibriosis in aquaculture (Sharifah and
Eguchi 2011; 2012a, b). Ethanolic extract from marine brown algae Sargassum sp. was
demonstrated to have prophylactic and immunostimulant effects in treated white shrimps
(L. vannamei) and subsequently infected with V. algynolyticus (Mulyadi et al. 2020). These
authors further revealed that the total haemocyte count and differential haemocyte count
increased significantly with survival during the bacterial challenge test measuring close
to 100%. The findings of Kiataramgul et al. (2020) also demonstrated a novel vaccine-
based method to control the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) disease of shrimps using
transgenic algae. This they achieved by creating transgenic lines of the green microalga
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii harbouring a WSSV VP28 viral envelope protein which was
orally delivered to the shrimps resulting in a higher survival rate of challenged shrimps.
This novel strategy of vaccinating shrimp is efficient, fast, less labour-intensive, and
stress-free in terms of administration and disease control. The benefits of microalgae as
a biological control for diseases, therefore, go beyond the prevention of an outbreak as it
is cheaper in terms of cost of production and can support the nutrition of the aquaculture
species reared while acting as a biological agent (Yarnold et al. 2019). However, studies
have shown evidence of selective effectiveness in treatment (Sharifah et al. 2016). Hence,
future research should be conducted to reveal more potential microalgae species for
biocontrol against specific aquatic pathogens.
Macro plants and plant extracts
Plant-based products are an important source of phytochemicals as they are cheaper and
non-toxic to the environment (Zhu 2020). The primary benefit of using natural products as
an alternative to disease control is that they are relatively safer and effective in strengthen-
ing the immune system (Anirudhan et al. 2021). This is because they have a diverse range
of active compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannin, terpenoids, essential
oils, organic acids, and polysaccharides (Madhuri et al. 2012; Pandey et al. 2013). These
bioactive compounds have essential roles in promoting several biological functions such
as improving the hosts’ immune system, metabolism, and growth performance and help
in the fight against diseases (Soowannayan et al. 2019; Zhu 2020). Due to their complex
mixtures of phytochemical, they possess multiple mechanisms of action during bacte-
rial inhibitions such as membrane function disruption, DNA/RNA synthesis disturbance,
cytoplasmic constituents coagulation, disruption of intermediate metabolisms, and many
more (Ghosh et al. 2021). Another advantage of their use as potential immunostimulants
and therapeutics agents is their sufficient availability, cost-effectiveness, low toxic effects,
13
and bio-degradability (Ding et al. 2020). Plant extracts have been reported to maintain and
improve the health of cultured animals as well as acting as disease-resistance agents (Abd
El-Hamid et al. 2019). There are several scientific publications on the antimicrobial activ-
ity of herbs and medicinal plants as an alternative to disease control in shrimp aquaculture
(Zheng et al. 2009; Zilberg et al. 2010; Wu et al. 2019). For instance, the use of green tea
extract has been demonstrated to reduce mortality significantly in cultured shrimps admin-
istered (Kongchum et al. 2016). Pandanus extract also reduces mortality and histological
signs of degeneration in treated shrimp tissues challenged with vibriosis (Anirudhan et al.
2021). Ethanol and water extract of Garden burnet, Sanguisorba officinalic, were able to
inhibit the growth of the pathogen as reported by Zhang et al. (2021).
The immunostimulants characteristics of hot water extract of Gracilaria tenuistipitata
injected into L. vannamei was proven to be effective against V. alginolyticus in the study
by Hou and Chen (2005). Immersion and/or injection of hot water extract of Sargassum
duplicatum and Gelidium amansii also increased the total haemocyte count and respiratory
burst, and protection against V. alginolyticus in L. vannamei (Fu et al. 2007; Yeh et al.
2006). Resistance to vibriosis was improved in Fenneropenaeus chinensis by oral
administration with Sargassum fusifome polysaccharide extract as reported by Huang et al.
(2006). The leaf and twig extracts of the stout camphor tree, Cinnamomum kanehirae has
been reportedly shown to have a wide spectrum of antibacterial property against several
aquatic pathogens such as Mycobacterium sp., Staphylococcus sp., Enterococcus sp.,
Pseudomonas sp., and Micrococcus sp. in L. vannamei culture (Yeh et al. 2009). The
finding of Liu et al. (2019a, b) showed that long-term oral administration of diets containing
Gracilaria tenuistipitata extract induced the expression of immune-related genes as well as
increased immune response and resistance against V. harveyi in white shrimp L. vannamei
juveniles compared to the control group. The cyclic monoterpene phytochemical known
as α-phellandrene present in the essential oils of many dietary spices and herbs had also
been earlier reported for its antibacterial and antifungal properties (EI-Neekety et al. 2011;
Sindhu et al. 2011; Onyenekwe et al. 2012; Essien et al. 2012; Hsieh et al. 2014; 2015).
The findings of Wu et al. (2019) showed that L. vannamei’s survival and resistance against
V. alginolyticus were enhanced following treatment with α-phellandrene. The authors also
observed that the phenoloxidase, respiratory bursts, superoxide dismutase, and phagocytic
and lysozyme activity of the treated white shrimps were significantly higher than those
of the control upon challenge with the V. alginolyticus pathogen. A similar pattern of
increase was also reported for the expression (mRNA transcripts) of the immune genes
prophenoloxidase, LPS- and β-1, 3-glucan-binding protein, and peroxinectin of the shrimp
treated with α-phellandrene post–V. alginolyticus infection.
Similarly, a hot water extract of Sargassum horneri was observed to stimulate innate
immunity, enhance growth performance, and upregulate immune genes in the white shrimp
L. vannamei in a recent study reported by Lee et al. (2020). The findings of Harlina et al.
(2019) also suggested that the inclusion of Chromolaena odorata leaf boosts the immune
response of tiger prawns against infection by V. harveyi. This according to the authors may
have been due to significantly elevated levels of total haemocyte count and phenoloxidase
in the shrimps fed C. odorata leaves included in the diets. Similarly, Saptiani et al. (2020a,
b) in their study showed that the leaf extract of Xylocarpus granatum and Sonneratia
alba inhibited V. harveyi infection in post-larvae of tiger shrimp, thereby improving its
survival rate. The authors also reported S. alba to be potent against Saprolegnia sp. as well
(Saptiani et al. 2020b). In-vitro and in-vivo trial of Tiwai onion Eleutherine americana
extract was also observed to inhibit the development of V. harveyi bacteria in infected
tiger shrimp P. monodon (Aziz 2020). While the herbal extracts of Citrus limon, Allium
13
Table 4 A summary of plants used against vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture
Pathogen Species Types of natural products Administration Result References
V. parahaemolyticus P. vannamei Pandanus tectorius fruit A specific concentration of No mortality was found after Anirudhan et al. (2021)
extract P. tectorius was treated to 24 h with the exposure
the shrimp of 0.5 to 6 g/L of the P.
tectorius fruit extract
The histopathological also

