MA102 Linear Algebra

Lectures-9 & 10: Vector Spaces

RA, RKS, MGPP, BD

Department of Mathematics
IIT Guwahati

March-June 2023

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Vector spaces

Topics:
Vector Spaces and Subspaces
Linear Independence
Basis and Dimension

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
6 Distributive: For all α, β, γ ∈ F, α · (β + γ) = (α · β) + (α · γ).

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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
6 Distributive: For all α, β, γ ∈ F, α · (β + γ) = (α · β) + (α · γ).
Remark: Elements of F are referred to as scalars. For vector spaces, the real field R
can be replaced with any field F.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z?

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" #
3 4
A−1 = .
4 3

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
The system Ax = [3 4]T has unique solution and is given by x = A−1 [3 4]T = [0 4]T .

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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
The system Ax = [3 4]T has unique solution and is given by x = A−1 [3 4]T = [0 4]T .
Remark: For any field, usually one writes ab instead of a · b.
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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms:

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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0

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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
6 Distributivity : α(u + v) = αu + αv
7 Distributivity : (α + β)u = αu + βu
8 Associativity: α(βu) = (αβ)u
9 Identity: 1u = u.

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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
6 Distributivity : α(u + v) = αu + αv
7 Distributivity : (α + β)u = αu + βu
8 Associativity: α(βu) = (αβ)u
9 Identity: 1u = u.
The elements of V are vectors and the elements of F are scalars.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices? (d) All m × n matrices with a11 = 0?

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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.

Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices? (d) All m × n matrices with a11 = 0? (e) All n × n
matrices A such that A2 = A?
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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like. Often, they will be familiar, but they need not be.

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Vector spaces

Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like. Often, they will be familiar, but they need not be.

Remark: The vector addition + and the scalar multiplication · are actually functions

+ : V × V −→ V, (u, v) 7−→ u + v, · : F × V −→ V, (α, v) 7−→ α · v,

and they should not be confused with addition and multiplication of real or complex
numbers.

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed.

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check).

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector?

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1,

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

Question: Define the scalar multiplication on V by α · u := αu . Is V a vector space?

Exercise: Define addition and scalar multiplication on R2 = R × R as follows: For
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, define
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), α.(x, y ) = (αx, 0).

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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

Question: Define the scalar multiplication on V by α · u := αu . Is V a vector space?

Exercise: Define addition and scalar multiplication on R2 = R × R as follows: For
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, define
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), α.(x, y ) = (αx, 0).
Is R2 a vector space over R?
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.

Question: Define the scalar multiplication on V by α · u := αu . Is V a vector space?

Exercise: Define addition and scalar multiplication on R2 = R × R as follows: For
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 and α ∈ R, define
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ), α.(x, y ) = (αx, 0).
Is R2 a vector space over R?Is 1 · (x, y ) = (x, y )?
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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u = 0.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u = 0.

4 If αu = 0 then either α = 0 or u = 0.

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Properties of vectors

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over F. Then the following hold:

1 0u = 0 for all u ∈ V. Proof:

0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u =⇒ (0u + 0u) + (−0u) = 0u + (−0u)

=⇒ 0u + (0u + (−0u)) = 0 =⇒ 0u + 0 = 0 =⇒ 0u = 0.

2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F. Proof: Exercise.

3 (−1)u = −u for all u ∈ V. Proof: We show that u + (−1)u = 0.

u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u = (1 + (−1))u = 0u = 0.

4 If αu = 0 then either α = 0 or u = 0. Proof: Exercise.

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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.

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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.

The vector space R[x] : Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials in x with real
coefficients. For p, q ∈ R[x] and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then R[x] is a vector space over R.

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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.

The vector space R[x] : Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials in x with real
coefficients. For p, q ∈ R[x] and α ∈ R, define

(p + q)(x) := p(x) + q(x) and (αp)(x) := αp(x).

The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then R[x] is a vector space over R.
Vector space of polynomials over the field Q, C and F is defined similarly.
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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.

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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.

The vector space C m [a, b] : Let C m [a, b] denote the set of all m times continuously
differentiable functions f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C m [a, b] is a vector space over R.

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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.

The vector space C m [a, b] : Let C m [a, b] denote the set of all m times continuously
differentiable functions f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then C m [a, b] is a vector space over R.
The set V := {f : (a, b) → R | f 00 − 3f 0 + 7f = 0} is a vector space over R.
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Function spaces

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Function spaces

The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.

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Function spaces

The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.

