THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PH 110-INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Physics is based on measurement of the physical quantities we use to describe the changes that
take place in our universe. Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a
certain basic, arbitrary chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit.

1.1 Units for measurement

The laws of physics are expressed in terms of physical quantities. Hence an accurate measurement
of these quantities becomes necessary and inevitable in establishing the laws of nature as revealed
by experimental observations. In order to measure a physical quantity its value is compared with
the standard of the same kind. This standard is called unit of a physical quantity. A physical
quantity is any quantity that can be measured and expressed in form of laws.

1.2 Magnitude
The number of times a standard is present in the physical quantity is known as the magnitude of
the physical quantity.

1.3 Fundamental quantities

A physical quantity which is independent of any other quantity is called a fundamental quantity.
The unit of a physical quantity which is independent of any other quantity is called a fundamental
unit. In mechanics, units of length, mass and time are taken as fundamental units.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 1

1.4 Derived quantities
The physical quantities which can be derived from other physical quantities are called derived
quantities. All other quantities except the fundamental quantities are derivable. The units of
physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units.
For example, area, pressure, density and speed are derived quantities and their units are derived
from fundamental units. Note that some derived units have special names e.g. kgm/s2 is Newton(N)
and N/m2 is Pascal (Pa).

1.5 The International System of Units (SI)

S.I unit is the short name of “System International de units” which means “International system
of units”. It is a system of units for all fundamental physical quantities popularly known as the
metric system. In SI, there are seven base units. These are units of length, mass, time, electric
current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance. Table 1.1 depicts these
quantities, their unit names, and their unit symbols. Many SI derived units are defined in terms of
the first three quantities of Table 1.1. For example, the SI unit for force, called the newton
(abbreviated N), is defined in terms of the base units of mass, length, and time. Thus, as we will
see from the study of Newton’s second law, the unit of force is given by:

1𝑁 = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 2

Table 1.1 The seven independent SI base units

1.6 Prefixes
An additional convenient way to deal with very small numbers in physics is to use the prefixes
listed in Table 1.2. When dealing with very large or very small numbers in physics, we use the so-
called scientific notation which employs powers of 10. Each one of these prefixes represents a
certain power of 10. Note that the most commonly used prefixes are shown in bold face type.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 2

 Table 1.2 Prefixes for SI units

Accordingly, we can express a particular magnitude of force as:

1.23 × 106 N = 1.23 mega newtons

= 1.23 MN
or a particular time interval as:
1.23 × 10−9 s = 1.23 nano seconds
= 1.23 ns

1.7 Conversion of units

Sometimes it is necessary to convert units in which a physical quantity is expressed, from one
measurement system to another or to convert within the system. We do that by using a method
called chain-link conversion, in which we multiply by a conversion factor that equals unity. Units
can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other. For example, 1 minute = 60
seconds, then
1 min 60s
= 1 and =1
60 s 1 min
1
This however, does not mean that 60 = 1 or 60 = 1 because the number and the unit must be
treated together.
Suppose we wish to convert 15.0 in. to centimeters. Because 1 in. is defined as exactly 2.54 cm,
we find that

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 3

Note that we choose to put the unit of an inch in the denominator and it cancels with the unit in
the original quantity. The remaining unit is the centimeter, which is our desired result.

1.8 Standards of Length, Time, and Mass

Definitions of the units of length, time, and mass are under constant review and are changed from
time to time. In this section, only the latest definitions of those quantities are presented.

1.8.1 Length (L)

In 1983, the precision of the meter was redefined as the distance traveled by a light wave in vacuum
in a specified time interval. The reason is that the measurement of the speed of light has become
extremely precise, so it made sense to adopt the speed of light as a defined quantity and to use it
to redefine the meter.

One meter is the distance traveled by light in vacuum during the time interval of 1/299 792 458 of
a second

This time interval number was chosen so that the speed of light in vacuum c will be
exactly given by:
𝒄 = 𝟐𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟓𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
For educational purposes we usually consider the value 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

1.8.2 Time (T)

Recently, the standard of time was redefined to take advantage of the high-precision measurements
that could be obtained by using a device known as an atomic clock. Cesium is most common
element that is typically used in the construction of atomic clocks because it allows us to attain
high accuracy.
Since 1967, the International System of Measurements has been basing its unit of time, the second,
on the properties of the isotope cesium-133. One of the transitions between two energy levels of
the ground state of cesium-133 has an oscillation frequency of 9 192 631 770 Hz, which is used to
define the second in SI units.