showed reduced signs of
degeneration
V. parahaemolyticus L. vannamei Macleaya cordata Feeding Both powdered and Bussabong et al. (2021)
granulated isoquinoline
alkaloids-enriched feed
(1–1.5 mg/kg of feed)
improved growth per-
formance, survival rate,
immune responses, and
resistance against vibriosis
No histopathological
lesions were observed in
the hepatopancreas and
intestine
V. alginolyticus L. vannamei Phyllanthus amarus extract Feeding The result revealed that feed- Ngo et al. (2020)
(PAE) ing with PAE showed an
increment in weight gain
and growth rate compared
to feeding with a control
diet
Feeding trial with PAE after
a challenge with V. algi-
nolyticus showed a high
survival rate compared to
those fed with a control
diet
13

13
VPAHPND P. vannamei Ethanol-extracts and water- Fed with pellet feed sup- The growth of VPAHPND was Zhang et al. (2021)
extracts of Sanguisorba plemented with 15 g/kg of inhibited by both extracts.
officinalic L extract The
6.4 mg/L ethanol-extract
possessed the stronger
antibiotic effect and could
kill VPAHPND within 10 h
VPAHPND P. vannamei Ethanolic extracts of ginger Plant enriched-feed diet at In vitro, the extract sig- Soowannayan et al. (2019)
0.2 mg/g and 2 mg/g nificantly (p < 0.05) sup-
pressed the biofilm forma-
tion in cultured plates, but
no inhibition was observed
in broth cultured
In vivo, the survival rate
was found to be higher
(40–60%) when exposed to
these extracts in compari-
son to control
V. parahaemolyticus L. vannamei Eleutherine bulbosa Feeding with three different Feeding with 12.5 g/kg E. Munaeni et al. (2020)
dosages of powder: 6.25 g/ bulbosa powder enhanced
kg, 12.5 g/kg, and 25 g/ kg the immunity and resistan-
ceof the shrimps against V.
parahaemolyticus
It also showed that sup-
plemented feeding with
E. bulbosa for 30 days
revealed a significantly
higher (p < 0.05) level of
immune response (THC,
PO, Rbs, proPO)
V. harveyi (biofilm inhibi- P. vannamei Japanese fermented soybean Microplate method used to The result showed Natto Yatip et al. (2018)
tion) product, Natto observe biofilm inhibition was able to inhibit biofilm
Plant-enriched diet formation (cultured plate)
but not for broth culture
Immersion challenges of
Natto extract with shrimp