Even functions: Let Fe (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = f (x)} be the set of all even
functions. Then Fe (R) is a vector space over R

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Function spaces

The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define

(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x) and (αf )(x) := αf (x).

The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.

Even functions: Let Fe (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = f (x)} be the set of all even
functions. Then Fe (R) is a vector space over R
Odd functions: Let Fo (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = −f (x)} be the set of all odd
functions. Then Fo (R) is a vector spaces over R.

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

Notation: If W is a subspace of V then we write W 4 V.

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

Notation: If W is a subspace of V then we write W 4 V.

Note that {0} and V are the trivial subspaces of V.

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Subspace

Definition: Let V be a vector space over F. A subset W of V is called a subspace of V

if the following hold:
If u, v ∈ W then u + v ∈ W. (W is closed under addition)
If u ∈ W and α ∈ F then αu ∈ W. (W is closed under scalar multiplication)

Notation: If W is a subspace of V then we write W 4 V.

Note that {0} and V are the trivial subspaces of V.
Fact: Let W be a subset of V. Then the following statements are equivalent.
W is a subspace of V.
αu + βv ∈ W, for all u, v ∈ W, α, β ∈ F.
αu + v ∈ W, for all u, v ∈ W, α ∈ F.

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
The vector space C m [a, b] is a subspace of C [a, b].

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Examples

(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
The vector space C m [a, b] is a subspace of C [a, b].
The vector spaces Fe (R) and Fo (R) are subspaces of F(R).

Question: Let Hn be the set of all Hermitian matrices in Cn×n . Is Hn a subspace of

Cn×n ? Is Hn a vector space over R?

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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .

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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).

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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by

span(S):= {c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm : cj ∈ F and vj ∈ V for all m ∈ N}.

• Convention: span(∅) = {0}.

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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by

span(S):= {c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm : cj ∈ F and vj ∈ V for all m ∈ N}.

• Convention: span(∅) = {0}.

• If span(S) = V, then S is called a spanning set for V.

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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by

span(S):= {c1 v1 + · · · + cm vm : cj ∈ F and vj ∈ V for all m ∈ N}.

• Convention: span(∅) = {0}.

• If span(S) = V, then S is called a spanning set for V.
Definition: An vector space V is said to be finite dimensional if V has a finite spanning
set. Otherwise V is said to be infinite dimensional.
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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
R2×3 = span(E11 , E12 , E13 , E21 , E22 , E23 ), where
" # " # " #
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
E11 = , E12 = , E13 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # " # " #
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E21 = , E22 = , E23 =
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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Examples

P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
R2×3 = span(E11 , E12 , E13 , E21 , E22 , E23 ), where
" # " # " #
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
E11 = , E12 = , E13 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # " # " #
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E21 = , E22 = , E23 =
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

" # " # " #!

1 1 1 0 0 1
S2 = span , , .
1 0 0 1 1 0

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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp .Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V.

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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈Fp . Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc,

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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc, that is, as in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, we define
h i
Bc = v1 · · · vp c = c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp .

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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp .Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc, that is, as in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, we define
h i
Bc = v1 · · · vp c = c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp .

Then span(B) = {c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp : c1 , . . . , cp in F} = {Bc : c ∈ Fp } 4 V.

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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc, that is, as in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, we define
h i
Bc = v1 · · · vp c = c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp .

Then span(B) = {c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp : c1 , . . . , cp in F} = {Bc : c ∈ Fp } 4 V.

h i h i
For M := c1 · · · c` ∈ Fp×` , we denote the ordered set Bc1 · · · Bc` by BM,
that is, as in the case of matrix-matrix multiplication, we define
h i h i
BM = B c1 · · · c` = Bc1 · · · Bc` .

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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2

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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.

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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
 
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2  1 −1 1  = BM.
 

0 0 1

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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
 
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2  1 −1 1  = BM.
 

0 0 1
h i
More generally, let B := 1 x · · · x m−1 . Then
h i
p(x) ∈ Pm−1 ⇐⇒ p(x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 c = Bc for some c ∈ Rm .

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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
 
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2  1 −1 1  = BM.
 

0 0 1
h i
More generally, let B := 1 x · · · x m−1 . Then
h i
p(x) ∈ Pm−1 ⇐⇒ p(x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 c = Bc for some c ∈ Rm .
Thus if {p1 (x), . . . , pn (x)} ⊆ Pm−1 then there exists M ∈ Rm×n such that

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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
 
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2  1 −1 1  = BM.
 