One second is the time taken for the cesium-133 atom to perform 9 192 631 770 oscillations to
emit radiation of a specific wavelength

1.8.3 Mass (M)

A cylindrical mass of 3.9 cm in diameter and of 3.9 cm in height and made of an unusually stable
platinum-iridium alloy is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris and
assigned in the SI units a mass of 1 kilogram by international agreement, see Figure 1.1. Accurate
copies of this standard 1 kilogram have been sent to standardizing laboratories in other countries.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 4

The SI unit of mass, one kilogram, is defined as the mass of a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept
at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France.

Figure 1.1 The standard 1 kilogram of mass is a platinum-iridium cylinder 3.9 cm in height and
diameter and kept under a double bell jar at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
France

1.9 Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between fundamental physical quantities
which are purely mechanical in nature, i.e. mass, length and time. These quantities are represented
by the letters M, L and T respectively. The letters specify only the nature of the unit and not the
magnitude. The concept of dimensionality is important in understanding physics and in solving
physics problems.

1.9.1 Dimensional equation

A dimensional equation is the expression which indicates the units of a physical quantity in terms
of the fundamental units. The dimensional formulae of some physical quantities are listed below.

Area = Length × Length = 𝐋 × 𝐋 = 𝐋𝟐

Volume = Length × Length × Length = 𝐋 × 𝐋 × 𝐋 = 𝐋𝟑

Mass 𝐌
Density = = 𝟑 = 𝐌𝐋−𝟑
Volume 𝐋

Distance 𝐋
Speed = = = 𝐋𝐓 −𝟏
Time 𝐓

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 5

 Velocity 𝐋𝐓 −𝟏
Acceleration = = = 𝐋𝐓 −𝟐
Time 𝐓
Force = Mass × Acceleration = 𝐌 × 𝐋𝐓 −𝟐 = 𝐌𝐋𝐓 −𝟐

Force 𝐌𝐋𝐓 −𝟐
Pressure = = = 𝐌𝐋−𝟏 𝐓 −𝟐
Area 𝐋𝟐

Work = Force × distance = 𝐌𝐋𝐓 −𝟐 × 𝐋 = 𝐌𝐋𝟐 𝐓 −𝟐

Work done 𝐌𝐋𝟐 𝐓 −𝟐

Power = = = 𝐌𝐋𝟐 𝐓 −𝟑
Time 𝐓

1.9.2 Principle of homogeneity of dimensions

This principle states that we can multiply or divide physical quantities with same or different
dimensional formulae at our convenience, however, no such rule applies to addition and
subtraction, where only the like physical quantities can be added or subtracted.
In case of a relation or an equation, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of equation must
be the same. That is, the equation must be dimensionally homogeneous.

1.9.3 Applications of dimensional analysis

➢ To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units
➢ To find the dimensions of physical constant or coefficients.
➢ To check the accuracy of a given equation or relation. An equation or a relation is correct or
accurate if the dimensions of each term on either side of the equation are equal.
➢ To derive the correct relationships between physical quantities
➢ To convert a physical quantity from one system to another system

1.9.4 Limitations of dimensional analysis

➢ Dimension does not depend on the magnitude
➢ The numerical constants having no dimensions cannot be deduced by method of dimensional
analysis
➢ This method is applicable only if the relation is of product type. It fails in the case of
exponentials and trigonometric relations.
➢ This method is not suitable if the physical quantity depends on more than three other quantities.
➢ Quite often, it is difficult to guess the parameters on which the physical quantity depends.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 6

Example 1.1
Use dimensional analysis to check to check the correctness of the equation

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

where 𝑣 and 𝑣0 are the final and initial velocities respectively, 𝑎 is the acceleration, and 𝑡 is the
time interval

Example 1.2
A particle moves with a constant speed v in a circular orbit of radius r, see the figure below. Given
that the acceleration 𝑎 of the particle depends on the velocity v of the particle and the orbital radius
r, use dimensional analysis to derive an equation that relates 𝑎, v and r.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 7

 Therefore, we can write the expression as follows;