infectedby V. harveyi
showed higher survival
rates
V. alginolyticus L. vannamei α-phellandrene essential oil α-phellandrene solution at 1, The survivability of the Wu et al. (2019)
2, or 3 mg/mL was injected shrimp supplied with
into the shrimp infected α-phellandrene was
with V. alginolyticus and improved than the control
their survivability was (p <0.05), and their non
observed for up to 72 hrs. specific response activi-
ties (e.g., phenoloxidase,
superoxide dismutase,
and phagocytic and
lysozymes) also were
increased (p <0.05), which
indicates the potential
of α-phellandrene to
improve shrimp innate
immunity.
V. parahaemolyticus Pacific white shrimp Green tea extract (GTE) Immersion It was revealed that GTE Kongchum et al. (2016)
was able to suppress
the mortality rate of the
shrimp, and their survival
rate was higher compared
to the control group
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13
V. alginolyticus P. vannamei Rubus coreanus ethanolic Plant-enriched diet Supplementing the diet Subramanian et al. (2013)
extract with probiotics and R.
coreanus extract showed
improvement in the growth
of shrimp, enhancement
of expression of immune
genes, antioxidant activity,
and lowering the mortality
rate
V. alginolyticus L. vannamei Zingerone, one of the active Plant-enriched diet With 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0 mg Chang et al. (2012)
components of ginger of zingerone, weight gain
and feed efficacy were
improved significantly
over the control group. In
addition, all groups sup-
plemented with zingerone
diets resulted in a higher
survival rate than control
sativum, Zingiber officinale, Borassus flabellifer, and Vigna mungo against the white
feces syndrome in L. vannamei cultured in India have been reviewed and highlighted by
Palanikumar et al. (2020). Of the twenty-one herbal extracts screened in the study reported
by Hannan et al. (2019), only extract from Emblica officinalis, A. sativum, and Syzygium
aromaticum showed a strong antibacterial effect against V. alginolyticus under in vitro
conditions. Table 4 summarizes the findings of some recent studies on the use of plant
extracts to promote immune responses in shrimp to combat vibriosis.
Today, many commercial products made from plant extract are available for use in the
aquaculture industry. For instance, extract from Opuntia ficus indica Pro Tex®, a soluble
variant of TEX-OE® has been well commercialized as an inducer of Heat shock protein
(Hsp) in animals, including fish and shellfish (Baruah et al. 2012; Roberts et al. 2010).
Seretec® is also a natural anti-stress feed material made from Opuntia ficus indica extract
that can accelerate and synthesize Hsp in shrimps (Johnston 2019). This helps the aquatic
species respond to recurrent repeated stressful challenges such as unfavorable environmen-
tal conditions (water quality), transfers, transports, treatments, and pathogenic challenges.
Administration can be done through feed or by immersion; hence, providing up to 72 h of
stress protection while aiding in cell repairing which promotes the return to the normal
standard growth profile (Johnston 2019). In the same vein, Sanocare® FIT is made from
plant extracts with a phytochemical mixture that has been engineered to control the prolif-
eration of Vibrio and other pathogenic bacteria, especially during transportation (InveA-
quaculture 2020). This gives the post-larvae the best start to continue further growth and
limits the introduction of pathogens from the hatchery in the nursery or the farm. This
product stimulates the production of Hsp, hence constituting the first line of defense mech-
anism for the shrimp not just against pathogens but also against suboptimal culture condi-
tions (e.g., temperature, salinity, pH, and toxins).
Biofloc technology
Biofloc technology is a technique used to maintain and enhance water quality in the
aquaculture system through the bio-augmentation of autotrophic and heterotrophic
microbial processes (da Silva et al. 2021). It was first developed in the early 1970s at the
Ifremer-COP (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea, Oceanic center of
Pacific) for use in the culture of different penaeid species namely P. monodon, L. vannamei,
and Litopenaeus stylirosris (Bossier and Ekasari 2017). This sustainable approach to
shrimp production is based on the growth of microorganisms in the culture medium
which helps in maintaining the water quality through the uptake of nitrogen compounds
(Okomoda et al. 2022). Hence, generating “in situ” microbial protein and reducing the feed
conversion ratio (Crab et al. 2012; Emerenciano et al. 2013; Souza et al. 2019). According
to Burford et al. (2004), approximately 29% of foods consumed by the L. vannamei shrimp
are derived from feeding on biofloc present in the heterotrophic medium. Technically,
the improvement in water quality through the conversion of ammonia into nitrogen gas
through a process that results in the growth of beneficial bacterial (Crab et al. 2010a, b).
To maintain this process, this biofloc system requires external input of carbon to balance
up the nitrogen in the system for continuous microbial production; these carbon sources
could range from simple to complex sugars such as molasses and wheat bran (Khanjani
et al. 2017). Many carbon sources have been reported to effectively reduce ammonia
concentrations in water, thus improving water quality, and survival rate, and reducing
Vibrio spp. in the cultured system (Huang et al. 2017). Depending on the farm location,
13
farming intensity, and technical protocol, different types of biofloc systems may be applied
(e.g., suspended-growth systems, attached-growth biofiltration technology, moving bed
biofilm reactors, and periphyton) (El-Sayed 2021). Biofloc supplementation in aquaculture
systems has been shown to improve the growth performance, feed consumption, disease
resistance, and survival rate of cultured animals (Panigrahi et al. 2020a).
Biofloc has intrinsic antagonistic effects against viral and bacterial pathogens and
can induce immunity as well as disease resistance in cultured animals (Crab et al. 2012;
Ekasari et al. 2014; de Melo Filho et al. 2020). Biofloc-enhanced cellular immune response
and the antioxidant response has been hypothesized to be linked to its rich natural micro-
organisms and bioactive compounds as it relates to studies on shrimp (Xu et al. 2013; Car-
dona et al. 2015; Panigrahi et al. 2019a, b). The immunological effects associated with
the microbes that make up the biofloc have been reported to include the enhancement of
the non-specific defence system and provision of protection against disease infection (Xu
and Pan 2013; Kim et al. 2014). Immunomodulation in the BFT-based system was evident
in the study by Panigrahi et al. (2020a) through the up-regulated gene expression level of
immune genes such as proPhenoloxidase, crustin, Mas, serine protease, alpha2M, antiviral
genes and Ran in contrast with the control group of P. vannamei. The authors reported that
the cumulative mortality rate of juvenile shrimp reared in biofloc generated through three
different approaches (i.e., biofloc lyophilized powder, biofloc matured water, and biofloc
consortium) was significantly lowered when challenged with Vibrio compared to mortal-
ity observed with conventional nursery rearing without biofloc treatment. Similarly, the
finding of Panigrahi et al. (2020b) observed that the native Indian white shrimp Penaeus
indicus were comparable in performance to the Pacific white shrimp P. vannamei in terms
of innate immunity, immune response, and growth under biofloc rearing conditions.
Aside from the improvement in feed conversion efficiency (FCR) and growth
parameters of P. vannamei with the biofloc system, Kumar et al. (2018a, b) observed that a
significantly elevated heterotrophic bacterial count along with the reduction in total Vibrio
count was noticed in the biofloc. This according to the authors suggests a reduction in the
incidence of opportunistic pathogens that can cause diseases. The findings by Legarda
et al. (2019) also suggest that the haematoimmunological parameters of L. vannamei
integrated with white mullet (Mugil curema) were adequate when reared in a biofloc
system compared to the control system. This is similar to the finding of Hoang et al. (2020)
who studied the shrimp-fish polyculture system of L. vannamei and Mugil cephalus in a
biofloc system. Promthale et al. (2019) also attempted to substitute fishmeal protein with
biofloc in the diet of P. monodon. Their finding after 42 days of culture showed that biofloc
substituted diets did not only have similar performance in terms of growth but remarkably
higher survival rates following V. parahaemolyticus infection, and the levels of immune
parameters, as well as expression of immune genes (proPO-I, PEN-4, and dicer) increased
significantly than the fishmeal-based control diet. Inhibitory growth of Vibrio spp. has been
reported to be higher using the biofloc system to cultured L. vannamei at C/N 5, 10, and
15 compared to the control group (Panigrahi et al. 2018). The addition of Navicula sp. and
Bacillus plicatilis to the biofloc system also contributed to the better growth performance
of cultured L. vannamei and a reduction in the Vibrio count in the cultured system as
reported by da Silva et al. (2021).
Although the exact mechanism of action of biofloc in disease control still needs to
be further researched, some studies have reported some interesting hypothesis that is
worth mentioning in this review. The study by Crab et al. (2010a, b) on biofloc grown
with glycerol observed protection of gnotobiotic brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana)
against pathogenic V. harveyi and hypothesized that the beneficial effect was likely due to
13
interference with the pathogen’s quorum-sensing system. Quorum sensing or “cell-to-cell

