Transportation Engineering

Vehicle Dynamics
Volkan Emre UZ, PhD
Outline of the lecture
 Vehicular characteristics.

Tractive efforts of vehicles.

Resistances against to vehicle movement.

Operation cost of vehicles and their effect on geometric design.

 Movement Of Vehicles on Roads
• Engine provides tractive force to the vehicle, so the vehicle can move.
• There are several resistive forces against the tractive force.
1) Aerodynamic Resistance (Ra)
2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl)
3) Grade Resistance (Rg)
4) Curve Resistance (Rc)
5) Inertia (Acceleration) Resistance (Rac) Curve Resistance

Aerodynamic Resistance Rolling Resistance Grade Resistance Acceleration Resistance

1) Aerodynamic Resistance (Ra)
• Composed of:
• Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)

• Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)

• Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and vents (3%)

1) Aerodynamic Resistance (Ra)
•According to aerodynamic rules, the aerodynamic resistance can be calculated using below written formula:

𝜌×𝐶𝐷 ×𝐴𝑓 ×𝑉 2
• 𝑅𝑎 = and 𝐴𝑓 = 0.8 × 𝑤 × ℎ
13

 Ra = aerodynamic resistance (kg)

𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1,225 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³

 𝜌= → 𝜌= = 0,125 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠²/𝑚4
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 9,81 𝑚/𝑠²

 CD= coefficient of drag

 Af = frontal area of the vehicle (m2)

 V = speed of the vehicle (km/h)

 w= width of the vehicle (m)

 h= height of the vehicle (m)

1) Aerodynamic Resistance (Ra)
• If we use «air resistance coefficient (K)» instead of « ρ x CD »

𝐾×𝐴𝑓 ×𝑉 2
 𝑅𝑎 =
13

 Ra = aerodynamic resistance (kg)

 Af = frontal area of the vehicle (m2)

 V = speed of the vehicle (km/h)

 K= air resistance coefficient (kg.sn/m4)
1) Aerodynamic Resistance (Ra) – Air Resistance Coefficient

Vehicle Type K (kg.sn/m4) Af (m²)

Racing Car 0,010-0,015 1,5-2
Passenger Car 0,015-0,030 1,5-2,6
Bus 0,025-0,050 4,0-6,5
Truck 0,050-0,070 3,0-6,0
1) Aerodynamic Resistance (Ra) - Example
Example: A light truck moving with 78 km/h speed on a straight road .Calculate the earodynamic
resistance applied on the truck with using below given informations.

1) 2) ρ=0,125 kg.s²/m4 3) CD=0,45

K= CD x ρ = 0,45 x 0,125 = 0,056 kg.s/m4

Height of the truck → h=1,785 m
𝐾 × 𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉 2
𝑅𝑎 =
Width of the truck → w=1,860 m 13
Af= 0,8 x 1,785 x 1,860 = 2,656 m²
0,056 × 2,656 × 782
𝑅𝑎 = = 69,608 𝑘𝑔
13
2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl)
•The resisting force generated from a vehicle’s internal mechanical friction and from pneumatic tires and their
interaction with the roadway surface.
• Composed of: Aerodynamic drag of the
rotating tyre : 0 – 15 %
1) Resistance from tire deformation (~90%)
2) Tire penetration and surface compression (~ 4%)
3) Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel (~ 6%)
4) Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance Microslippage : <5%

Deformation in the patch area:

80-95%
 2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl) - Friction
• Friction is defined as the resistance to motion between two
surfaces.

• Basic types of friction:

 Static: the holding force between two surfaces at rest (adhesion)

 Sliding: the resistance to motion between two surfaces which are moving
across each other

 Rolling: the resistance to motion of a rolling object like a ball, cylinder or

wheel

 Internal: the resistance to motion within elastic objects (tires get warm
from internal friction as they flex)
2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl)
•The overall rolling resistance is simply approximated as the product of a friction term (coefficient of rolling
resistance) and the weight component of the vehicle acting normal to the roadway surface.

•𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄 Rr: Rolling Resistance (kg) μr: Rolling Coefficient (kg/kg) Q: Weight of the vehicle (kg)
2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl)
•Rolling resistance factors:
 vehicle weight, 𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄

 road surface type and condition,

 tire pressure and condition,

 vehicle speed
2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl)
• For rolling resistance coefficient (μr), if the speed of the vehicle;
• V ≤ 50 km/h : use table to define μr.
• V > 50 km/h : use formulation to define μr : 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇0 × 1 + 0,01 × 𝑉 − 50

Surface Type μ0 rolling resistance coeff. (kg/kg)

Concrete and asphalt pavements 0,010 – 0,020
Asphalt mcadams pavements (ship sealed) 0,020 – 0,025
Crushed stone and gravel pavements (stabilized) 0,030 – 0,040
Unpaved 0,030 – 0,060
 2) Rolling Resistance (Rrl) – Example
Example: A passenger car moving on a road sections A and B at given speeds. The weight of the car is 1.5 tonn. Calculate
the rolling resistance that the car exposed at each section.
Surface Type μ0 rolling resistance coeff. (kg/kg)

Concrete and asphalt pavements 0,010 – 0,020

Asphalt mcadams pavements (ship 0,020 – 0,025

sealed)

Section A: Section B: Crushed stone and gravel pavements 0,030 – 0,040

• Crushed Stone Road • Asphalt Pavement (stabilized)
• Slope: 0% • Slope: 6% Unpaved 0,030 – 0,060
• V: 60 km/h • V: 45 km/h

For section A: For section B:

Crushed Stone Road : μ0= 0, 030 – 0,040 → μ0=0,035
V= 60 km/h > 50 km/hr → μr=0,035 x [1 + 0,01x(60-50)]
μr= 0,0385
Slope is 0% : Q= 1.500 x cos(0) = 1.500 kg
𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄 → 𝑅𝑟 = 0,0385 × 1.500 = 57,75 𝑘𝑔
Asphalt Pavement: μ0= 0, 010 – 0,020 → μ0=0,015
V= 45 km/h < 50 km/hr → μr= μ0 → μr= 0,015
Slope is 6% : arctan(0,06)= 3.43° Q= 1.500 x cos(3,43) = 1.497,31 ≈1.500
Slope can be ignored.
𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄 → 𝑅𝑟 = 0,015 × 1.500 = 22,50 𝑘𝑔
3) Grade Resistance (Rg)
• It is composed of gravitational force acting on the vehicle.
• When α is small, it can be assumed that sin(α )=tg(α).
W x sin(α)
• tg(α) is the slope of the road.
• 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 × tan 𝛼 W
α

• Slope of the road is given in percentage, such as

• 2% , 5%, 7% etc.
• Then, tan 𝛼= 0.02 , 0.05 and 0.07 respectively.
3) Grade Resistance (Rg)-Example
• Example: 3.500 kg truck and 1.450 kg passenger car moving in opposite directions on the road which has a 7% slope.
Calculate the grade resistance action on the vehicles.

For Truck:

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 × tan 𝛼 → 3.500 × 0,07 = 245 𝑘𝑔

For Car:

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 × tan 𝛼 → 1.450 × − 0,07 = −101.5 𝑘𝑔

Note: When the vehicle moves on downhill, grade resistance should be taken as negative. In this case it is not resisting to
the movement of the vehicle. In contrast, it contributes its movement.
4) Curve Resistance(Rc)
• The front wheels of the vehicle are rotated under a certain angle with respect to the vehicle axis while moving on
horizontal curves.
• During this rotation, a resistance occur at the contact point of the wheels.
• Curve resistance increases when:
• The radius of the curve decrease
• The speed of the vehicle increase

• The surface of the road also affects.

𝑉 2 ×𝑄
•𝑅𝑐 = 255×𝑅
• Rc: curve resistance (kg)
• V: speed of the vehicle (km/h)
• R: curve radius (meter)
• Q: weight of the vehicle (kg)
4) Curve Resistance(Rc)
It is hard to give a formulation that calculates curvature resistance. On a good quality asphalt pavement,
curve resistance acting on a vehicle approximately will be as given in the table.

Curve Radius (m) Speed (km/h) Curve Resistance (kg)

350 80 18
350 96 36
175 48 18
175 64 54
175 80 108
5) Inertia (Acceleration) Resistance(Rac)
• Acceleration resistance occur when the vehicle (acceleration) increasing its speed.
• It depends on vehicle’s weight and speed.
• While deceleration, the resistance will has negative value.

• Below written formulation is used to calculate acceleration resistance.

𝑄×𝛾
• 𝑅𝑎𝑐 = 10

• Rac: acceleration resistance (kg)

• Q : weight of the vehicle (kg)
• γ : acceleration (m/s²)
 Vehicle Movement and Tractive Effort
• Tractive force enables a vehicle to start moving and accelerating.