𝒗𝟐
𝑎 = 𝑘𝑣 2 𝑟 −1 = 𝒌
𝒓

1.10 Significant figures

Significant figures in the measured value of physical quantity tell the number of digits in which
we have confidence. The larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, the
greater the accuracy of a measurement. The reverse is also true.
The following rules are observed in counting the number of significant figures in a given measured
quantity.
➢ All non-zero digits are significant.
➢ A zero becomes significant if it appears between two non-zero digits
➢ Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are significant.
Example: 4.330 has four significant figures
343.000 has six significant figures
➢ Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 8

 Example: 0.543 has three significant figures
0.06 has one significant figure

1.11 Rounding off

➢ If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Example: x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x = 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example: x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is
raised by one.
Example: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged,
if it is even.
Example: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding
off.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one,
if it is odd.
Example: x = 3.750 becomes 3.8 on rounding off, again x = 16.150 becomes 16.2 on rounding
off.

1.12 Significant figures in calculations

In an experiment, different physical quantities may be measured. These quantities may be added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided to get the required experimental result. If all the observations
have been made with great accuracy except one observation, then the inaccuracy in the single
observation would affect the accuracy of the final result(s).
The following two rules should be followed to obtain the proper number of significant figures in
any calculation.
➢ The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having different precisions should be
reported to the same number of decimal places as are present in the number having the least
number of decimal places.
➢ The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of significant
figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.

1.13 Accuracy and errors in measurements

For all measuring instruments, there is a limit up to which measurements can be taken accurately.
This is called the least count of the measuring instrument. For example, it is 0.1 cm for an ordinary

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 9

meter scale, it is 0.01 cm for a vernier calipers and 0.001 cm for an ordinary micrometer screw
gauge. When we take measurements using various measuring instruments, various types of errors
may creep into the observations.
1.13.1 Types of errors
The following are various types of errors which may affect the results of measurements.
(a) Constant error
If errors in a series of observations taken with an instrument are same, the error is said to be a
constant error.
(b) Systematic error
Errors which come to existence by the virtue of certain definite rule are called systematic errors.
These errors are due to known causes. This type of error can be eliminated detecting the source of
error and the rule governing the error. Systematic errors can be classified into four main groups.
These are instrumental error, personal error, error due to imperfection and error due to external
causes.
(c) Random (or accidental) error
Errors which occur in a random manner and cannot be associated with a systematic cause are called
random errors. These errors are due to irregular causes.
(d) Gross error
Gross errors are due to the carelessness on the part of the observer. No correction can be applied
for them. Gross errors arise because of neglecting the source the source of error, reading the
instrument incorrectly and the improper recording of the reading.

1.13.2 Errors of measurements

The measured value of a quantity is always somewhat different from its actual value, or true value.
This difference in the true of a quantity is called error of measurement.
(a) Absolute error
Absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity is the magnitude of the difference
between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.

Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the measured values be 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ,…, 𝑎𝑛 . The
arithmetic mean of these values is

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 10

 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝒎 =
𝑛

Usually, 𝑎𝒎 is taken as the true value of the quantity, if the same is unknown otherwise.

By definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are

∆𝑎1 = 𝑎𝒎 − 𝑎1
∆𝑎2 = 𝑎𝒎 − 𝑎2
∆𝑎3 = 𝑎𝒎 − 𝑎3
… … … … … ….
∆𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝒎 − 𝑎𝑛

The absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in certain other cases.

(b) Mean absolute error

It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all measurements of the quantity.
It is represented by ∆𝑎. Thus

|∆𝑎1 | + |∆𝑎2 | + |∆𝑎3 | + ⋯ + |∆𝑎𝑛 |

̅̅̅̅ =
∆𝑎
𝑛

̅̅̅̅.
Hence the final result of measurement may be written as 𝑎 = 𝑎𝒎 ± ∆𝑎
̅̅̅̅) and
This implies that any measurement of the quantity is likely to lie between (𝑎𝒎 − ∆𝑎
̅̅̅̅)
(𝑎𝒎 + ∆𝑎

(c) Relative error or Fractional error

It is defined as the ratio of mean absolute error to the true value. It is given by