communication” as it is also called regulates the expression of virulence factors (Defoirdt
et al. 2004). Another interesting school of thought for the control of disease by biofloc
earlier proposed is the capacity to accumulate the bacterial storage compound poly-β-
hydroxybutyrate (PHB). Many researches have shown that PHB and PHB accumulating
bacteria are capable of protecting different aquaculture animals from bacterial infections
(Defoirdt et al. 2007; Halet et al. 2007; De Schryver et al. 2010). Earlier studies by Crab
(2010), De Schryver, and Verstraete (2009) had reported up to 18% dry matter composition
of PHB and PHB-accumulating bacteria in biofloc. This level is proposed to be sufficient
enough to protect cultured animals from infectious pathogenic bacteria (Halet et al. 2007).
Other studies on the application of biofloc systems in improving shrimp aquaculture are
presented in Table 5.
Bacteriophages
Bacteriophage has been proposed as another potential strategy for the control of infectious
diseases in shrimp aquaculture and it is abundant in terrestrial and aquatic environments
(Naschimuthu et al. 2021; Tan et al. 2020). They possess several benefits over chemical
treatments; these include being organic, cost-effective, and safe, as well as having high
specificity with no side effects (Lomelí-Ortega and Martínez-Díaz 2004; Principi et al.
2019). The use of bacteriophage cocktails has been proven safe in the agriculture-food sec-
tor by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Author-
ity (EFSA) (Fernández et al. 2018). The action of phages against luminous vibriosis caused
by V. harveyi and V. parahaemolyticus has been reported widely also in the past years
(Dash et al. 2017). Their mechanism of action has been predicated on their ability for cell
wall attachment and cell lysis (Alagappan et al. 2016).
The life cycle of bacteriophages can be either lytic or lysogenic. In a lytic cycle, bac-
teriophages infect the host first, shut down their defense mechanisms, take over the cel-
lular machinery, replicate, and eventually lyse the host (Kumar et al. 2021). In a lysogenic
cycle, however, the phage DNA is incorporated into the bacterial host genome, replicates
with a mixed host-phage genome, and enters the lytic stage once exposed to environmental
stressors (Kumar et al. 2021). Therefore, the selected phages should be lytic to avoid the
horizontal transfer of toxic genes to the host which makes them more virulent to shrimp
(Dash et al. 2017). In shrimp aquaculture, bacteriophages vB-VpS_BA3 and vB-VpS_CA8,
which were isolated from sewage were reported to have significant lethal effects on resist-
ant V. paraheamolyticus as reported by Yang et al. (2020). In addition, bacteriophage treat-
ment to the larvae and postlarvae of P. monodon was reported to improve survival against
Vibrio-induced luminous bacterial disease by Vinod et al. (2006) and Karunasagar et al.
(2007). Also, Jun et al. (2018) revealed that the bacteriophage pVp-1 promoted prophy-
lactic and therapeutic actions against VPAHPND. Some of the recent studies on the use of
the bacteriophage method in treating vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture are summarized in
Table 6.
Nanoparticles
With the advancement of technology in the twenty-first century, nanoparticles have

become an emerging field that has caught the attention of most researchers around
the world due to their practical application and the process of their synthesis (Ibrahim
13