0 0 1
h i
More generally, let B := 1 x · · · x m−1 . Then
h i
p(x) ∈ Pm−1 ⇐⇒ p(x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 c = Bc for some c ∈ Rm .
Thus if {p1 (x), .h. . , pn (x)} ⊆ Pm−1 then m×n such that
i hthere exists M ∈ Ri
p1 (x) · · · pn (x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 M = BM.
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Example

(" # " # " #) "" # " # " ##

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Let , , ⊆ R2×2 . Define B := .
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

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Example

(" # " # " #) "" # " # " ##

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Let , , ⊆ R2×2 . Define B := .
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
h i>
Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we have
"" # " # " ## " # " # " #
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Bc = c = c1 + c2 + c3 .
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

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Example

(" # " # " #) "" # " # " ##

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Let , , ⊆ R2×2 . Define B := .
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
h i>
Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we have
"" # " # " ## " # " # " #
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Bc = c = c1 + c2 + c3 .
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
" # " # " #!
1 1 1 0 0 1
Thus, we have S2 = span , , = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
1 0 0 1 1 0

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Linear Dependence

Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly dependent (LD)

if there are scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp in F, at least one of which is nonzero, such that

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.

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Linear Dependence

Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly dependent (LD)

if there are scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp in F, at least one of which is nonzero, such that

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.

Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.

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Linear Dependence

Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly dependent (LD)

if there are scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp in F, at least one of which is nonzero, such that

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.

Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
The set S := {x 2 , 1 − x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is linearly dependent in P2 .

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Linear Dependence

Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly dependent (LD)

if there are scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp in F, at least one of which is nonzero, such that

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.

Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
The set S := {x 2 , 1 − x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is linearly dependent in P2 . Indeed,

ax 2 + b(1 − x 2 ) + c(1 + x 2 ) = 0 =⇒ (b + c) + (a − b + c)x 2 = 0

which gives a − b + c = 0, b + c = 0. The system a − b + c = 0, b + c = 0 has

nontrivial solutions.

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Linear Dependence

Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly dependent (LD)

if there are scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp in F, at least one of which is nonzero, such that

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.

Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
The set S := {x 2 , 1 − x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is linearly dependent in P2 . Indeed,

ax 2 + b(1 − x 2 ) + c(1 + x 2 ) = 0 =⇒ (b + c) + (a − b + c)x 2 = 0

which gives a − b + c = 0, b + c = 0. The system a − b + c = 0, b + c = 0 has

nontrivial solutions. Hence the set S is LD.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
m×n
Suppose that
h S is LI and i U h:= {u1 , . . . , uni} ⊆ span(S). Then there exists M ∈ F
such that u1 · · · un = v1 · · · vm M. Further, U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
m×n
Suppose that
h S is LI and i U h:= {u1 , . . . , uni} ⊆ span(S). Then there exists M ∈ F
such that u1 · · · un = v1 · · · vm M. Further, U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.
h i
Proof: Set B := v1 · · · vm . Then there exists cj ∈ Rm such that uj = Bcj for
h i h i
j = 1 : n. Set M := c1 · · · cn . Then u1 · · · un = BM.

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Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
m×n
Suppose that
h S is LI and i U h:= {u1 , . . . , uni} ⊆ span(S). Then there exists M ∈ F
such that u1 · · · un = v1 · · · vm M. Further, U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.
h i
Proof: Set B := v1 · · · vm . Then there exists cj ∈ Rm such that uj = Bcj for
h i h i
j = 1 : n. Set M := c1 · · · cn . Then u1 · · · un = BM. Now, for c ∈ Rn ,
h i
u1 · · · un c = 0 ⇐⇒ BMc = 0 ⇐⇒ Mc = 0. Hence U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n. 

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x].

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R,

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].

Exercise: Show that {1, x, x 2 , . . .} ⊆ R[x] is linearly independent.

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].

Exercise: Show that {1, x, x 2 , . . .} ⊆ R[x] is linearly independent.

• The set S := {1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x 2 } ⊆ P3 is linearly independent.

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].

Exercise: Show that {1, x, x 2 , . . .} ⊆ R[x] is linearly independent.

• The set S := {1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x 2 } ⊆ P3 is linearly independent. Indeed, we have

 
h i h i 1 1 1
2
1 1 + x 1 + x + x = 1 x x 0 2 
1 1 = BM.


0 0 1

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].

Exercise: Show that {1, x, x 2 , . . .} ⊆ R[x] is linearly independent.