̅̅̅̅
mean absolute error ∆𝑎
Relative error = =
true value 𝑎𝒎

(d) Percent error

It is the relative error expressed as a percentage.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 11

 mean absolute error ̅̅̅̅
∆𝑎
Percent error = × 100% = × 100%
true value 𝑎𝒎

1.13.3 Combination of errors

The following rules are followed in combining errors to get the maximum possible error.
(a) Error in a sum of the quantities

Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏

Let ∆𝑎 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑎

∆𝑏 = absolute error in measurement of 𝑏

∆𝑥 = absolute error in calculation of 𝑥 i.e. sum of 𝑎 and 𝑏

The maximum possible error in 𝑥 is ∆𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏)

The relative error is therefore given by

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏
=
𝑥 𝑎+𝑏

The percent error is

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏
× 100% = ( ) × 100%
𝑥 𝑎+𝑏

(b) Error in a difference of the quantities

Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑏

The maximum possible error in 𝑥 is ∆𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏)

The relative error is therefore given by

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏
=
𝑥 𝑎−𝑏

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 12

The percent error is

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏
× 100% = ( ) × 100%
𝑥 𝑎−𝑏

(c) Error in a product of quantities

Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏

The maximum possible error in 𝑥 is given by

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
= +
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏

Then,

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
× 100% = ( + ) × 100%
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏
(d) Error in division of quantities
𝑎
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑏

The maximum possible relative error in 𝑥 is given by

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
= +
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏

Then,

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
× 100% = ( + ) × 100%
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏
(e) Error in a quantity raised to some power
𝑎𝑙 𝑏 𝑚
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛

The maximum possible relative error in 𝑥 is given by

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 13

 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑐
= 𝑙( )+𝑚( )+𝑛( )
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Then

∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑐
× 100% = 𝑙 ( ) × 100% + 𝑚 ( ) × 100% + 𝑛 ( ) × 100%
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

1.14 Density and Atomic Mass

The fundamental property of any substance is its density 𝜌 (Greek letter 𝜌 (rho)). It is defined as
mass 𝑚 per unit volume 𝑉.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
For example, copper has a density of 8.93 g/cm3 or 8.93 x 103 kg/m3. This means that piece of
copper of volume 1 cm3 has mass 8.93 g or that a piece of copper of volume 1 m3 has mass 8.93 x
103 kg
The difference in density is due in part to the difference in atomic weights. For example, the atomic
weight of lead is 207(density = 11.3g/cm3) and that of aluminium is 27. The ratio of atomic weights
207 ⁄ 27 = 7.67 is different from the ratio of densities, 11.3 ⁄ 2.70 = 4.19. This discrepancy is
due to the differences in atomic spacing and atomic arrangements in their crystal structures.
All ordinary matter consists of atoms while atoms are made up of electrons and a nucleus (made
up of protons and neutrons). Practically all the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus. The
nuclear masses are measured relative to the mass of the atom of the carbon-12 (12C) isotope (6
protons and 6 neutrons).
The mass of 12C is defined to be exactly 12 atomic mass units (u), where
1𝑢 = 1.6605402 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
In these units, the proton and neutron have masses of 1u. Precisely,
𝑚𝑝 = 1.0073 𝑢

𝑚𝑛 = 1.0087 𝑢
The mass of the nucleus of 27Al is approximately 27u, for example. In all cases the mass of the
nucleus is slightly less than the combined mass of the protons and neutrons that make the nucleus.
This mass difference is responsible for fission and fusion processes.
One mole of an element contains an Avogadro’s number NA of molecules of the substance.
Avogadro’s number NA is defined so that one mole of 12C atoms has mass of 12g, where
𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 molecules/mole

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 14

One mole of Al has a mass of 27g and one mole of Pb, a mass of 207g. The number of atoms in
each of these two species is the Avogadro’s number.
Therefore, the mass per atom m is
atomic weight
𝑚=
𝑁𝐴
For example, the mass of Al atom is
27 g/mole
𝑚𝐴𝑙 = 6.02 × 1023atoms/mole = 4.5 × 10−23 g/atom

Note that

1𝑢 = 𝑁𝐴 −1 𝑔

Example 1.3
A solid cube of aluminium (density 2.7 g/cm3) has a volume of 0.2cm3. How many atoms are
contained in the cube?