13
Table 5 A summary of biofloc technology applied in shrimp aquaculture
Species Vibrio spp. Performance References
L. vannamei n.m The count for Vibrio spp. was decreased significantly at the end of the experiment da Silva et al. (2021)
P. vannamei V. harveyi Suppressed the presence of Vibrio spp. at the early stage of period; and with no presence of harm- Kasan et al. (2021)
ful V. harveyi in the culture
P. indicus Vibrio spp. Dominance of Vibrio spp. clear water system compared in biofloc Panigrahi et al. (2021)
L. vannamei V. paraheamolyticus Shrimp from biofloc system showed higher resistance (p < 0.05) to V. paraheamolyticus than in Panigrahi et al. (2019c)
control group
L. vannamei V. rotiferianus and V. harveyi No mortality observed in biofloc reared shrimp with fewer lesion observed at the end of treatment Aguilera-Rivera et al. (2019)
P. vannamei V. paraheamolyticus Biofloc system improved shrimp survival particularly at 5 and 10 ppt seawater salinity Ahmed-Sajalia et al. (2019)
L. vannamei V. harveyi Low stock density (300 orgs/m3) of shrimp in biofloc system resulted with higher survival after Liu et al. (2017)
10 days challenge test
L. vannamei V. paraheamolyticus The survival of L. vannamei was improved upon challenge to V. paraheamolyticus; AHPND- Kumar et al. (2020)
causng V. paraheamolyticus switched from free-living virulent planktonic type phenotype to
non-virulent biofilm
L. vannamei Vibrio spp. Shrimp from biofloc treatment showed significantly higher survival than control through the Panigrahi et al. (2018)
higher expression of immune-related genes
n.m: not mentioned

Table 6 A summary of bacteriophage against vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture
Phage (s) In vivo host Outcome (s) References
A3S, Vpms1 L. vannamei Both phages are significantly effective to improve shrimp survival than the non- Lomelí-Ortega and Martínez-Díaz (2004)
treated larvae
Low phage infection (MOI 0.1) of A3S was effective to control the effects of
vibriosis with high survival rate (75%)
Application of phages at 6 h post-infection was effective to avoid mortality

caused by vibriosis
VHP6b P. monodon post larvae Phage treatment improved survival of infected-V. harveyi VH6 shrimp post- Patil et al. (2014)
larvae compared to non-treated with > 70% and 20%, respectively, at 10 days
post-infection
VP1, VP7, VP0 P. monodon Cocktail of phages improved hemocyte counts, superoxide anions and lysozymes Alagappan et al. (2016)
activity in Vibrio-infected shrimp
The cumulative survival rate was 70% after 144 h
Phage cocktails improved shrimp immunity and can act as therapeutic and pro-
phylactic measures for specific shrimp infection
φSt2, φGrn1 A. salina Reduce to 93% of V. paraheomolyticus count in live prey A. salina after 4 h Kalatzis et al. (2016)
phage-treated
VVP1 P. monodon 0.1 MOI of lytic phages (2.3 × 1010 PFU/mL) is adequate to reduce 1 log of Stalin and Srinivasan (2016)
Vibrio count in vibriosis-infected shrimp
Significant (p < 0.05) survival rate was achieved in phage-treated shrimp at 72 h
treatment than non-treated phage, 83% and 32%, respectively
VHM1, VHM2, VHS1 P. monodon Higher survival rates were achieved in the Vibrio-infected shrimp treated-cock- Stalin and Srinivasan (2017)
tail phages than alone phages ranged from 86.6–88.3%
pVp-1 P. vannamei Phage pVp-1 demonstrated bacteriolytic activity (100% mortality) against 3 Jun et al. (2018)
VPAHPND strains within 24 h post-infection
Application of pVp-1 as prophylactic is better than therapeutic
Similar results were obtained in terms of survival and physical condition of the
experimental shrimps either by feeding or bath immersion phage administra-
tion
Significant lesion recovery was observed in hepatopancreas of phage-treated
shrimps following both prophylactic and therapeutic treatments
13

