Quality Manual On Bread Processing

2013
QUALITY MANUAL
FOR BREAD
Analytical Chemistry
TALHA FAROOQ
NED-UET
2/9/2013
Page |2
DEDICATION
“I’M DEDICATING THIS MANUAL
TO MY GRAND-MOTHER AND GRAND-
FATHER WITH LOVE, APPRECIATION
AND ADMIRATION.”
Page |3
CONTENTS
1. Introduction:
 What is bread
 Types of bread
 History of bread making
2. Processing of Bread:
 Flowchart
 Processing Description
3. Ingredients and Their Influences:
 Wheat Flour
 Water
 Sugar
 Salt
 Fat
 Yeast
4. Quality Control & Significance of Testing
5. Qualitative Analysis Of Igredients
6. Testing Of Final Product
7. Packaging
8. Specifications:
 Raw materials
 Final Product
9. References
Page |4
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1.What is Bread
“A staple food made from flour or meal mixed with other dry and liquid ingredients,
usually combined with a leavening agent, and kneaded, shaped into loaves, and baked.”
Bread is a product consisting of two different parts: crust and crumb. Crust is a dry and crispy
surface layer, and the crumb inside bread loaves is soft. To produce a soft fine crumb, bread
dough requires a proper development of gluten network during dough mixing. Bread usually
requires hard wheat flour which contain high level of gluten. The main ingredients found in
bread are wheat, fat, salt and sugar. Bread is further divided into two categories leavened and
unleavened, whether it contain leavening agent or not. The work of leavening agent is to rise the
volume of bread. The most commonly used leavening agents are Sodium bicarbonate,
Ammonium bicarbonate and yeast.
The virtually infinite combinations of different flours, and differing proportions of ingredients,
has resulted in the wide variety of types, shapes, sizes, and textures available around the world. It
may be leavened (aerated) by a number of different processes ranging from the use of naturally
occurring microbes to high-pressure artificial aeration during preparation and/or baking, or may
be left unleavened. A wide variety of additives may be used, from fruits and nuts to various fats,
to chemical additives designed to improve flavour, texture, colour, and/or shelf life.
Bread may be served in different forms at any meal of the day, eaten as a snack, and is even used
as an ingredient in other culinary preparations. As a basic food worldwide, bread has come to
take on significance beyond mere nutrition, evolving into a fixture in religious rituals, secular
cultural life, and languages.
Page |5
1.2.Types of Bread
There are three main kinds of bread in the world:
 those that rise highest and so have to be baked in pans,

 those with a medium volume, like rye and French breads, and
 those that hardly rise at all and consequently are called flatbreads.
Different types of bread are made around the world. Some of them are discussed below:
White Bread:
The most common variety of bread is white bread. It is made from wheat flour and is made into
many different sizes, shapes and textures. Ingredients such as other cereal or vegetable flours,
seeds, herbs or a mixture of these can be added.
Whole meal or whole wheat bread:

Whole meal and wheat meal breads are popular. In New Zealand whole meal breads must have
90% or more whole meal flour in the recipe used, and wheat meals any level of whole meal flour
mixed with white flour.
Processing of these differs in two ways from that of white bread. During mixing the amount of
water added to make an optimum dough consistency needs to be increased because the bran in
the whole meal absorbs more water. The dough is weaker because the bran particles break up the
strong protein bonds in the bread dough, and this weakens the dough structure. This means the
dough could collapse when it rises.
Extra protein, called gluten, is added to make the dough stronger and stop it collapsing.
Whole meal bread contains higher concentrations of minerals and vitamins than white bread as it
retains the bran and germ of the wheat. It is an excellent source of dietary fibre, containing twice
that of white bread and more than multigrain breads.
Page |6
Multi-grain bread:
Mixed or multigrain breads are made from a mixture of wholemeal, white or rye flour and may
contain wheat germ, honey, gluten, non-fat milk solids, cracked and whole grains of wheat and
other cereals such as rye, oats, corn, barley, rice millet and triticale.
Kibbled wheat and cracked wheat bread:

Kibbled bread contains kibbled grain which is grain that has been broken into smaller pieces.
Many types of grain can be added to the bread including rye, barley, oats, corn, millet, soya,
alfalfa and rice. The grain should be soaked in water for several hours before mixing because
unsoaked grain in bread is hard enough to break teeth. This bread also needs extra protein
(gluten) to make the dough stronger and hold up the extra weight of the grains.
Rye bread:
Rye bread is a whole meal bread made from rye or a mix of rye and wheat flour. It was originally
developed in Europe and is made in a wide variety of styles and shapes.
Rye flour is different from ordinary flour. It contains only small amounts of dough strengthening
proteins, therefore producing weak dough. Rye flour also has more amylase enzyme which
breaks down starch into sugars.
Rye doughs are made with less water than dough from ordinary flour, so they are stiff and keep
their shape. Moulding, proving and baking also need to be modified to handle the weak, sticky
dough. As with most grain and meal breads, some white flour or gluten can be used to improve
the dough strength.
Sour dough bread:

Sourdough bread has a slightly sour flavour and a denser texture than regular bread. Sourdough
describes the raising agent used to make this type of bread.
Lavash bread:
A thin, flat bread made from white wheat flour, yeast, salt and water which is oven-baked on a
heated metal plate.
Page |7
Bagel:
A Jewish bread where the dough (with yeast) is shaped into a ring and thrown into boiling water
before baking. This gives the crust a chewy texture. It may be coated with poppy or sesame seeds
and can be flavoured, e.g. raisin and cinnamon.
Naan:
Made in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, naan is a wheat-flour bread leavened with a starter of
the sourdough kind and cooked in a clay Tandoor oven. The clay and the smoke in the tandoor
combine to produce a characteristic flavour. The bread is flattish and has a crisp crust.
Chapatti (chappati):
Sometimes called roti, chapatti is served throughout India, Pakistan and also Iran. They are made
from finely milled wholewheat flour, called atta. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which are
cooked in an iron pan or on a griddle. They are made every day in North India where they are
used as a plate to hold other food, curved to scoop up food or used for dipping in soups or
sauces.
Paratha or parata:
An Indian flaky bread prepared by smearing the unleavened dough with ghee or oil and then
folding the dough. This procedure is repeated three times. The dough is then rolled out and fried
in oil or dry cooked on a griddle.
Gluten-free bread:
Gluten-free bread is usually based on cornflour to which flour from gluten-free grains (such as
rice and maize), potato or pulses is added. Gluten-free bread has a denser, more crumbly texture
than traditional bread, since the presence of gluten is essential for the typical structure and
texture of bread.
Fruit Bread:
Fruit breads use a normal bread recipe to which fruit and often sugar are added. Popular fruits
used are raisins, currants, dates, orange peel and dried fruits such as apricots. Hot cross buns,
eaten at Easter, and many fruit breads, also have spices added. Ingredients used to enhance
appearance and flavour of breads include cinnamon, nutmeg, egg wash and sugar/water wash.
Page |8
2. PROCESSING OF BREAD
Bread is the product of baking a mixture of flour, water, salt, yeast and other ingredients. The
basic process involves mixing of ingredients until the flour is converted into a stiff paste or
dough, followed by baking the dough into a loaf.
To make good bread, dough made by any process must be extensible enough for it to relax and to
expand while it is rising. A good dough is extensible if it will stretch out when pulled. It also
must be elastic, that is, have the strength to hold the gases produced while rising, and stable
enough to hold its shape and cell structure.
Two proteins present in flour (gliadin and glutenin) form gluten when mixed with water. It is
gluten that gives dough these special properties. Gluten is essential for bread making and
influences the mixing, kneading and baking properties of dough. When you first start to bake
bread, learning to mix the ingredients is very important.
The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it
affects texture and crumb the most. Hard US wheat flours absorb about 62% water, while softer
wheat flours absorb about 56%.Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely
textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In
yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser bread
crumb. One pound (450 g) of flour will yield a standard loaf of bread.
Bread making involves the following basic steps:
i. Mixing-Dough Making.
ii. Fermentation.
iii. Dividing, Rounding & Molding.
iv. Proving.
v. Baking.
vi. Cooling.
vii. Slicing.
viii. Packaging.
Page |9
2.1.Processing Flowchart:
P a g e | 10
2.2. Processing Steps Description:

Generally, the processing of bread and baked products consists of several common steps,
including weighing, mixing, proving, baking, cooling and packaging. Each step plays and
important role in achieving high and consistent product quality.
2.2.1. MIXING & KNEADING:

Mixing is a process that uses the mechanical action of kneaders and the corresponding energy to
mix all ingredients to form a coherent material that is dough. There are several dough making
techniques used to modify the rheological characteristics of dough to optimize its gas retaining
properties. Each dough has an optimum mixing time, depending on the flour and mixing method
used.
Too much mixing produces a dough that is very extensible with reduced elastic properties.
However under mixing may cause small unmixed patches which will remain unrisen in the
bread. This will give a final loaf with a poor appearance inside.
Gluten is what gives bread its chewy texture and is critical to a satisfactory loaf. Fortunately,
with a good high-protein flour, gluten development is easy. Wheat flour contains two proteins,
gliadin and glutenin. When these two proteins are hydrated and the dough is mechanically
worked, they come together to form strands of gluten.
To increase elastic recovery and cohesiveness or adhesiveness of dough the mixing time should
be extended. However to extend viscosity and consistency of dough the mixing time should be
decreased. The sequence of ingredients to mix is also very important. The arrangement of the
sequence may effect the flour hydration and texture of dough. It is said that salt should be added
later in mixing, particularly when a low speed mixer is used because salt reduces the amount of
water for hydration of proteins and gluten development. This outcome a soft dough with less
gluten development. It is also found that dough could be softened by mixing sugar with liquids
ingredients before mixing with other dry ingredients because sugar stops the flour hydration by
reducing the water activity of the dough during mixing and therefore inhibited gluten formation.
Kneading distributes the yeast evenly through the dough and develops and strengthens the gluten
in the flour to form the framework of the bread. A well developed dough can be identified by
pressing your finger (firmly) into the surface of the dough - if it springs back, it has been
P a g e | 11
developed/kneaded sufficiently. Underdeveloped dough will result in a holey, crumbly texture

and poorly structured bread
MIXING METHODS:
In small and medium size bakeries, the two methods used to mix dough‘s are the Straight Dough
Method and the Sponge and Dough Method. Most of the large commercial wholesale bakeries
use the Continuous Mixing Method.
a. STRAIGHT DOUGH METHOD:

In the straight dough method of mixing all dough ingredients are mixed at one time, and
prepared for a single fermentation process. Generally, the fermentation time for the straight
dough will vary from 2-1/2 hours to 3 hours. These dough‘s are also punched after about 80
percent of the fermentation time has elapsed and given an additional 20 percent fermentation
before make-up. This is covered in more detail in a later paragraph. Dough produced by this
method results in breads with course grain and texture and the crumb is not as soft as that
produced by other methods. The baked loaf will not have as much volume as one made with the
Sponge and Dough Method.
b. SPONGE AND DOUGH METHOD:

In the Sponge and Dough Method, there are two mixing periods and two fermentation periods.
Part of the formula ingredients are mixed and allowed to ferment for 4 to 6 hours. How to
determine the length of the fermentation of sponges is covered in a later paragraph. This is called
the sponge. After the fermentation process is completed, the second part is called the Dough.
Basically, the fermented sponge is thrown back into the mixer and the ingredients for the second
part are added. The fermented sponge and all the second ingredients are mixed together to form
the dough. After the gluten has been fully developed, the dough is dumped into a stainless steel
dough trough and given a second fermentation time. As compared to the sponge, the
fermentation time of the dough is very short (15 to 20 minutes).
P a g e | 12
c. CONTINUOUS MIXING METHOD:

The bread produced by this method has very fine tight grain similar to the grain of cake. The
Continuous Bread Making System uses the following basic elements:
A liquid ferment, brew or liquid sponge is prepared and allowed to ferment in stainless steel
tanks under controlled temperature conditions for several hours. The fermented mixtures are
cooled by the use of refrigerated coils between the walls of the tanks until ready to be used. This
process eliminates setting individual sponges and dough‘s, and the need for dough troughs and
large fermentation rooms — a method of bringing together continuously all the ingredients in the
right proportion for the dough. After going through the developer, what happens next varies with
different bakeries. Some bakeries run the dough through conventional make-up equipment,
rather than extruding the dough directly into the pan as was done a few years ago, because it is
claimed that a better quality loaf results.
2.2.2. FERMENTATION:
Fermentation is one of the critical and essential steps in bread baking. It is through the various
complex biochemical reactions that are caused by the yeast cells that fermentation achieves the
following goals for the baker:
 Improves dough handling characteristics.

 Enhances gas retention in doughs.
 Enhances finished product texture.
 Provides desirable fermentation flavor.
 Extends shelf-life of final product.
Critical as it is, merely having a fermentation step does not automatically guarantee desirable
attributes in the final product. For that, proper fermentation control and consistency is key. Given
that fermentation is caused by yeast, a living cell, the controls that need to be put in place have to
be effective in influencing the environmental factors that regulate yeast activity in that dough. It
is also worthwhile to point out that in a dough yeast is active from the point it is mixed with the
other dough ingredients in a mixer until the point it is inactivated in the oven. The various factors
that affect yeast activity and the degree of fermentation in the baking process are:
P a g e | 13
A. Fermentation time.
B. Fermentation temperature.
C. Specific ingredients in dough formulation:
 Level of water, sugar, salt and mold-inhibitor.
 Dough pH.
Goals of yeast fermentation:
Fermentation achieves the following goals for the baker:
 Improves dough handling characteristics.The various complex reactions during fermentation

produce a range of intermediate compounds. These fermentation by-products soften the
dough protein structure, gluten. Long fermentation times allow for complete hydration of the
gluten proteins, which also aids in its softening. The softened protein matrix allows for
improved dough machinability and handling.
 Enhances gas retention in doughs. As a direct consequence of gluten softening, the dough
protein matrix is conditioned to hold more of the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast
during fermentation and proofing.
 Enhances finished product texture. Crumb texture of properly fermented bread can be
appreciated the most when one compares it to that of under-fermented bread. The latter tends
to have a ―young‖ look where the crumb cell walls are thick and coarse, and are irregular in
size. On the other hand, proper fermentation provides a resilient crumb, which is also soft
and smooth to touch.
 Provides desirable fermentation flavor. The fermentation process generates many volatile and
non-volatile flavor precursors that create the unique fermentation flavor.
 Extends shelf-life of final product. Bread that have gone through a proper fermentation
process have better shelf life than those that have not. While gluten modification definitely
aids in this respect,it is possible that the action of amylases on broken starch during the long
fermentation process causes the shelf-life extension.
P a g e | 14
Factors Affecting Yeast Activity and Rate of Fermentation:
The various factors that affect yeast activity and the degree of fermentation in the baking process
are:
Fermentation time:
This factor determines the amount of time yeast gets to act on the sugars present in the ferment,
whether it be a sponge, brew, or a straight-dough. While the rate of fermentation declines with
time at a constant temperature, it does not completely stop. However, the longer the fermentation
time, the higher the degree of fermentation. Bakeries using flour-brew systems that chill the brew
after fermentation have to be careful about this factor. Often times, depending on the available
refrigeration, chilling times vary significantly. This in turn causes real fermentation time to vary
as well, for yeast will retain a significant amount of activity until the brew is chilled completely.
Fermentation temperature:
Like any other living cell, the various enzymatic activities of the yeast cell are closely tied to the
temperature of the environment. Therefore, higher ferment temperatures increase yeast activity,
and vice-versa. Published literature indicates that within the range of temperatures in which yeast
is operative, every one degree rise in temperature increases the rate of yeast fermentation by 3-
5%. Likewise, a decrease of 1°F will cause a similar decrease in the rate of fermentation. The
temperature range for optimum yeast fermentation is between 75°F-85°F. The process of
fermentation also generates heat, and its measure is often used by bakeries as an effective way to
monitor the degree of fermentation.
Specific ingredients in dough formulation:
 Level of water:
Generally, stiffer doughs take longer to ferment as compared to slacker ones. With additional
water, the soluble solids are diluted and the osmotic pressure on the yeast cells is reduced. This
causes an increase in yeast activity and the overall rate of fermentationLevel of sugar and salt:It
is well known that yeast fermentation is retardedin the presence of high concentrations of sugar
and salt. This inhibitory effect is related to the high osmotic pressure gradient created outside of
P a g e | 15
the yeast cells due to high concentrations of sugar and/or salt in dough. A measurable decline in
fermentation rate is observed if the concentration of sugar exceeds 5%. This effect is more
pronounced with sucrose, glucose, and fructose than with maltose.
When very little or no sugar is added, as in the case of French or Italian bread formulations, the
primary source of fermentable sugars is derived from the flour. Flour contains approximately
0.5 - 1% of a combination of sucrose, glucose, and fructose, which are generally fermented
within 1 - 1.5 hours. Yeast turns to maltose for CO2 production after these preferred sugars are
exhausted. Once that happens, the rate of fermentation is limited by the amount of maltose being
hydrolyzed (broken down) in the dough. The availability of maltose is directly related to the
damaged starch content and amylase activity of the flour. Maltose is a disaccharide and is not
broken down into its constituent glucose molecules until it is absorbed into the yeast cell.
Therefore, it exerts a lower osmotic pressure than the monosaccharides and the readily
hydrolyzed sucrose.
Salt also inhibits yeast activity at levels above 1%. The normal usage of salt in most breads range
between 1.75-2.25% to obtain desired flavor of the product. In fact, some bakers add higher
levels of salt as a means of fermentation control. Satisfactory fermentation rates can usually be
achieved in doughs containing high levels of salt or sugar by increasing the amount of yeast
used.
 Dough pH:
The pH of doughs or preferments has little effect on yeast fermentation, unless it drops below
4.0. In general, data shows that yeast activity is fairly constant over a pH range of 4-6, which
represents a 100-fold change in acidity. At the onset of fermentation, dough pH is approximately
5.5-5.8. However, during the course of fermentation, it decreases to 4.9-5.1, due to the
production of carbonic acid (CO2 dissolved in water) and other organic acids. This pH drop is
resisted by the buffering action of several dough ingredients. Both flour and milk are excellent
buffers and help to maintain the pH range for optimum fermentation. Bakeries that use water
brews add chemical buffers, such as calcium carbonate, to maintain a pH range of 4-6 during
fermentation.
P a g e | 16
2.2.3. DIVIDING, ROUNDING & MOLDING:

Dividing and scaling consists of cutting the dough (by hand or machinery) into loaf size pieces
and weighing the pieces to insure uniformity. Because of the average loss of about 12 percent
during make-up, proofing, baking and cooling, this loss must be taken into account. To produce a
loaf of bread weighing 1 pound (16 oz) the dough piece must be scaled about 18 ounces.
Rounding is the process of rounding the scaled pieces of dough into a round ball with smooth
unbroken skin over its entire surface. The unbroken skin will retain the gas generated within the
dough piece during the intermediate proofing period.
Intermediate proofing is the process of giving the rounded dough pieces a short rest period
(about 12 to 15 minutes) to recover from the effects of the dividing and rounding machine. The
rest period allows the dough to relax after undergoing a great deal of punishment while being
forced under a lot of pressure while being extruded from the divider pockets. Without the rest
period the dough would be tight and rubbery and would not go through the molder sheeting
rollers without tearing. The intermediate proofing machine has small pockets or baskets covered
with canvas traveling within an enclosed draft free area.
Upon completion of the intermediate proofing period, the dough pieces are molded into the
shape desired. In the molder the dough passes through three distinct stages. Flattening is done in
the head rollers of the molder. Second, the sheeting rollers sheet the dough into a flat piece of
dough and the curling rollers and thread rollers twirl each piece of sheeted dough and give it a
cylindrical shape. Next, the drum or pressure plate rolls and seals the loaf into its final form.
Conventional molders curl the dough in the same direction that it was sheeted. It is difficult to
produce bread with a close uniform grain with this type of molder. For this reason some bakers
twist two pieces of dough together or use cross grain molders. Cross grain molders curl the
dough in the opposite direction from which it was sheeted. That is, the dough is caused to turn
right or left after it has been sheeted and is then curled. This is called cross grain molding.
P a g e | 17
2.2.4. PROVING:
Proving is the name given to a process of secondary fermentation which is applied to bread
dough.It is necessary because as the dough is being shaped some of the carbondioxide is lost and
the dough structure partially collapses. The process of proving includes rolling the panned and
racked molded dough pieces quickly into the dough proofing cabinet. The cabinet is well
insulated and maintains a temperature of 95 degrees F. to 98 degrees F., and a relative humidity
of 85 percent.
NOTE: In recent years, bakers have increased the temperature of proof boxes to110-120 degrees
F. with a relative humidity of 90 percent. Under these conditions the loaves are allowed to proof
for about 45 to 60 minutes. At the end of the proofing period, they double in size.The aim of
proving is to ferment the dough a little more and regain carbondioxide levels and therefore the
open structure.
2.2.5. BAKING:
The baking process transforms an unpalatable dough into a light, readily digestible, porous
flavourful product.
1. As the intense oven heat penetrates the dough the gases inside the dough expand, rapidly
increasing the size of the dough. This is called "ovenspring" and is caused by a series of
reactions: Gas + heat = increased volume or increased pressure. Gas pressure inside the
thousands of tiny gas cells increases with the heat and the cells become bigger.
2. A considerable proportion of the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast is present in solution
in the dough. As the dough temperature rises to about 40°C, carbon dioxide held in solution
turns into a gas, and moves into existing gas cells. This expands these cells and overall the
solubility of the gases is reduced.
3. The oven heat changes liquids into gases by the process of evaporation and thus the alcohol
produced evaporates.
P a g e | 18
4. Heat also has an effect on the rate of yeast activity. As the temperature rises the rate of
fermentation increases, and so does the production of gas cells, until the dough reaches the
temperature at which yeast dies (approximately 46°C).From about 60°C onwards
stabilisation of the crumb begins. Starch granules swell at about 60°C, and in the presence of
water released from the gluten, the outer wall of the starch granule cell bursts and the starch
inside forms a thick gel-like paste, that helps form the structure of the dough.
From 74°C upwards the gluten strands surrounding the individual gas cells are transformed
into the semi-rigid structure commonly associated with bread crumb strength.
The natural enzymes present in the dough die at different temperatures during baking. One
important enzyme, alpha-amylase, the enzyme which breaks starch into sugars, keeps on
performing its job until the dough reaches about 75°C.During baking the yeast dies at 46°C,
and so does not use the extra sugars produced between 46-75°C for food. These sugars are
then available to sweeten the breadcrumb and produce the attractive brown crust colour. As
baking continues, the internal loaf temperature increases to reach approximately 98°C. The
loaf is not completely baked until this internal temperature is reached. Weight is lost by
evaporation of moisture and alcohol from the crust and interior of the loaf. Steam is produced
because the loaf surface reaches 100°C+. As the moisture is driven off, the crust heats up and
eventually reaches the same temperature as the oven. Sugars and other products, some
formed by breakdown of some of the proteins present, blend to form the attractive colour of
the crust. These are known as "browning" reactions, and occur at a very fast rate above
160°C. They are the principal causes of the crust colour formation.
2.2.6. COOLING:
When the baking process is complete, the loaves are unloaded manually or automatically and
either dumped on cooling racks or travel on enclosed air conditioned conveyor belts to the
cooling area.
Bread has to cool down in a proper manner basically for two reasons:
 For slicing the core temperature should be lower then 35°C otherwise the slices will stick
together again (starch forming a paste that acts as "glue").
 To avoid microbiological spoilage
P a g e | 19
On removal from the oven, a loaf of bread loses heat to the surrounding atmosphere and
simultaneously loses weight due to moisture loss. The temperature of the crust of a bread as it
comes out of the oven is somewhere between 150°C and 180°C and the internal temperature of
the crumb about 90-95°C depending on the baking conditions.The moisture content of the crust
is then somewhere between 0 and 3 %.At the interface between crumb and crust the temperature
is 100°C. Most of the cooling in bakeries is carried out without refrigeration and relies on a flow
of cool air across the product. The air movement will increase evaporative losses if the relative
humidity of the air is lower than that of the product. Large-scale commercial cooling may use
refrigerated and humidified air to speed up the process and minimise moisture losses. The
temperature to which a product is cooled depends very much on what further processing may be
required. In the case of bread that will be sliced it is necessary to ensure that the crumb is firm
enough to withstand the mechanical effect of the slicing blades. This usually means that the core
temperature of loaves should be in the region of 27–30°C before slicing.A moist substance like
bread loses heat through evaporation of water from its surface. The rate of evaporation is
affected by air temperature and the movement of cool air around the loaf
2.2.7. SLICING:
When the bread is hot, starch granules are in a swollen state and unstably held by the gluten
network. If bread is sliced in this state, the starch granules will lump together giving a very poor
appearance to the slice. As the bread cools down, the starch granules will shrink and stabilize in
the gluten framework thus making it easy to slice the loaf.Slicing is done by the Bread Slicer.
This machine gently but rapidly pushes the loaf through a series of alternating blades which slice
the entire loaf simultaneously. There is no crumbing and no crushing of the loaf.
2.2.8. PACKAGING:
Packaging materials, due to their physical-mechanical properties particularly barrier
characteristics, significantly affect the quality and sustainability of packaged food products.
Bread is packed to maintain prolonged freshness and to prevent rapid drying out. In order to
achieve a better protective effect of packaging material great advantages were realized by
applying new materials with improved properties, as well as introducing different conditions
within the packaging unit like modified atmosphere (MAP), vacuum, and aseptically intelligent
package.
P a g e | 20
Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Bread Products:

Bread products are excellent candidates for modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and the
technology is used widely for such foodstuffs. Typical products that benefit from MAP are
tortilla wraps, baguette, bagels, pita, naan bread and other types of bread. Because these products
have a relatively low water content, the type of microbes that can cause spoilage are mainly
moulds, as bacteria prefer more water. These moulds are aerobic – they need oxygen from the air
for their growth. So excluding oxygen and using a high proportion of carbon dioxide – up to
100% – is a highly effective way of significantly increasing the shelf life of these bread products.
A big advantage of using very high CO2 as the modified atmosphere is that it makes the
packaging relatively easy to test for leaks. Leak detection systems for carbon dioxide are well
developed and can be configured to work automatically during the packaging process.
The integrity of the packaging materials is especially important for bread products, as any
leakage can cause oxygen to enter which could rapidly result in the growth of mould, and also
cause the product to dry out and become stale.Typically a pre-baked bread product packaged in
an atmosphere exclusively of carbon dioxide would see an increase in shelf life from around five
days to 20 days when stored at room temperature. Some products can retain a shelf life of up to
six months if packaged in an appropriate atmosphere and with correct packaging materials.
Packaging bread products in this way means that the products do not need to be frozen, which
makes it easier and cheaper for them to be stored, transported and distributed.
P a g e | 21
3. INGREDIENTS AND THEIR

INFLUENCES:
Bread is made from wheat flour, water, yeast, sugar, fat and salt with these four "simple" raw
materials we succeed in making many thousands of different types of bread. Apart from the
quality of the raw materials, the process itself has an enormous influence on the final quality of
the bread.
3.1. Wheat Flour:

There are two principal types of wheat flour: wholemeal and white. The white flour is commonly
used in the manufacture of baked products. The influence of wheat flour on baked-product
character is more commonly expressed on the basis of its composition, protein, starch, fibre
content and other important physicochemical properties, such as particle size and protein quality.
It is therefore possible to consider the influence of flour on structure formation using such
properties.
Wheat flour contains some specific proteins such as glutenins and gliadins ,which can absorb
water and form gluten. Gluten is what allows breads to hold their shape. In general, an increase
in the protein content leads to an increase in the gas-retention properties of the dough and
therefore an increase in bread volume. The extent to which the product volume will increase
depends on a number of recipe and process factors. As a general rule, wheat flours with higher
protein contents have more appropriate protein qualities than those with lower protein contents
and are therefore better suited to breadmaking. The glutenins are largely responsible for the
elastic properties of gluten once it is formed in wheat flour.
Wheat flour also contains starch. the function of starch is mostly concerned with the absorption
of water, which leads to swelling as the temperature rises, particularly during baking. The ability
of the starch granules to absorb water is limited, but is increased during the milling process that
converts the wheat grains to flour. During the milling process, a proportion of the starch granules
are physically damaged and this increases their ability to absorb water five-fold. The absorption
of water by the starch, and the input of heat, encourages a process referred to as gelatinisation.
P a g e | 22
Gelatinization starts at 55°C and finishes at 85°C.Starch comprises two polymers – amylase and
amylopectin. Gelatinisation during baking plays a significant role in the formation of the
product structure and the changes that subsequently occur as the product is cooled and stored.
The impact of damage to the starch granules extends beyond increasing the water-absorption
capacity of the flour. High levels of starch damage in white flours can lead to the loss of bread
volume.
Wheat flour will contain a small level of moisture, in the range of 10–14%. The majority of this
water comes from the grain. The greater the amount of water in the flour as supplied, the less
must be added in the bakery in order to achieve a consistent dough rheology or batter viscosity,
and vice versa. The contribution of the branny layers, or fibre, depends on whether the flour is
white, brown or wholemeal. The presence of bran particles will reduce the ability of the flour to
retain gas in bread making.The higher the level of bran present in the flour the greater the
adverse effect on the gas retention properties of the dough and the greater the loss of bread
volume.
3.2. Water:
Water is the simplest ingredient used in baking (two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen), but
because of its special properties it plays many significant roles in baking, final product quality
and product shelf-life. Water is present in many ingredients that are used in baking, such as
liquid egg, or it may be added as a separate ingredient. It has key roles associated with the
solubilising and dispersion of ingredients during the mixing process and in the formation of
complexes such as gluten in bread and fermented doughs.
Water‘s main function in bread baking is to hydrate other ingredients. Flour mixes with water
and combines protein into gluten. Other ingredients, like salt and yeast, are dissolved in water
and fully incorporated into the the dough.In the final product, the water (moisture) content makes
major contributions to eating quality and shelf-life.In the case of bread dough, optimum water
levels are associated with the ability to handle the dough during processing and the actual levels
used should be as high as possible while remaining consistent with processing requirements.The
amount of water, or other liquids, in a dough is referred to as the amount of hydration. The
hydration percentage is a ratio of liquids to total flour weight or (TFW). This means that a recipe
P a g e | 23
with 1000g of flour and 700g of water, and no other liquids, has a hydration of 70
percent. Typical percentages can range from 50 percent, a very stiff dough that is hard to work
with, to 70 percent, a loose dough that stretches well and can create a large open crumb.
The quality of the water must also be taken into consideration. Very high levels of minerals or
chlorine in tap water can affect the fermentation and possibly kill yeast. If the quality of water is
questionable use bottled water.
3.3. Yeast:
Yeast is the next important ingredient for bread making.Yeast is a unicellular microscopic plant.
It consists of a cell wall, protoplasm and vacuole. It requires food, moisture and right
temperature for its growth and reproduction. They reproduce by budding.
Yeast is the primary cause of fermentation in naturally leavened breads. Yeast eat sugar and
produce alcohol, carbon dioxide and heat. The bubbles of CO2 cause the dough to expand
("rise"). The dough must be "kneaded" thoroughly to distribute the bubbles evenly and then left
to rise again, usually to about double its original volume. If the mixture is left too long, acid
produced by the oxidation of the alcohol causes the product to taste sour. Yeast increases the
volume of breads creating different textures and crumbs. In extremely hot or extremely cold
temperatures they can die or slow down. Refrigeration slows down the growth so that yeast can
be kept for a limited period of time.Yeast can also die without a constant food supply (starches
and sugars).Three popular forms of yeast are:
Fresh yeast — Living yeast compressed into cakes with a controlled amount of moisture. Some
bakers argue that it can contribute a more unique flavor to breads and has some other
characteristics desirable to large scale bakeries.
Dry-Active Yeast - Dormant yeast that has been suspended by a drying process. This yeast must
be rehydrated before it can be added to dough. Dry-active yeast has an incredible shelf life of
about one year at room temperature and will last nearly a decade frozen.
P a g e | 24
Instant Yeast - This yeast combines the desirable qualities of fresh and dry yeast. It is added to
dough just like flour and salt. There is no need to hydrate or dissolve. Instant yeast has a long
shelf-life and is more potent than dry-active.
3.4. Sugar:
Sugar makes five major contributions to bread dough. It is food for the yeast, flavor for us, and it
promotes tenderness, preserves crumb, and gives the bread a nice color.The main function of
sugar in bread making is to provide food for yeast which in turn produces carbon dioxide. It is
the most important food requirement for yeast in a fermenting dough and flour is the principal
source. Flour has a natural fermentable sugar content of around 1.5 percent. It provides further
sugar through the production of maltose by the flour amylase enzymes acting on the damaged
starch. Extra sugar or malt products may be added but when the yeast has an adequate supply of
sugar, the addition of more will not persuade it to feed faster and therefore produce gas at a
higher rate. In addition, 0.5 - 0.75% w/w of sugar increases the rate of fermentation for
fermented goods (i.e. breads) by giving the yeast more sugar to work on.
It helps in enhancing the flavor of bread. Being hygroscopic, sugar helps to retain moisture in
bread. The ability to hold water keeps the bread moist days longer than a sugar-free bread. The
effect of holding water also means that excessive amounts of sugar will inhibit fermentation by
keeping the water away from where it needs to be. It contributes to the golden brown outer crust
colur of bread. A part from the sugar added in the formula, sugar is present in the fermenting
dough as a result of the diastase activity. This sugar provides food for yeast at a certain time at
the final stage of fermentation. It also imparts bloom to the bread.
When sugar is heated it will melt first and then caramelize. In the free dough moisture, sugars are
dissolved. During baking the moisture from the crust will evaporate. If the moisture in the crust
has evaporated the temperature of the crust will become more than 100oC. The sugars will
caramelize or become brown. Protein is also very important for the crust colour. The sugars
sucrose and fructose will react with protein during the process; this reaction is called the
Maillard reaction.
P a g e | 25
3.5. Salt:
Sat imparts taste to the bread. It also helps in bringing out the flavor in bread. It has a controlling
effect on the yeast activity and thus keeps the speed of fermentation under check. It inhibits
fermentation due to the osmotic pressure effect. Yeast cells will partially dehydrate due to the
osmotic pressure. This can be illustrated easily by putting some salt on fresh yeast. After a while
the yeast will liquefy due to the fact that the salt will attract the water from the yeast cell. As the
cell membrane is semi permeable, water will migrate from the cell and the mixture will seem to
liquefy.With less salt the fermentation is stimulated, there is a greater breakdown of sugar into
gas and, because the gluten is weakened, it offers less resistance to the gas expansion. If the
speed of fermentation is retarded by the use of an increased amount of salt, there will be less
sugar used by the yeast to produce gas.
The average amount of salt in bread is 2% of the flour weight. To save yeast or to have a higher
fermentation rate it is possible to reduce the amount of salt if the taste is accepted by the
consumers and the processing method is changed. Salt has a damaging effect on yeast (fresh
yeast) if allowed to come in direct contact with it and the two should be kept apart during
ingredient weighing etc.
Salt has a tightening action on flour proteins thus improving the gas retention power in the
dough. Salt being hygroscopic, it helps to keep bread fresh and moist for a longer period of time.
Color of the crust is largely dependant on the amount of salt added while making the dough. That
means if there is less salt in the dough, yeast action will be more than normal and there will be
less sugar for caramelisation resulting in poor crust color. On the other hand if more salt is
present, there will be more sugar left at the time of baking due to the controlling effect of salt on
yeast and the crust color will be dark.
P a g e | 26
3.6. Fat:
Fat is understood to be that which ―shortens‖ or tenderizes. The term ―shortening‖ refers to any
fat used in baking—butter, margarine, vegetable oil, lard, and, obviously, vegetable shortening.
Shortening takes its name from the fact that fat by its very nature coats the protein molecules in
flour, making it difficult for them to combine and create that stretchy material called gluten.
Breads made with fat have a tender, rather than chewy mouth feel.Fat is used in bread making at
the rate of 1-2%.
Fat slows fermentation. Oily dough is heavier, which limits the stretch of the gluten and prevents
large pockets of carbon dioxide from forming during fermentation. The absence of large bubbles
of gas results in the absence of large holes in the finished bread crumb. Bread with a tight crumb
is preferred for recipes such as sandwiches and canapés because it holds in the fillings
Fat adds nutritive value to the bread. It acts as a lubricant on the gluten strands, thus improves
the extensibility which enables the bread to acquire good volume.Fat also helps to retain
moisture in the bread and thus its sliceability.Fat also extends the shelf life of bread. Breads
made without fat are likely to go stale much faster than those with butter or other fats.Fat should
be added during the last stages of mixing. If it is added in the beginning, it will have an adverse
effect on water absorption power of the flour.
3.7. Enzymes:
Enzymes are minute substances produced by living organisms which by its mere presence are
capable of bringing bout or speeding up certain changes. Because they are proteins, they are heat
sensitive and all enzymes have an optimum temperature and pH for activity.
The activity of enzymes is dependent upon temperature. Enzymes used in baking are usually
stable at room temperature and the rate of enzyme activity doubles with each 10°C increase up to
the temperature of denaturation, at which the enzyme is inactivated. Most enzymes are
inactivated above 60°C. An exception would be bacterial α-amylase, which retains its activity up
to 85°C.Enzymatic activity is pH dependent; there will be a pH optimum where maximum
P a g e | 27
activity is achieved. Enzymes are usually stable at pH values between 4 and 9. Most doughs have
pH values between 5 and 6.
There are 3 main groups of enzymes which are commonly encountered in baking : enzymes that
hydrolyse carbohydrates (amylases, cellulose , pentosanases ), enzymes that hydrolyse proteins
(proteases) and enzymes affecting fats and oils (lipase, lipoxygenases).In bread making, we are
mostly concerned with the enzyme amylase. The main function of amylase in wheat flour is to
break down complex starches into simple sugars.
Professor Raymond Calvel states in the Taste of Bread, "Fungal amylase, when added to the
dough, plays a positive role in the development of the taste of bread. Amylase permits the proper
rising of the dough throughout fermentation and allows normal increase in the volume of the
loaves (oven spring) during baking. Furthermore, amylase aids in the development of optimal
crust color, which is an important contributor to taste, and they also improve the shelf life of
bread."
The Best Preservatives for Bread