Solution:
Given
𝑔
𝐴𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 ⇒ 𝜌𝐴𝑙 = 2.7 𝑐𝑚3

𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0.2𝑐𝑚3

Number of atoms, N
We need to find the mass of the Al cube and then the number of atoms
Mass of Al cube
𝑚 = density × volume
= 2.7 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 × 0.2𝑐𝑚3
= 0.54 𝑔
Since 1 mole of Al has mass of 27g it follows that
27𝑔 of Al contains 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
∴ 0.54𝑔

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 15

 6.02 × 1023 atoms⁄mole × 0.54𝑔
27𝑔
= 1.2 × 1022 atoms

1.15 Order of magnitude calculations

Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent the quantity. For
determining this power, the value of the quantity has to be rounded off. While rounding off, we
ignore the last digit which is less than 5. If the last digit is 5 or more than 5, the preceding digit is
increased by 1. For example,
1. Speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 108 𝑚/𝑠 (as 3 < 5)
2. Mas of an electron 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 ≈ 10−30 𝑘𝑔 (as 9.1 > 5)
This calculation is useful as it gives a first orientation before a more standard calculation can be
performed. It is important that realistic assumptions are made.
Example 1.4
Estimate the number of atoms in 1cm3of a solid.
Solution
Given is a volume V = 1cm3, nature is a solid
Assumptions
1. The size of an atom diameter, d = 10-10m
2. Atoms are spherical in shape => Volume of sphere

We determine the volume of an atom as follows;

4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉atom =
3
In terms of diameter, d
𝜋𝑑 3 𝑑
𝑉atom = , since 𝑟 =
6 2
Substitute for d = 10-10m
10−30 3
𝑉atom =𝜋 𝑚
6
The number of atoms in 1cm3volume can now be found
𝑉
𝑛atom =
𝑉atom

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 16

 1𝑐𝑚3 × (103 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑐𝑚)3
= 3
𝜋 × 10−30 𝑚 ⁄atom

10−6 𝑚3
= 3
𝜋 × 10−30 𝑚 ⁄atom

≈ 1024 atoms
This is closer to what one might expect.
A more accurate calculation requires the knowledge of the density of the solid so that mass of the
solid can be determined. In addition, knowledge of the mass of one atom would also be needed.

EXERCISES
1. 5.74 g of a substance occupies a volume 1.2 cm3. Give the density of the substance to correct
significant figures. [ 4.8 g/cm3]
2. The volume of a wallet is 8.560cm3. Convert this value to m3. [8.56×10-6m3]
3. The radius of an atom is 0.5𝐴̇. What is the total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen
atom? 1 angstrom unit (𝐴̇) = 10-10m. [3.151×10-7m3]
4. An American football field is 100 yards long. How many inches are 20 American football
fields? [7.2×104 inches]
5. How many square millimeter blocks could sit in a square meter? [1×106 m2]
6. There is a cube shaped barrel whose interior is 2 meters on each side. How many mL of water
could this barrel hold? [8×106 mL]
7. The strongest hurricane wind ever measured was 345 km/hr. How fast is this in ft/s? [314 ft/s]
8. A section of the land has an area of 1 square mile and contains 640 acres. How many square
meters are there in one acre? (1mi = 5280ft; 1m2 = 10.76ft2). [4048 m2]
9. A laser light beamed at moon takes 2.56 seconds to return after reflection from the moon. What
is the radius of the lunar orbit around the earth? [3.84×108 ms-1]
10. An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance of the earth from the sun, approximately
150,000,000 km. The speed of light is about 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. Express the speed of light in terms
of astronomical units per minute. [0.12 AU/min]
11. If the unit of force is 100 N, unit of length is 10 m and unit of time is 100 s. What is the unit
of mass in this system of units? [105 kg]
12. In a submarine equipped with ‘sonar’, the time delay between generation of probe wave and
reception of its echo after reflection from enemy submarine is 77 seconds. What is the distance
of the enemy submarine? Speed of sound in water = 1450 m/s. [55.8 km]
4 2
13. A unit of area, often used in measuring land areas, is the hectare, defined as 10 m . An open-
pit coal mine excavates 75 hectares of land, down to a depth of 26 m, each year. What volume
of earth, in cubic kilometers, is removed during this time? [0.02(km)3]
14. A 12-hour-dial clock happens to gain 0.5 min each day. After setting the clock to the correct
time at 12:00 noon, how many days must one wait until it again indicates the correct time? [48