Phage (s) In vivo host Outcome (s) References
13
FBL1 P. vannamei Reduced the biofilms of B. licheniformis to 44.77% Prada-Peñarandaa et al. (2018)
Vpms1, A3s, Aie A. franciscana Artemia cysts challenged with pathogenic Vibrio spp. and treated with phage Quiroz-Guzmána et al. (2018)
reached 100% hatching, compared to non-treated phage, which only reached
50%
The detrimental effects and bacterial growth were eliminated in Vibrio-infected
shrimp compared to non-treated phage
Phage cocktails showed promising results in hatching success and survival, with
100% and 85–89%, respectively, compared to a single phage administered
VAlLY-3, VspDsh-1, L. vannamei The phage cocktails showed higher efficiency in inhibiting pathogenic Vibrio Chen et al. (2019)
VspSw-1, VpaJT-1, spp. Va-F3 than any single phage
ValSw4-1 Survival of Va-F3 shrimp increased to 91.4% in cocktail phages compared to
20% in the non-treated phages group
T2A2, VH5e A. franciscana Phage-treated shrimps had a higher survival rate (p < .001) than non-treated Makarov et al. (2019)
phage
Phage cocktails were more effective than a single phage treatment to control
AHPND, and they were harmless
vB_VpaS_PG07 P. vannamei Phage had strong bacteriolytic activity against vibriosis in shrimp Ding et al. (2020)
Phage treatment reduced mortality in Vibrio-infected shrimps significantly, and
the reduction was dose dependent
Normal hepatopancreas was observed in phage treated group
vB_VhaM_pir03 A. salina It had broad host lytic activity against 31 antibiotic-resistant strains of Vibrio Misol et al. (2020)
spp.
Was able to lyse several host strains at MOI 0.1 to 10.0
Able to significantly reduced mortality in V. harveyi-infected A. salina when
administered at MOI 0.1, and 24 h after infection
AMN1, AMN3, PL1, n. m Among them, phage V5 showed the highest reduction (78.1%) in V. paraheamo- Dubey et al. (2021)
V2, V4, V5, V6, lyticus count in shrimp within 1 h of phage treatment
FT2, V1
n.m: not mentioned
2015). Nanoparticles are extremely small particles with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nm
(Christiane-Beer 2012); this is much smaller than the thickness of paper or the diameter
of a human hair (Sellers et al. 2008; Ibrahim 2015). The size advantage of nanoparticles
is predicated on their “high surface area to volume ratio”; hence, it is believed that the
particles can be more biologically effective in cell attachment (Balalakshmi et al. 2017).
This is because the small size allows them to easily pass through the cell membrane and
interact with the biological system (Jaswal and Gupta 2021).
There are various methods used in synthesizing nanoparticles; this could be through
physical, chemical, and biological means (Turan et al. 2019). The “top-down” approach
is a kind of physical method where the bulk metal is reduced in size into fragments
and ends in nanoparticle size (Yusuf 2019). While chemical and biological methods are
involved in the “bottom-up” approach. Chemical methods use organic solvents while
biological methods use natural reducing agents such as extracts from microorganisms
or plants to synthesize nanoparticles (Yusuf 2019). Both methods undergo a reduction
process from metal atoms into metal-based nanoparticles (Sanchez-Lopez et al. 2020).
But it is important to note that the “top–bottom” approach (i.e., the physical method)
produces uniformed or scattered-sized nanoparticles, which are not suitable because the
size of nanoparticles is an important factor that can affect their activities and efficiency
(Albanese et al. 2012).
The notable examples of metallic nanoparticles are silver (Ag), gold (Au), palladium
(Pd), copper (Co), and platinum (Pt), but among them, silver (Ag) is the most dominantly
used for synthesizing nanoparticles. Ag has been widely used since ancient times to control
microbial activities (El-Sheekh and El-Kassas 2016). Many studies have been reported to
demonstrate the antimicrobial characteristics of Ag in different fields like biomedical, food
packaging, cosmetics, and dental work (Jaswal and Gupta 2021). Another metal previously
reported for synthesizing nanoparticles is gold and it has been an age-long application in
China, India, and Egypt (El-Sheekh and El-Kassas 2016). Due to their good antimicrobial
properties, the use of gold nanoparticles has been proven effective against specific diseases
such as measles, smallpox, and skin ulcers (El-Sheekh and El-Kassas 2016).
Biological methods are recognized to be eco-friendly, less prone to toxicity, and more
cost-effective when used for synthesizing nanoparticles than chemical methods (Ibrahim
2015). Balalakshmi et al. (2017) stated that the emergence of green technology in syn-
thesizing nanoparticles has shifted the attention of many researchers from other chemical
means as it is capable of significantly reducing the release of hazardous substances such
as sodium borohydride, hydroxylamine, and phosphonium chloride (Albanese et al. 2012).
Therefore, biological methods such as the use of plant extracts and microorganisms are
more eco-friendly and less harmful (Mohanpuria et al. 2008). In addition, they can eradi-
cate the elaborate process of culturing the cell and can be used as a strategy for large-scale
synthesis of the nanoparticles (Valli and Vaseeharan 2012; Saxena et al. 2012).
Currently, nanoparticles are widely used in aquaculture sectors to improve immunity
in aquatic life including fishes and shellfish (Elayaraja et al. 2021). In treating shrimp dis-
eases, nanoparticles are believed to combat pathogens more effectively than regular chemi-
cal treatments such as antibiotics (Chari et al. 2017; Haussler and Fuqua 2013). Previous
research on silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) had proposed the modes of action to include
destroying the protein functions of bacteria, thereby hindering DNA replication, and trig-
gering oxidative stress, which interrupts bacteria’s cellular functions and death (Acedo-
Valdez et al. 2017). A study by Sondi and Salopek-Sondi (2004) found that the E. coli
membrane was damaged by the accumulation of nanoparticles in the cell membrane. Also,
free radicals released by the silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), result in the cell death of the
13