• Engine power of motorized vehicle is given with an equation:

• 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐹𝑡𝑟 × 𝑉
 Pe: power produced by the engine (kg.m/s)

 Ftr: tractive force transmitted to the diriving wheels (kg)

 V: speed of the vehicle (m/s)

Vehicle Movement and Tractive Effort
•Generally, we define the power of the engine in unit of horse power (hp).

•If we write the power of the engine (Pe) in unit of horse power and the sped in unit of km/h :

𝐹𝑡𝑟 ×𝑉
• 𝑃𝑒 ℎ𝑝 =
270

𝑃 ℎ𝑝 ×270
•𝐹𝑡𝑟 = 𝑒
𝑉

 Pe: power produced by the engine (hp)

 Ftr: tractive force transmitted to the diriving wheels (kg)

 V: speed of the vehicle (km/h)

 Vehicle Movement and Tractive Effort
• In reality, there is a power loss in transmission of engine power to the driving wheels due to internal friction.

• The efficiency of the tractive force transmission is specified with efficiency factor (η).

• The final form of the equation becomes:

𝑃 ℎ𝑝 ×270
•𝐹𝑡𝑟 = η × 𝑒
𝑉

• η<1,0
1st Movement Condition
• To be able to move a vehicle:
1) The tractive force transmitted to the driving wheels must overcome all the resistance acting on the vehicle.

𝐹𝑡𝑟 > 𝑅

𝐹𝑡𝑟 − 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑟𝑙 + 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝑎𝑐 > 0

 2nd Movement Condition
• To be able to move a vehicle, there should be sufficient friction between wheels and the road surface. Otherwise
driving wheels will spin but the vehicle will not move.

𝑄1 × 𝑓 > 𝑅

• Q1: the weight which falls on the driving wheels (kg)

• f: friction coefficient between the wheels and the road surface

• Note: If only the rear wheels are motorized: Q1=2/3 x Q

Movement Conditions
• The friction coefficient (f) depends on the:
 road surface

 road condition ( wet,dry etc.)

 tyre condition

Samples of the road condition dataset: (a) dry, (b) wet, (c) snow, (d) ice, (e) puddle of water, and (f) sand.
Movement Conditions
• Give your comments about the presented situations. What movement will the vehicle perform?

1) 𝐹𝑡𝑟 < 𝑄 × 𝜇𝑟 < 𝑄1 × 𝑓

 Ftr is lower than rolling resistance (x) . Vehicle can not move.

2) 𝑄 × 𝜇𝑟 < 𝐹𝑡𝑟 < 𝑄1 × 𝑓

 Ftr is higher than rolling resistance (✓), frictional force is higher than all (✓). Vehicle shows normal movement.

3) 𝑄 × 𝜇𝑟 < 𝑄1 × 𝑓 < 𝐹𝑡𝑟

 Frictional force is higher than rolling resistance (✓), Frictional force is lower than Ftr ( x ) . Vehicle is moving with skidding.

4) 𝑄1 × 𝑓 < 𝑄 × 𝜇𝑟 < 𝐹𝑡𝑟

 Ftr is higher than rolling resistance (✓), Frictional force is lower than all (x) . Skidding without moving.
Example-1
An aggregate production company is planning to buy new trucks that will operate in the quarry. They
have two alternatives. The properties of the trucks are given below. The maximum slope in the quarry is
5%. The desired speed the trucks is 30 km/h. (no curve and constant speed)

Which truck is better for the company?

Engine Empty Load Air resistance

Width Height Rolling Resistance
Type Power Weight Carrying coefficient Engine efficiency (η)
(m) (m) (kg/ton)
(hp) (ton) (ton) (kg.s/m4)
Truck-
2,1 2,9 170 5 20 0,055 20 95
1
Truck-
2,1 3 200 6 15 0,043 20 95
2
 𝑃𝑒 ℎ𝑝 × 270 𝐾 × 𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑡𝑟 = η × 𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 × tan 𝛼
𝑉 13

Example-1
Engine Empty Air resistance
Width Height Load Carrying Rolling Resistance
Type Power Weight coefficient Engine efficiency (η)
(m) (m) (ton) (kg/ton)
(hp) (ton) (kg.s/m4)
Truck-
2,1 2,9 170 5 20 0,055 20 95
1
Truck-
2,1 3 200 6 15 0,043 21 95
2

For truck-1: For truck-2: Result:

0,95×170×270 0,95×200×270 Truck-1 : Ftr = 1.453,5 kg < 𝑅 = 1.768,55 𝑘𝑔
Ftr = = 1.453,5 kg Ftr = = 1.710 kg
30 30
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 5 + 20 = 25 Truck-2 : Ftr = 1.710 kg > 𝑅 = 1.485 𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 5 + 15 = 20
𝑅𝑟 = 20 × 25 = 500 𝑘𝑔 𝑅𝑟 = 21 × 20 = 420 𝑘𝑔
0,055×0,8×2,1×2,9×302 0,043×0,8×2,1×3,0×302 Truck-2 is the best option.
𝑅𝑎 = = 18,55 𝑘𝑔 𝑅𝑎 = = 15,0 𝑘𝑔
13 13
𝑅𝑔 = 25.000 × 0,05 = 1.250 𝑘𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = 20.000 × 0,05 = 1.050 𝑘𝑔
𝑅 = 1.768,55 𝑘𝑔 𝑅 = 1.485 𝑘𝑔
 Example-2
At a construction, site engineer is trying to determine the maximum load carrying capacity of the truck whose details are
given below. The construction site has a critical section which has 8% slope. The rolling resistance is 25 kg/ton. The
desired speed in the construction site is 30 km/h.

Air resistance Engine

Engine Power Empty Weight
Width (m) Height (m) coefficient efficiency (η)
(hp) (ton)
(kg.s/m4
Truck 2,3 4,0 270 7,2 0,065 0,85
 𝑃𝑒 ℎ𝑝 × 270 𝐾 × 𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑡𝑟 = η × 𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 × tan 𝛼
𝑉 13

Example-2
Air resistance Engine
Engine Power Empty Weight
Width (m) Height (m) coefficient efficiency (η)
(hp) (ton)
(kg.s/m4
Truck 2,3 4,0 270 7,2 0,065 0,85

0,85×270×270
Ftr = = 2.065,5 kg 𝑅 = 25 × 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 80 × 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 33,12
30

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 + 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 5 + 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑅 = Ftr → 2.065,5 = 105 × 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 33,12 → 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =

19.356 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑟 = 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 × 25

19.356 − 7.200 = 12.156 𝑘𝑔

0,065×0,8×2,3×4×302
𝑅𝑎 = = 33,12 𝑘𝑔
13

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 × 1000 × 0,08 = 80 × 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Example-3
A housing estate is wanted to be connected to the main arterial road. The elevation of the housing estate area is higher
than the main arterial. The terrain will lose elevation gradually from the housing to the arterial. Coal carrying trucks are
selected as a critical vehicle that will the road. The properties of the truck are given as below. Also, horizontal curves and
the curve resistances are given as below. Find the maximum slope that the truck can climb. Only the rear wheels are
motorized.

Air resistance Engine Max speed Curve Resistance (Rc)

Width Height Engine Loaded Curve Radius (m)
coefficient (kg.s/m4 efficiency (η) (km/h) (kg)
(m) (m) Power (hp) Weight (ton)
350 18
Truck 2,1 2,8 250 20 0,06 0,95 120
200 30

Design Speed (km/h) Rolling Resistance (kg/ton) Friction Coefficient 100 45

40 25 0,35 50 60
 𝑃𝑒 ℎ𝑝 × 270 𝐾 × 𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑡𝑟 = η × 𝑅𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟 × 𝑄 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊 × tan 𝛼
𝑉 13

Example-3
Air resistance Engine Max speed Curve Resistance (Rc)
Width Height Engine Loaded Curve Radius (m)
coefficient (kg.s/m4 efficiency (η) (km/h) (kg)
(m) (m) Power (hp) Weight (ton)
350 18
Truck 2,1 2,8 250 20 0,06 0,95 120
200 30

Design Speed (km/h) Rolling Resistance (kg/ton) Friction Coefficient 100 45

40 25 0,35 50 60

𝑅𝑟 = 20 × 25 = 500 𝑘𝑔 0,95×250×270 𝑄1 × 𝑓 ≥ 𝐷 must be satisfied.

Ftr = = 1.603,125 kg
40

2 2
0,06×0,8×2,1×2,8×402 𝑄1 = × 𝑄 → 𝑄1 = × 20.000 = 13.333 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑎 = = 34,73 𝑘𝑔 𝑅 = 594,73 + 20.000 × 𝑠 3 3
13

𝑅 = Ftr → 1.603,125 = 594,73 + 20.000 × 𝑠 𝑄1 × 𝑓 = 13.333 × 0,35 = 4.666,55

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 × 𝑠 = 20.000 × 𝑠 𝑅𝑐 =

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 60 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 = 0,0504 ≈ 0,05 𝐷 = 594,73 + 20.000 × 0,05 = 1594,73 𝑘𝑔

4.666,55 > 1594,73 slope value is valid.