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 17

 months = 1440 days (if the clock doesn’t show am/pm) or 96 months =2880 days (if the
clock shows am/pm)]
15. A person on a diet loses 2 kg per week. Find the average rate of mass loss in milligrams every:
day, hour, minute, and second. [285714.3mg/day, 11904.8mg/h, 198.4mg/min, 3.3mg/s]
16. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of iron is 7.87 kg/m3, and the mass of
an iron atom is 9.27×10−26 kg. If atoms are cubical and tightly packed,
(a) What is the volume of an iron atom? [1.178 × 10−26 m3]
(b) What is the distance between the centers of two adjacent atoms? [2.28 × 10−9 m]
17. How many grams of copper are required to make a hollow spherical shell with an inner radius
of 5.70 cm and an outer radius of 5.75 cm? Density of copper =8.93 g/cm3. [184 g]
18. Estimate how many raindrops fall on a 1-acre plot during a 1-in. rainfall? [2.5×109]
19. The diameter of a wire is measured 0.236 cm with the help of a screw gauge. The least count
is 0.001 cm. Calculate the possible percentage error in the measurement. [0.4 %]
20. The sides of a rectangle are (10.5 ± 0.2) cm and (5.2 ± 0.1) cm. Calculate its perimeter with
error limits. [(31.4± 0.6) cm]
21. If displacement of a body 𝑠 = (200 ± 5) 𝑚 and time taken by it 𝑡 = (20 ± 0.2) 𝑠, then find
the percentage error in the calculation of velocity. [3.5 %]
22. A physical quantity 𝑋 is related to four measurable quantities 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 as follows:
5
𝑎2 𝑏 3 (√𝑐)
𝑋=
𝑑2
Given that the percentage error in the measurement of the quantities 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are 1%, 2%,
3% and 4% respectively. What is the percentage error in quantity 𝑋? If the value of 𝑋
calculated on the basis of the above relation is 2.76312, to what value should you round off the
result? [23.5%, 2.76]
4
23. Compute the value of  x if xi = (2i + 1) .
i =1
i [24]

24. If 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐𝑡 2 , where 𝑥 is in meters and 𝑡 in seconds, what is the unit of 𝑐? [m/s2]

25. The volume of a liquid flowing out per second of a pipe of length 𝑙 and radius 𝑟 is written by
a student as
𝜋 𝑃𝑟 4
𝑣=
8 𝜂𝑙
Where 𝑃, is the pressure difference between the two ends of the pipe and 𝜂 is the coefficient
of viscosity of the liquid. Prove that the equation is dimensionally consistent.
26. A Student recalls the relation for relativistic mass m in terms of the rest mass m0, velocity v of
𝑚0
the particle, but forgets to put the constant c (the velocity of light). He writes as 𝑚 = 2 1⁄
.
(1−𝑣 ) 2

𝒎𝟎
Correct the equation by putting the missing ‘c’ [𝒎 = 𝟏⁄ ]
𝒗𝟐 𝟐
(𝟏− 𝟐 )
𝒄

27. The velocity 𝑣 of a particle varies with time 𝑡 according to the relation 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐. Find
the dimensions of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐. [𝑳𝑻−𝟑 ; 𝑳𝑻−𝟐 ; 𝑳𝑻−𝟏 ]

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 18

28. The square of the speed of an object undergoing a uniform acceleration 𝑎 is some function of
𝑎 and the displacement 𝑠, according to the expression given by:
v 2 = ka m s n
where k is a dimensionless constant. Show by dimensional analysis that this expression is
satisfied only if m = n = 1.
29. The displacement 𝑥 of a particle in a x-axis depends on the acceleration 𝑎 of the particle and
the time 𝑡. Derive the relationship between𝑥, 𝑎 and 𝑡. [𝒙 = 𝒌𝒂𝒕𝟐 ]
30. The frequency (𝜈 ) of a stretched string may depend on the length of the vibrating string l, the
𝑘 𝐹
tension in the string F and the mass per unit length m. Show that 𝜈 = 𝑙 √𝑚 , where 𝑘 is the
dimensionless constant.

COMPILED BY MULENGA MUMA 19