Table 7 A summary of nanoparticles used against vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture
Pathogen Synthesis of AgNP Administration Efficacy References
13
V. parahaemolyticus Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles Supplemented food with extract of Around 65% of mortality was observed RathnaKumaria et al. (2018)
(AgNPs) using seagrass (Cymodocea AgNPs in the control, whereas 25% mortal-
serrulata) ity was observed in shrimp fed with
supplemented seaweed extract, and
12.5% mortality was observed in
shrimp treated with AgNPs and
seaweed aqueous extract
V. harveyi Silver nanoparticles (AgNps) synthe- Supplemented diet with AgNPs tea Approximately 71% reduction in mor- Vaseeharan et al. (2010)
sized using tea leaf extract leaf extract tality was observed after treatment
with supplemented diet of AgNPS
tea leaf extract
Vibrio spp. Leaf extract from coastal plant Pros- Supplemented diet with Prosopis The survival rate was reported higher Kandasamy et al. (2013)
opis chilensison synthesis of silver chilensison AgNP extract in immune responses (e. g., total
nanoparticles using AgNO3 as a hemocycte counts, phenoloxidase
substrate and activities of antibacterial) in the
hemolymph
V. parahaemolytius Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthe- Supplemented diet with AgNPs and Has greater survival than the control Alvarez-Cirerol et al. (2019)
sized with Rumex hymenosepalus Rh extract It was found that the AgNps Rh
(Rh) extract extracts showed antibacterial proper-
ties towards the infected shrimp
V. harveyi Colloidal silver nanoparticles (cAg- Agar well diffusion method- observ- The results found that strong antimi- Bahabadi et al. (2017)
NPs) ing antibacterial activity of cAgNPs crobial activity when exposed to
against V. harveyi cAgNPs and the fastest antibacterial
activity was observed with 16.62 nm
AgNPs
V. parahaemolyticus Gold nanoparticles (AuNP) Supplemented feeding with AuNPs The survival rate was 80% higher, and Tello-Oleaa et al. (2019)
the signs of histopathological dam-
age to the shrimp were reduced when
treated with 2 μg/g of AuNPs
V. parahaemolyticus Silver nanoparticles synthesized with Agar well diffusion assay Result showed excellent highest inhibi- Latha et al. (2016)
Adathoda vasica Linn. extract tion at 50ug.mL of A. vasica AgNPs
bacteria (Prabhu and Poulose 2012; Iram et al. 2021). Other recent studies on the use of
nanoparticles in treating shrimp aquaculture diseases such as the threat from Vibrio spp.
are summarized in Table 7.
Limitation(s) of the biocontrol methods
While there is much promise in employing biological approaches, it is important to note