To make bread last longer on our shelves, food science has provided preservatives that keep
bread from spoiling quickly. Preservatives used on bread can be artificial or natural.
Preservatives plus proper bread storage should make your loaves last more than two to three
days. Remember that too much preservative can eventually affect the taste of your baked goods.
i. Artificial Preservatives:
There are a number of artificial preservatives used when baking bread, but the most commonly
used ones are calcium propanoate and propionic acid. Calcium propanoate is a naturally
occurring chemical in dairy products that is produced artificially to serve as an additive in food
products. More calcium propanoate in the loaf is often marketed as "more calcium" in your
bread. Propionic acid inhibits the growth of bacteria in your food, therefore extending its shelf
life.
P a g e | 28
ii. Natural Preservatives

Not all preservatives are artificial. Lecithin is a natural preservative that comes from soy or egg
yolks. The presence of lecithin in your regular loaf of bread helps keep it fluffy and light. At the
same time, it acts as a natural preservative for your bread. Powdered ascorbic acid is another
well-known natural food preservative used in bread. It reduces the growth of microorganisms
plus helps the yeast rise faster. You can crush a Vitamin C tablet with a mortar and pestle if you
do not have powdered ascorbic acid
iii. Garlic and Clove

Garlic and clove are not only good flavors to have in your bread, but they also act as natural
preservatives. Along with honey, ginger and cinnamon, they belong to the family of flavorful
natural food preservatives. Cinnamon oil, when added after the dough rises, inhibits the rising of
the yeast and therefore, lessens the breeding ground for microorganisms that turn into mold.
Garlic's antiseptic property provides a similar action with the popular taste of garlic.
iv. Proper Storage

A good way to avoid bread from going stale (or bad) is to keep it away from direct sources of
heat and sunlight. Heat produces moisture in the bread's packaging, which makes it an
environment conducive for growing mold and bacteria. Store loaves and buns in an airtight
container. Bread with other additives such as fillings, creams, jams and cheeses tend to spoil
faster; so buy only as much as you can consume within 24 hours.
P a g e | 29
4. QUALITY CONTROL AND

SIGNIFICANCE OF TESTING
Quality Control means the control of ―goodness‖ or the ―excellence‖ of a product. In this ever-
changing pattern of producing and making things, if ―quality‖ of a product is not maintained then
it is difficult for the product to survive. Selection of raw materials to the assessment of finished
product; this entire chain of functions is effectively linked through quality control.Quality
control increases output and reduces breakdown. It seeks to ensure that the finished products
conform to the specified standards of performance, utility and reliability. Hence,in any field
today, quality control has become an indispensable tool of modern management.Total quality
control can be divided into two components as follow:
 Product quality control

 Packaging quality control
A large number of parameters are important when one has to identify the type of tests to be
selected and their significance with the end use requirements. The tests selected should be simple
and quick to perform as well as have proven results in numerical values, which are easy to read
and interpret. Testing becomes necessary even in case of established materials and applications
as all men and machines are fallible and liable to vary in performance and hence the need to
detect the unacceptable deviations, as quality control measure is of paramount importance.
Quality Assurance, in contrast to quality control, is the implementation of quality checks and
procedures to immediately correct any failure and mistake that is able to reduce the quality of the
interim products at every production step.Thus, the desired high quality of the final product is
planned and obtained by conducting Standard Operating Procedures (SOP's) that guarantee the
desired quality of the interim product sate very production step.
P a g e | 30
5. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF
INGREDIENTS
The "chemistry" of bread making is the transformation of the individual ingredients into your
finished product. Understanding your ingredients and how they work and interact with each other
will help you have success in baking
5.1. WHEAT FLOUR:

The raw material of foremost importance in bakery product is the wheat flour. Flour quality may
be defined as the ability of the flour to produce an attractive end product at competitive cost,
under conditions imposed by the end product manufacturing unit. The tests most commonly used
to predict the quality of wheat flour are described as follows.
 MOISTURE CONTENT:
Scope:
Flour moisture is influenced by weather and environmental or storage conditions such as
humidity and storage temperature. Such conditions affect the keeping quality of a flour.Several
methods are available to determine moisture content e.g. air oven method,direct distillation,
chemical and electrical methods.
Determining moisture content is an essential first step in analyzing wheat or flour quality,
because it provides a basis for comparison for all other tests. Usually a 14% moisture basis is
used for comparisons, but tests may also be compared on a dry basis or any other moisture basis.
Moisture is also an indicator of grain storability Wheat or flour with high moisture content
(greater than 14 percent) attracts mold, bacteria, and insects, all of which cause deterioration
during storage. Wheat or flour with low moisture content is more stable during storage.Here we
are determining moisture content by air oven method.
P a g e | 31
Apparatus:
a) Convection Oven.
b) Moisture/Weighing dishes(with or without covers).
c) Weighing balance.
d) Desiccators with desiccant.
Method:
1) Set the temperature of the oven to 130°C.
2) Dry weighing dish for 1hr at above 100°C.Cool and store dried dish in a desiccator.Cool for
more than 30 min before usage.
3) A small sample of flour (4 to 5 grams) is weighed and placed in a moisture dish.
4) The sample is heated at 130 degrees Celsius in an air oven for 1 hour.
5) Remove dish with dried sample and cool for more than 30 min in a desiccator.
6) Weigh cooled dish with dried sample.
7) Return the dish to oven,to heat for 1 more hour and again cool and reweigh.
8) If the weight remains constant it means that the test is done.
Calculation
( )
( )
( )
Where, A = wt. of flour + Aluminium dish before drying
B = wt. of flour + Aluminium dish after drying
C = wt. of aluminium dish
Standard values in flour:
 ISI … 13.0%
 PFA … 14.0%
P a g e | 32
Results:
1) Moisture content is determined by heating a flour sample in an air oven and comparing the
weight of the sample before and after heating.
2) The amount of weight loss is the moisture content.
3) Moisture content results are expressed as a percentage.
 PROTEIN CONTENT:
Scope:
Protein in wheat flour and bakery products is generally measured using the Kjeldahl method.
This method estimates the total nitrogen in a sample and assumes a constant relationship between
total nitrogen and the protein in wheat. The results are expressed by multiplying the nitrogen
content by 5.7 factor and hence this method is reported to measure ‗crude protein‘. More
recently, methods have been developed to determine protein quantity by near-infrared reflectance
(NIR) technique. Wheat flour protein quality is difficult to estimate, as there is no standard
method available so far. However, some methods such as sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation
test, Pelshenke test and extensibility test on wet gluten using Texture analyser are employed to
assess the quality of wheat flour for specific product.
Protein content is a key specification for wheat and flour purchasers since it is related to many
processing properties, such as water absorption and gluten strength. Protein content also can be
related to finished-product attributes, such as texture and appearance. Low protein content is
desired for crisp or tender products, such as snacks or cakes. High protein content is desired for
products with chewy texture, such as pan bread and hearth bread.
Method:
1) Place 1g sample in digestion flask. Add 0.7g HgO or 0.65g metallic Hg, 15g powdered
K2SO4 or anhydrous Na2SO4, and 25 ml H2SO4.
2) Place flask in inclined position and heat gently until frothing ceases.If necessary, add small
amount of paraffin to reduce frothing. Boil until solution becomes clear.
P a g e | 33
3) Cool to 25°C and add 200ml distilled water. Then add 25 ml of sulfide or thiosulfate solution
and mix to precipitate Hg. Also add few Zn granules to avoid bumping, tilt flask and add
NaOH without agitation.
4) Immediately connect flask to distilling bulb on condenser and with tip of condenser
immersed in standard acid and 5-7 drops indicator in receiver. Rotate flask to mix contents,
then heat until all NH3had distilled.
5) Remove receiver, wash tip of condenser and titrate excess standard acid in distillate with
standard NaOH solution. Correct for blank determination on reagent.
Calculations:
( )
,( ) ( )-
Multiply % N by 5.7 to get % protein.
Results:
1) The protein content is determined by converting protein nitrogen to ammonia, complexing it,
and titrating it against a standardized sulfuric acid solution
2) The method measures nitrogen and not protein directly, the data must be converted.
3) For wheat flour, the percent nitrogen obtained by the analysis is converted to percent protein
by multiplying by a factor of 5.7.
 ASH CONTENT:
Scope:
Ash, an index of the mineral content of the flour, gives an indication of the grade or the
extraction rate of the flour. This is because the mineral content of the endosperm is very low, as
compared to the outer bran layers. Thus, low-grade flours, rich in powdered bran give higher ash
contents as compared to more refined or patent flours. Ash in flour can affect color, imparting a
darker color to finished products.
General method:
P a g e | 34
Weigh 10 g of the sample into a weighed silica dish. Incinerate it over a burner or in the muffle.
Keep the dish in a muffle furnace maintained at 550-600°C until light grey ash results or to a
constant weight, cool in a desiccator and weigh.
Rapid method:
Reagent:
Alcoholic Magnesium Acetate Solution.
Preparation:
Dissolve 15 g Magnesium Acetate Tetra Hydrate (Mg (C2H3O2) 4 H2O) in alcohol and make up
to 1 litre.
Determination:
Weight 10 g of flour into a weighed silica dish. Add 10 ml. of the reagent. Let the mixture stand
for about 2 minutes. Evaporate the excess alcohol in a water bath and keep in muffle furnace
maintained at 750°C-850°C for 30-45 minutes. Remove the dish, cool in a desiccator and weigh.
Determine the blank on 10 ml of the solution. Deduct blank from ash.
Acid insoluble ash:

Boil ash obtained in method 1 with 25 ml HCl (1: 2.5) for 5 minutes on a water bath, covering
the dish with watch glass. Filter through ashless filter paper (No. 40). Wash the residue with
water until free of acid. Ignite at 600°C for 20 min, cool and weigh.
Calculation:
( )
Where, W1= Wt. of silica dish
W2= Wt. of silica dish + sample
W3= Wt. of silica dish + ash

P a g e | 35
( ) { }
Where, W4= Wt. of silica dish + acid insoluble ash.
PFA limits:
On dry basis Atta Maida
Ash (%) 2.00 1.00
Acid insoluble ash (%) 0.15 0.10
 STARCH DAMAGE CONTENT:

Scope:
Wheat flour contains about 70-80% starch and it is the largest component of flour. Damaged
starch is one, which has been physically damaged during the milling process. Starch damage also
influences water absorption capacity and dough handling of flour. Damaged starch is readily
susceptible to action by amylolytic enzymes as compared undamaged starch resulting in the
formation of dextrin. Desired level of damaged starch in bread flour should be 7-9%. Higher
damaged starch is not advisable. Approved AACC Method use to determine starch damaged.
This method determines the percentage of starch granules in flour or starch preparations, which
are susceptible to hydrolysis by alpha-amylase.
Apparatus:
1) Constant temperature water bath regulated at 30° + 1°C.
2) Micro burette 10ml capacity
3) Pyrex test tubes 25×200mm
4) Boiling water bath and holder for large test tube.
P a g e | 36
Reagents:
1) Acetate buffer
2) Sulfuric acid solution
3) Sodium tungstate solution
4) Alpha-amylase solution
Method:
1) Bring reagent 4 to 30°C. Weigh 1.0g of flour into 100ml stopped conical flask and add 45 ml
of reagent 4. Keep it in water bath at 30°C for exactly 15 minutes.
2) At the end of 15 minutes, add 3.0ml of reagent 2 and 2.0ml of reagent. Mix thoroughly, let it
stand for 2 minutes and filter through whatman No. 4 filter paper, discarding first 8-10 drops
of filtrate.
3) Immediately pipette 5.0ml of filtrate into 25×200mm Pyrex test tube having 10ml of pot
ferric acids solution. Immerse test tubes into vigorously boiling water for 20 minutes.
4) Cool test tubes contents under running tap water and pour at once into 100 or 125ml conical
flask. Rinse the test tube with 25 ml of acetic acid salt solution. Add 1 ml of soluble starch-
KI solution. Mix thoroughly and titrate with 0.IN sodium thiosulfate to complete
disappearance of blue color. Run a blank without sample.
Calculation:
1) Subtract mg maltose equivalent found from Blank-sample.
2) Result of calculations multiplied by 0.092 equals % damaged starch.
% Damaged starch = mg maltose equivalent (B-S) × 0.082. from table.
B = ml of thiosulphate used for Blank &
S = ml of thiosulphate used for sample.

P a g e | 37
5.2. WATER:
Water is the simplest ingredient used in baking (two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen), but
because of its special properties it plays many significant roles in baking, final product quality
and product shelf-life. The tests most commonly used to predict the quality of water are
discussed as below:
 pH:
Scope:
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of water. It is measured on a logarithmic scale
from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, greater than 7 is alkaline, and less than 7 is acidic.
Measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently basic used tests in water
analysis. This parameter define a logarithmic activity of hydrogen ions is an indicator of acidic
or basic character of a water and is used for monitoring of water treatment , carbon dioxide
measurements, and many other acid- basic equilibria..
Principle:
The pH electrode used in the pH measurement is a combined glass electrode.It consists of
sensing half cell and reference half cell, together form an electrode system. The sensing half cell
is a thin pH sensitive semi permeable membrane, separating two solutions, viz. ,the outer
solution, the sample to be analyzed and the internal solution, enclosed inside the glass membrane
and has a known pH value. An electrical potential is developed inside and another electrical
potential is developed outside, the difference in the potential is measured and is given as the pH
of the sample.
Reagent:
1) Potassium Chloride (KCl)
2) Buffer solution (pH 4.01).
5) Distilled water.
P a g e | 38
Apparatus:
1) pH meter
2) Standard flasks
3) Magnetic Stirrer
4) Funnel
5) Beaker
6) Glass electrode.
7) Wash Bottle
8) Tissue Paper
9) Forceps
Method:
Three major steps are involved in the experiment. They are:
1) Preparation of Reagents.
2) Calibrating the Instrument.
3) Testing of Sample.
 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS:
Buffer Solution of pH 4.0
1) Take 100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it.
2) Using the forceps carefully transfer one buffer tablet of pH 4.0 to the funnel.
3) Add little amount of distilled water, crush the tablet and dissolved it.
4) Make up the volume to 100 mL using distilled water.
2) Using the forceps carefully transfer one buffer tablet of pH 7.0 to the funnel.
P a g e | 39
2) Using the forceps carefully transfer one Buffer tablet of pH 9.2 to the funnel.
CALIBRATING THE INSTRUMENT:
Using the buffer solutions calibrate the instrument.
Step 1:
In a 100 mL beaker take pH 9.2 buffer solution and place it in a magnetic stirrer, insert the teflon
coated stirring bar and stir well. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred
buffer and check for the reading in the pH meter. If the instrument is not showing pH value of
9.2, using the calibration knob adjust the reading to 9.2.Take the electrode from the buffer, wash
it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft tissue.
Step 2:
buffer and check for the reading in the pH meter.If the instrument is not showing pH value of
7.0, using the calibration knob adjust the reading to 7.0.
Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft
tissue.
Step 3:
buffer and check for the reading in the pH meter. If the instrument is not showing pH value of
P a g e | 40
4.0, using the calibration knob adjust the reading to 4.0.Take the electrode from the buffer, wash
it with distilled water and then wipe gently with soft tissue. Now the instrument is calibrated.
TESTING OF SAMPLE:
1) In a clean dry 100 mL beaker take the water sample and place it in a magnetic stirrer, insert
the teflon coated stirring bar and stir well.
2) Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the water sample and check for the reading
in the pH meter. Wait until you get a stable reading.
3) The pH of the given water sample is 8.84
4) Take the electrode fromthe water sample, wash it with distilled water and then wipe gently
with soft tissue.
Calculations:
To determine the value of pH of the given water sample the readings obtained
are required to be tabulated
Table:
Sample No. Temperature of pH
sample (°C)
1
2.
3.
Results:
The pH of the given sample 1 =
Precautions:
The following precautions should be observed while performing the experiment:
P a g e | 41
1) Temperature affects the measurement of pH at two points. The first is caused by the change
in electrode output at different temperatures. This interference can be controlled by the
instruments having temperature compensation or by calibrating the electrode instrument
system at the temperature of the samples. The second is the change of pH inherent in the
sample at different temperatures. This type of error is sample dependent and cannot be
controlled hence both the pH and temperature at the time of analysis should be noted.
2) In general, the glass electrode, is not subject to solution interferences like color, high salinity,
colloidal matter, oxidants, turbidity or reductants.
3) Oil and grease, if present in the electrode layer, should be removed by gentle wiping or
detergent washing, followed by rinsing with distilled water, because it could impair the
electrode response.
4) Before using, allow the electrode to stand in dilute hydrochloric acid solution forat least 2
hours.
5) Electrodes used in the pH meter are highly fragile, hence handle it carefully
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Scope:
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that
are dissolved in water. Clay particles, colloidal iron and manganese oxides and silica, fine
enough to pass through a 0.45 micron filter membrane can also contribute to total dissolved
solids.
Total dissolved solids comprise:sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate,

bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, nitrite and
phosphates.
Different methods can be used to determine TDS. The most accurate entails a complete analysis
of the sample and summation of the concentration of all the anions and cations. The most
common and least expensive method is to convert electrical conductivity measurements to TDS
values by multiplication by a factor that varies with the type of water (APHA Method 2510A
P a g e | 42
1992). Gravimetric measurement (i.e. by evaporation and weighing) can also be used (APHA
Method 2540C 1992).
Treatment of Water:
It is difficult to remove dissolved solids from drinking water. Suitable technologies include
reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and distillation, but all of these require considerable energy input
and can be expensive to operate. Lime softening may also be effective where high TDS is mainly
due to hardness.
Apparatus:
a. Glass-fiber filter disks.
b. Filtration apparatus:
One of the following, suitable for the filter disk selected:
1) Membrane filter funnel.
2) Gooch crucible,25-mL to 40-mL capacity, with Gooch crucible adapter.
3) Filtration apparatus.
c. Suction flask of sufficient capacity for sample size selected.
d. Drying oven,for operation at 180 ± 2°C.
Procedure:
1) Preparation of glass-fiber filter disk:
If pre-prepared glass fiber filter disks are used, eliminate this step. Insert disk with wrinkled side
up into filtration apparatus. Apply vacuum and wash disk with three successive 20-mL volumes
of reagent-grade water. Continue suction to remove all traces of water. Discard washings.
2) Preparation of evaporating dish:
If volatile solids are to be measured, ignite cleaned evaporating dish at 550°C for 1 h in a muffle
furnace. If only total dissolved solids are to be measured, heat clean dish to 180 ± 2°C for 1 h in
an oven. Store in desiccator until needed .Weigh immediately before use.
3) Selection of filter and sample sizes:
Choose sample volume to yield between 2.5 and 200mg dried residue. If more than 10 min are
required to complete filtration, increase filter size or decrease sample volume.
P a g e | 43
4) Sample analysis:
Stir sample with a magnetic stirrer and pipet a measured volume onto a glass-fiber filter with
applied vacuum. Wash with three successive 10-mL volumes of reagent-grade water, allowing
complete drainage between washings, and continue suction for about 3 min after filtration is
complete. Transfer total filtrate (with washings) to a weighed evaporating dish and evaporate to
dryness on a steam bath or in a drying oven. If necessary, add successive portions to the same
dish after evaporation. Dry evaporated sample for at least 1 h in an oven at 180 ± 2°C, cool in a
desiccator to balance temperature, and weigh. Repeat drying cycle of drying, cooling,
desiccating, and weighing until a constant weight is obtained or until weight change is less than
4% of previous weight or 0.5 mg, whichever is less. Analyze at least10% of all samples in
duplicate. Duplicate determinations should agree within 5% of their average weight.
Calculation:
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) = (A - B) × 1000 / Sample volume (ml)
where:
A= weight of dried residue + dish, mg, and
B= weight of dish, mg
P a g e | 44
 DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM:

Scope:
Calcium and magnesium contribute to the Total Hardness (TH) of water. Although other cations
such as strontium, iron, manganese and barium can also contribute.
Total hardness is the sum of the concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions expressed as a
calcium carbonate equivalent. Hardness may also be classified as carbonate (temporary) or
noncarbonate (permanent) hardness. Carbonate hardness is the total alkalinity expressed as
calcium carbonate, where alkalinity is the sum of the carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide
content. Noncarbonate hardness is the difference between the total and carbonate hardness.
Degrees of hardness can be described as follows:
<60 mg/L CaCO3 soft but possibly corrosive

60–200 mg/L CaCO3 good quality
200–500 mg/L CaCO3 increasing scaling problems
>500 mg/L CaCO3 severe scaling
Measurement:
Hardness can be determined by titration of calcium and magnesium with EDTA (APHA Method
2340C 1992).
Principle:
When EDTA (ethylenediaminetetra acetic acid or its salts) is added to water containing both
calcium and magnesium, it combines first with the calcium. Calcium can be determined directly
by titration, with EDTA, when the pH is made sufficiently high that the magnesium is largely
precipitated as the hydroxide and an indicator (calcon carboxylic) is used that only combines
with calcium. Magnesium is determined by calculation.
P a g e | 45
Chemicals:
 Sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH 2 mol/1 : Prepare by dissolving 8 g sodium hydroxide
in100 ml water.
 Calcium standard solution 0.01 mol/1 : Prepare by adding 20 ml of standard c alcium
solution at 1 g/1 diluted to 50 ml distilled water.
 A standard EDTA titrant (CEDTA= 0.01 mol/1):
Control the EDTA titrant (0.01 mol/1) with calcium standard solution 0.01 mol/1 as follows :
Add 10 ml calcium standard solution 0.01 mol/1 in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and dilute to 50ml
with distilled water.
Titrate with EDTA titrant (0.01 mol/1) to determine real value of CEDTA:
( ) ( )
V1= volume of standard calcium standard solution (here 10 ml)

V2= volume of EDTA titrant expressed in ml.
 Indicator : calcon carboxylic acid ([ hydroxy - 2- ( hydroxy - 2- sulfo- 4- naphtylazo- 1 )-1

naphtalene carboxylic] acid ) (C21H14N2O S 7.2H2O)
Prepare by carefully grinding and mixing together 0.2 g calcon carboxylic acid with 100 g
sodium chloride.
Apparatus:
1) Erlenmeyer flask 250 ml
2) Burette 25 ml
3) Pipette 50 ml
4) Pipette 2 ml
P a g e | 46
Procedure:
For a 50 ml sample (calcium concentration range 40 –120 mg/L :
1) Add 50.0 ml sample (VS) in an 250 ml erlenmeyer flask.
2) Add 2.0 ml NaOH solution or a volume sufficient to produce a pH of 12 to 13.
3) Add 0.2 g indicator / 2 mol.
4) Add EDTA titrant while stirring and then slowly add it to the sample at the end of titration:
end-point is reached when the colour clearly becomes blue.
Check end- point by adding 1 to 2 drops of titrant in excess to make certain that no further
colour change occurs.
Note down the added EDTA volume VE (in ml).
Results:
( ) ( )
VE= ml EDTA titrant for sample.

CEDTA= mol/1 EDTA concentration.
VS= ml sample.
40.08 = moler weight of calcium, in gm / mol.
 DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE:
Scope:
Chloride is present in natural waters from the dissolution of salt deposits, and contamination
from effluent disposal.
The taste threshold of chloride in water is dependent on the associated cation but is in the range
200–300 mg/L. In surface water, the concentration of chloride is usually less than 100 mg/L and
frequently below 10 mg/L. Groundwater can have higher concentrations, particularly if there is
salt water intrusion.
P a g e | 47
Food is the major source of chloride intake. All plants and animals contain chloride. The addition
of salt during processing or cooking can markedly increase the chloride content.
Measurement:
The chloride concentration in drinking water can be determined with titrimetric techniques using
silver nitrate or mercuric nitrate and colorimetric or potentiometric end-point detection (APHA
Method 4500-Clˉ Parts B or C 1992). The limit of determination is approximately 1 mg/L.
Ion chromatography can also be used (APHA Method 4500-Cl Part F 1992), with a limit of
determination of 0.1 mg/L.
Principle:
In a neutral or slighty alkaline solution, potassium chromate can indicate the end point of the
silver nitrate titration of chloride. Silver chloride is precipitated quantitatively before red silver
chromate is formed.
Chemicals:
1) A potassium chromate indicator solution : Prepare by dissolving 50 g K 2CrO4 in distilled
water.
2) A standard silver nitrate titrant 0.0282 M (0.0282 N) : Prepare by dissolving 4,791 g
AgNO3in distilled water
Apparatus:
1) Erlenmeyer flask 250 ml.
2) Burette 25 ml
3) Pipette 1 ml
P a g e | 48
Procedure:
Titration for a 100 ml blank
1) Use a 100 ml distilled water.

2) Add 1 ml K2CrO4.
3) Add standard AgNO3 titrant to a pinkish yellow end point. Be consistent in end - point
recognition.
4) Note down the volume VB (in ml) of added standard AgNO3.
Titration for a 100 ml sample (chloride C1-concentration range : 50 –150 mg/1)
1) Use a 100 ml sample in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask.

2) Add 1 ml K2CrO4.
3) Add standard AgNO3 titrant to a pinkish yellow end point. Be consistent in end - point
recognition.
4) Note down the volume VA (in ml) of added standard AgNO3
Results:
C(Clˉ) , mg/l = (VA –VB × (1000/V) × 0.0282 × 35.5
Where,
V = ml sample
VA= AgNO3 titrant for sample
VB= ml AgNO3titrant for blank
0.0282 = Normality of AgNO3 titrant & 35.5 = conversion factor.