• The set S := {1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x 2 } ⊆ P3 is linearly independent. Indeed, we have

 
h i h i 1 1 1
2
1 1 + x 1 + x + x = 1 x x 0 2 
1 1 = BM. Since rank(M) = 3, the set


0 0 1
S is LI in P3 .

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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].

Exercise: Show that {1, x, x 2 , . . .} ⊆ R[x] is linearly independent.

• The set S := {1, 1 + x, 1 + x + x 2 } ⊆ P3 is linearly independent. Indeed, we have

 
h i h i 1 1 1
1 1 + x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2 0 1 1 = BM. Since rank(M) = 3, the set
 

0 0 1
S is LI in P3 .
(" # " # " #)
1 0 0 −1 0 0
• The set S = , , ⊆ R2×2 is linearly independent.
0 1 0 0 1 0

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
V = C over R: {1, i} is a basis.

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
V = C over R: {1, i} is a basis.
(" # " # " # " #)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
V = F2×2 over F: , , , called the standard basis.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
V = C over R: {1, i} is a basis.
(" # " # " # " #)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
V = F2×2 over F: , , , called the standard basis.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

V = Fn×n over F: {ei e>

j : 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n} called the standard basis.
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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis else choose a nonzero u3 ∈ S \ {u1 , u2 } and
continue the process.

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis else choose a nonzero u3 ∈ S \ {u1 , u2 } and
continue the process. Since S is a finite set, the process must end after ` steps with
` ≤ m yielding a basis {u1 , . . . , u` }. 

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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0. 
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis else choose a nonzero u3 ∈ S \ {u1 , u2 } and
continue the process. Since S is a finite set, the process must end after ` steps with
` ≤ m yielding a basis {u1 , . . . , u` }. 
Corollary: Let S := {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then any linearly independent set in span(S)
can be extended to a basis of span(S).
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.

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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.

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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp .

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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Now
h i h i
c1 u1 + · · · + cp up = u1 · · · up c = v1 · · · vr Mc = 0

shows that {u1 , . . . , up } is linearly dependent. 

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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Now
h i h i
c1 u1 + · · · + cp up = u1 · · · up c = v1 · · · vr Mc = 0

shows that {u1 , . . . , up } is linearly dependent. 

As an immediate consequence, we have the following result.

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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Now
h i h i
c1 u1 + · · · + cp up = u1 · · · up c = v1 · · · vr Mc = 0

shows that {u1 , . . . , up } is linearly dependent. 

As an immediate consequence, we have the following result.

Theorem: Let V be a vector space having a finite spanning set. Then V has a finite
basis and any two bases of V has the same number of elements.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R. The set {x n−1 : n ∈ N} is a basis.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R. The set {x n−1 : n ∈ N} is a basis.
R over Q.

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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R. The set {x n−1 : n ∈ N} is a basis.
R over Q. The {π n : n ∈ N} is LI.
C [0, 1] over R.
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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then

U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}

is called the sum of the subspaces U and W.

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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then

U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}

is called the sum of the subspaces U and W. If U ∩ W = {0} then the sum U + W is
called the direct sum of U and W and is denoted by U ⊕ W. Thus

U ⊕ W = U + W and U ∩ W = {0}.

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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then

U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}

is called the sum of the subspaces U and W. If U ∩ W = {0} then the sum U + W is
called the direct sum of U and W and is denoted by U ⊕ W. Thus

U ⊕ W = U + W and U ∩ W = {0}.

Fact: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then U + W and U ⊕ W are subspaces of V. If

v ∈ U ⊕ W then there exist unique u ∈ U and w ∈ W such that v = u + w.

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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then

U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}

is called the sum of the subspaces U and W. If U ∩ W = {0} then the sum U + W is
called the direct sum of U and W and is denoted by U ⊕ W. Thus

U ⊕ W = U + W and U ∩ W = {0}.

Fact: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then U + W and U ⊕ W are subspaces of V. If

v ∈ U ⊕ W then there exist unique u ∈ U and w ∈ W such that v = u + w.
Example: Let Fe (R) := {f : R → R | f (−x) = f (x)} be space of all even functions
and Fo (R) := {f : R → R | f (−x) = −f (x)} be the space of all odd functions. Let
F(R) := {f : R → R} be the space of all functions. Then F(R) = Fe (R) ⊕ Fo (R).
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Exercise

Prove the following statements:

  
x1 x2
nh i o
2×2 x1 0
Let V = R , U = : xi ∈ R , W = 0 x2
: xi ∈ R .
x3 0

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Exercise

Prove the following statements:

  
x1 x2
nh i o
2×2 x1 0
Let V = R , U = : xi ∈ R , W = 0 x2
: xi ∈ R .
x3 0
Then U, W 4 V, V = U + W, but V =
6 U ⊕ W.