that they also have certain drawbacks. As the use of probiotics and prebiotics is beneficial
for the management of shrimp disease in aquaculture, some researchers have raised con-
cerns about the potential effect of the changes in intestinal microflora on the fish. Ringø
et al. (2010a, b) in this line opined that such change may cause mutagenesis and systemic
infections, which consequently lead to huge economic losses in aquaculture. This is pos-
sible because excessive bacteria addition may result in horizontal gene transfer, consequent
upon which resistance genes can be formed (Watts et al. 2017). Moreover, the application
of probiotics and prebiotics has only been demonstrated to be effective against bacterial
diseases. Its uses against viruses and other pathogens are still under investigation, hence,
may constitute a significant limitation to its use (Jamal et al. 2019). Also, there is still a
lack of in-depth knowledge about the structure-activities and relationship among probiotic
effectors, and their synergistic effects (Wang et al. 2019c). In addition, more research is
needed to understand the mechanism of action to influence the selection of the best probi-
otics to improve performance characteristics.
Whereas in the application of medicinal plants, a few limitations of the use of this
method in shrimp aquaculture and disease treatment are worth mentioning. Some com-
pounds are known to be photo and thermo-unstable, hence incorporation in the diet and
processing thereafter through mechanical means may lead to the denaturation of some
active ingredients. Besides, the mode of action of their inhibition of disease outbreaks is
still unknown. While the plant contains different bioactive compounds, isolation of a single
or some compound of interest from the plant extract is a time-consuming process; hence,
the method needs to be developed to hasten this.
Whereas in biofloc scenario, there are more study is still needed to understand the
mechanism of operation of biofloc used as a biocontrol agent in disease control for shrimp
aquaculture. For instance, the energy input is high to operate this system, hence, the exces-
sive energy used for continuous aeration and water mixing in the system will increase the
cost of production (Avnimelech 2015). Despite the advantage of water quality improve-
ment with biofloc technology, excessive use of an unoptimized C/N ratio might affect
water quality and biofloc accumulation. This eventually reduces the dissolved oxygen and
increases nitrogenous compounds thereby affecting the fish gills (Schveitzer et al. 2013;
Green et al. 2019). In addition, a lack of knowledge about water mixing and sludge con-
trol could result in massive losses of the shrimp due to stress (Khanjani et al. 2020; Green
et al. 2021). This is because the accumulation of heavy solids because of poor sludge con-
trol causes the shrimp gills to clog (Schveitzer et al. 2013). Similarly, if the ammonia and
nitrite levels are not well-monitored, and it exceeds the safe levels for the production of the
farmed aquatic species, fish mortality can occur within a short period (Pinto et al. 2016;
Ballester et al. 2017; Ray et al. 2010).
While the bacteriophage method is seemingly effective for disease treatment, its uses
are based on a broad understanding of kinetics phenomena; this knowledge is gener-
ally lacking among farmers. In addition to this limitation, if targeted pathogens are not
affected by the bacteriophage application, it can impact negatively non-targets like the
13
natural bacteria communities in aquaculture waters. Other concerns include the knowl-
edge of the appropriate phage (s) to be used, the host cell’s immune responses, and the
risk of phage resistance development in the environment over time. Whereas for the
use of nanoparticles for treating aquaculture diseases, the major limitation is the cost
involved during the method’s development and the possibility of sediment accumulation
over a prolonged time. It is important therefore to state that proper waste management
in farms using this technology must be done to prevent the accidental discharge of nano-
particle residues into the environment, especially the aquatic ecosystem. Additionally,
there is also a need for sufficient studies on the acute toxicity of these nanoparticles as it
regards different aquaculture species.
Conclusion and future perspectives
Shrimp diseases caused by bacteria represent a major problem for most shrimp farmers
around the world. Opportunistic vibriosis consists of pathogenic species that can cause
detrimental effects on the shrimp population, thereby resulting in 100% mortality in the
shrimps a few days after infection. It is established that good management practices and
the use of potential biological control methods are the best ways of mitigating financial
losses in shrimp farming and ensuring sustainable global shrimp production. This is
predicated on the knowledge that chemical antibiotics are not environmentally friendly.
Hence, biocontrol methods such as the use of probiotics/prebiotics, medicinal plants,
biofloc, bacteriophages, and nanoparticle technology are currently being explored.
However, the selection method to use will be predicated on factors such as farm size,
level of infection, effectiveness, cost, and duration of exposure efficacy. Even though
some of the viable alternative methods are well-known, there are still knowledge gaps
that need to be filled including the mode of action for each biological method; their tox-
icity effects towards various aquaculture species, and their application in real farming
systems. This is an attempt to generate valuable information needed for the populariza-
tion and commercialization of the various methods, consequent upon establishing their
impacts on different species. Further studies can investigate the potential of integrating
biocontrol methods that complement each other such as probiotics with biofloc systems,
as a strategy for treating shrimp aquaculture diseases.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, under the
Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE) program, Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (Vot 63933 and 56053).
Author contribution All authors have contributed to the final manuscript. Nurul Ashikin Elias: data cura-
tion, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. Mohamad Sofi Abu Hassan:
writing—review and editing, validation, and investigation. Nor Asma Husna Yusoff: data curation, formal
analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. Okomoda Victor Tosin: data curation, for-
mal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. Noor Aniza Harun: writing—review and
editing, validation and investigation. Sharifah Rahmah: writing—review and editing, validation, and inves-
tigation. Marina Hassan: conceptualization, writing—originl draft, validation, writing—review and editing.
Data availability Not applicable.
Declarations
Ethical approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
13
Consent to publish Not applicable.
Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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Potential and Limitation of Biocontrol Methods Against Vibriosis: A Review

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Potential and Limitation of Biocontrol Methods Against Vibriosis: A Review

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Aquaculture International

Potential and limitation of biocontrol methods

Nurul Ashikin Elias1 · Mohamad Sofi Abu Hassan1 · Nor Asma Husna Yusoff1 ·

Received: 9 January 2023 / Accepted: 12 March 2023

Keywords Antibiotics · Bacteria · Control methods · Diseases · Vibrio spp.

Handling editor: Brian Austin.

• V. harveyi, syndrome Wang et al. (2020)

Table 2 Impact of Vibriosis in aquaculture (Source: Novriadi 2016)

China V. fluvialis > US$ 120 M annual losses between 1990–1992

Vibriosis in shrimp and other associated diseases

Early mortality syndrome

Early mortality syndrome (EMS), also known as an acute hepatopancreatic disease

Luminescence disease in shrimp is commonly caused by V. harveyi and was reported in

Brown spot diseases

Use of antibiotics against vibriosis and their limitations

Potential biocontrol methods against vibriosis in shrimp aquaculture

Macro plants and plant extracts

The histopathological also

Natto extract with shrimp

interference with the pathogen’s quorum-sensing system. Quorum sensing or “cell-to-cell

With the advancement of technology in the twenty-first century, nanoparticles have

n.m: not mentioned

Application of phages at 6 h post-infection was effective to avoid mortality

Limitation(s) of the biocontrol methods

While there is much promise in employing biological approaches, it is important to note

Conclusion and future perspectives

Data availability Not applicable.

Consent to publish Not applicable.

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

RathnaKumaria P, Kolanchinathana P, Sivab D, Abiramib B, Masilamania V, Johna G, Achiramanb S,

Torpee S, Kantachote D, Rattanachuay P, Chiayvareesajja S, Tantirungkij M (2021) Dietary supplementa-

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Table 2 Impact of Vibriosis in aquaculture (Source: Novriadi 2016)