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Exercise

Prove the following statements:

  
x1 x2
nh i o
2×2 x1 0
Let V = R , U = : xi ∈ R , W = 0 x2
: xi ∈ R .
x3 0
Then U, W 4 V, V = U + W, but V =
6 U ⊕ W.
(" # )
x 0
[Note: U ∩ W = : x ∈ R .]
0 0
Let U1 , U2 4 V and V 0 = U1 + U2 .

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Exercise

Prove the following statements:

  
x1 x2
nh i o
2×2 x1 0
Let V = R , U = : xi ∈ R , W = 0 x2
: xi ∈ R .
x3 0
Then U, W 4 V, V = U + W, but V =
6 U ⊕ W.
(" # )
x 0
[Note: U ∩ W = : x ∈ R .]
0 0
Let U1 , U2 4 V and V 0 = U1 + U2 . Then V 0 = U1 ⊕ U2 iff

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Exercise

Prove the following statements:

  
x1 x2
nh i o
2×2 x1 0
Let V = R , U = : xi ∈ R , W = 0 x2
: xi ∈ R .
x3 0
Then U, W 4 V, V = U + W, but V =
6 U ⊕ W.
(" # )
x 0
[Note: U ∩ W = : x ∈ R .]
0 0
Let U1 , U2 4 V and V 0 = U1 + U2 . Then V 0 = U1 ⊕ U2 iff every v ∈ V 0 can be
written in unique way as v = u + w, u ∈ U1 , w ∈ U2 .
T
For S ⊆ V, span(S) = {U | U 4 V, S ⊆ U}

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Exercise

Prove the following statements:

  
x1 x2
nh i o
2×2 x1 0
Let V = R , U = : xi ∈ R , W = 0 x2
: xi ∈ R .
x3 0
Then U, W 4 V, V = U + W, but V =
6 U ⊕ W.
(" # )
x 0
[Note: U ∩ W = : x ∈ R .]
0 0
Let U1 , U2 4 V and V 0 = U1 + U2 . Then V 0 = U1 ⊕ U2 iff every v ∈ V 0 can be
written in unique way as v = u + w, u ∈ U1 , w ∈ U2 .
T
For S ⊆ V, span(S) = {U | U 4 V, S ⊆ U} = the smallest subspace of V
containing S.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.
Let U 4 V and W 4 V. Then U ∪ W 4 V ⇐⇒ U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.
Let U 4 V and W 4 V. Then U ∪ W 4 V ⇐⇒ U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

Fact: Let V be a vector space with dim V = n. Prove that

Any linearly independent set in V contains at most n vectors.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.
Let U 4 V and W 4 V. Then U ∪ W 4 V ⇐⇒ U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

Fact: Let V be a vector space with dim V = n. Prove that

Any linearly independent set in V contains at most n vectors.
Any spanning set for V contains at least n vectors.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.
Let U 4 V and W 4 V. Then U ∪ W 4 V ⇐⇒ U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

Fact: Let V be a vector space with dim V = n. Prove that

Any linearly independent set in V contains at most n vectors.
Any spanning set for V contains at least n vectors.
Any linearly independent set of exactly n vectors in V is a basis for V.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.
Let U 4 V and W 4 V. Then U ∪ W 4 V ⇐⇒ U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

Fact: Let V be a vector space with dim V = n. Prove that

Any linearly independent set in V contains at most n vectors.
Any spanning set for V contains at least n vectors.
Any linearly independent set of exactly n vectors in V is a basis for V.
Any spanning set for V of exactly n vectors is a basis for V.

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Exercise

Fact: Prove the following statements:

If U 4 W and W 4 V, then U 4 V.
If U 4 V and W 4 V then U ∩ W 4 V.
Let U 4 V and W 4 V. Then U ∪ W 4 V ⇐⇒ U ⊆ W or W ⊆ U.

Fact: Let V be a vector space with dim V = n. Prove that

Any linearly independent set in V contains at most n vectors.
Any spanning set for V contains at least n vectors.
Any linearly independent set of exactly n vectors in V is a basis for V.
Any spanning set for V of exactly n vectors is a basis for V.
Any spanning set for V can be reduced to a basis for V.

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