P a g e | 49
5.3. FAT:
Fat is essential to a healthy diet. Fat in the diet has a vital role in metabolic and membrane
functions and physiological processes such as storing energy, protecting and insulating the body,
aiding intestinal absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, as eicosanoids, and as essential fatty acids
(Kritchevsky, 2002). These essential fatty acids are linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and alpha-linolenic
acid (18:3n-3). Different fats have beneficial or detrimental health effects depending on the fatty
acids present. Thus, although fat is essential to health and body function, optimal fat intake is
very important in overall health and in certain disease conditions.
The tests most commonly used to predict the quality of fats are discussed below:
 Moisture Content:
Moisture content in oil or fats is determined by air oven method. Moisture content is basically
the loss in mass of the sample of oils or fats on heating at above or below 105°C under specified
operating conditions.
Apparatus:
Metal dishes 7-8 cm diameter and 2-3 cm deep provided with tight fitting slip on covers.
Procedure:
Weigh in a previously dried and tared dish about 5-10g of oil or fat which has been thoroughly
mixed by stirring. Loosen the lid of the dish and heat, in a oven at 105°C for 1 hour. Remove the
dish from the oven and close the lid.
Cool in a desicattor containing phosphorous pentoxide or equivalent dessicant and weigh. Heat
in the oven for a further period of 1 hour,cool and weigh. Repeat the process until change in
weight between two successive observation does not exceed 1mg.
Calculation:
*( ) +
Where,
W1=Loss in weight of the material on drying.
W =Weight of the material taken for test.
P a g e | 50
 Determination of Acid Value:

Scope:
The acid value is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize the free fatty acids presents in one gram of fat. The acid value is determined by
directly titrating the fat. It is relatively measure of rancidity as free fatty acids are normally
formed during decomposition of oil glycerides.The value is also expressed as percent of free
fatty acids calculated as oleic acid.
Principle:
The acid value is determined by directly titrating the fat in an alcoholic medium against standard
KOH solution or NaOH solution.
Analytical Importance:
The value is a measure of the amount of free fatty acid which have been liberated by hydrolysis
from the glycerides due to the action of moisture, temperature or enzyme.
Apparatus:
250 ml conical flask
Reagents:
1) Ethyl alcohol.
2) Phenolphthalein indicator solution.
3) Standard aqueous KOH or NaOH solution 0.1 or 0.5 N.
Procedure:
Mix the melted fat thoroughly before weighing. The mass of the test sample shall be taken based
on the color and expected acid value. Weigh accurately suitable amount of sample in a 250 ml
conical flask and add 50 ml to 100 ml of freshly neutralized hot ethyl alcohol and about 1ml of
phenophthalein indicator solution. Boil the mixture for about five minutes and titrate while hot
against standard alkali solution shaking vigorously during the titration.The weight of the fat
taken for the estimation and strength of the alkali used for titrating shall be such that the volume
of alkali required for the titration does not exceed 10 ml.
P a g e | 51
Calculation:
Where,
V = Volume in ml of standard KOH Or NaOH used.
N = Normality of the KOH Or NaOH.
W = Weight in g of the sample
The acidity is frequently expressed as free fatty acid for which calculation shall be ;
( )
( )
 Determination of Iodine Value:

Scope:
The iodine value of an oil or fat is the numberof grams of iodine absorbed by 100g of the oil/fat,
when determined by using Wijs solution.
The oil or fat sample taken in carbon-tetrachloride is treated with a known excess of iodine
monochloride solution in glacial acetic ( Wijh solution ) .The excess of iodine monochloride is
treated with potassium iodide and the liberated iodine estimated by titrating with sodium
thiosulfate solution.
Analytical Importance:
The iodine value is a measure of the amount of unsaturation in a fat.
Apparatus:
500 ml Erlenmeyer flask.
Reagents:
1) Potassium dichromate AR
2) Concentrated hydrochloric acid AR
3) Glacial acetic acid ,free from ethanol
4) Carbon tetrachloride , analytical reagent grade.
5) Iodide mono-chloride ( ICI )
6) Potassium iodide solution freshly prepared.
P a g e | 52
7) Starch solution.
8) Wij‘s Iodine monchloride solution.
9) Standard Sodium thiosulphate solution ( 0.1N )
Procedure:
Weigh accurately an appropriate quantity of the dry oil/fat add into a 500 ml conical flask with
glass stopper, to which 25 ml of carbon tetrachloride have been added. Mix the content well. The
weight of the sample shall be such that there is an excess of 50 to 60 % of wij‘s solution over
that actually needed. Pipette 25 ml of wij‘s solution and replace the glass stopper after wetting
potassium iodine solution.Swirl for proper mixing and keep the flask in dark for half an hour for
non-drying and semi-drying oils and one hour for drying oils.Carry out a blank simultaneously.
After standing add 15 ml KI solution folloed by 100 ml recently boiled and cooled water, rinsing
in the stopper also. Titrate liberated iodine with standardized sodium thiosulphate solution, using
starch as indicator at the end until the blue color formed disappears after through shaking with
the stopper on.
Conduct blank determinations in the same manner as test sample but without oil or fat.Slight
variations in temperature appreciably affect titre of I 2 solution as chloroform has a high
coefficient of expansion.It is thus necessary that blanks and determinations are made at the same
time.
Calculation:
( )
Where,
B= vol in ml of standard sodium thiosulphate sol required for the blank.
S = vol in ml of standard sodium thiosulphate sol required for the sample.
N = Normality of the standard sodium thiosulphate sol
W = Weighing in g of the sample.
P a g e | 53
5.4. Sugar:
Sugar is ingredient most used in baking. It is hydrolyzes during kneading and transformed in
glucose and fructose. So, sugar used in baking influence rheological properties ofdough, activity
yeast and products quality. Sugar has an action on plastic qualities of dough. It decreases
elasticity and increases extensibility. At constant hydration, sugar softens dough‘s. The tests
most commonly used to predict the quality of sugar are discussed below:
 Determination of Reducing Sugars:

Principle:
Invert sugar reduces the copper in Fehling-A solution to a brick red insoluble cuprous oxide.
Apparatus:
1) Volumetric flask 250 ml & 500 ml.
2) Burette 50 ml.
3) Conical flask 250 ml.
4) Pipette 5 ml.
5) Filter paper.
Reagents:
1) Fehling A: Dissolve 69.28 g copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O) in distilled water. Dilute to
1000 ml. Filter and store in amber colored bottle.
2) Fehling B: Dissolve 346 g Rochelle salt ( potassium sodium tartrate ) (K NaC4H4O6. 4H2O)
and 100 g NaOH in distilled water. Dilute to 1000 ml. Filter and store in amber colored
bottle.
3) Neutral Lead Acetate: Prepare 20% neutral lead acetate solution.( This reagent is used to
clarify sugar solutions ).
4) Potassium Oxalate Solution: Prepare 10% Potassium oxalate ( K2C2O4.H2O ) solution.
This reagent is used to remove the excess lead used in clarification.
5) Methylene Blue Indicator: Prepare 1% of methylene blue solution in distilled water.
P a g e | 54
Procedure:
Weigh accurately 25 gms of sample and transfer to 250 ml volumetric flask Add 10 ml of neutral
lead acetate solution and dilute to volume with water and filter. Transfer an aliquot of 25 ml of
the clarified filtrate to 500 ml volume flask containing about 100 ml water. Add potassium
oxalate in small amounts until there is no further precipitation. Make upto volume. Mix the
solution well and filter through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Transfer the filtrate to a 50 ml
burette.
Preliminary Titration:
Pipet 5 ml each of Fehling A and B into 250 ml conical flask. Mix and add about 10 ml water
and a few boiling chips or glass beads. Dispense solution. Heat the flask to boiling. Add 3 drops
of methylene blue indicator. Continue the addition of solution drop wise until the blue color
disappears to a brick-red end point. (The concentration of the sample solution should be such that
the titre value is between 15 and 50ml). Note down the titre value.
Final Titration:
Pipet 5 ml each of Fehling A and B. Add sample solution about 2 ml less than titre value of the
preliminary titration. Heat the flask to boiling with in 3 minutes and complete the titration.
Perform the titration duplicate and take the average.
Calculation:
Calculate the reducing sugars % as shown below:
( )
( )
 Determination of Fructose & Glucose ratio:

Principle:
Glucose % is determined iodimetrically in a weak alkaline medium and the value is subtracted
from reducing sugars % to arrive at fructose % and fructose: glucose ratio.
P a g e | 55
Reagents:
1) 0.1 N Iodine: Weigh 13 gm iodine and 20 gm potassium iodide together and dissolve in
water and make up to 1 litre. Store in amber colored bottle.
2) 0.2 N Sodium bi-carbonate: Dissolve 3.5 gm sodium bicarbonate in 200 ml water.
3) 0.2 N Sodium Carbonate: Dissolve 4.25 gm sodiumcarbonate in 200 mlwater.
4) 25% H2SO4 (v/v).
5) 0.1 N Sodium Thiosulphate: Dissolve 25 gm sodium thiosulphate in boiling distilled water.
Cool make up to 1 litre. Filter and store in amber colored bottle. Standardize against
potassium dichromate.
Procedure:
Weigh 2 g of sample to 250 ml volumetric flask and make upto volume. Mix well and transfer an
aliquot of 25 ml to a 250 ml of iodine flask. Pipet50 ml of 0.1N Iodine and add 50 ml of 0.2N
sodium carbonate and 50 ml of 0.2N sodium bicarbonate solution Allow to stand in dark for 2
hours. Acidify with 12 ml of 25% H2SO4and titrate with standard sodium thiosulphate using
starch as indicator. Carry out blank simultaneously Subtract from titre value of blank the titre
value of sample.
Calculation:
( )
P a g e | 56
 Ash Content:
Principle:
Total ash is the inorganic residual remaining on incineration in a muffle furnace. This
reflects the quantity of mineral matter present in the product.
Apparatus:
Slica Dish, Oven, Dessicator , weighing machine
General Method:
Weigh 10 g of the sample into a weighed silica dish. Ignite the sample with the flame
of the burner till charred. Keep the dish in a muffle furnace maintained at 550-600°C
and continue ignition until grey ash is obtained. Cool in desiccators and weigh. Repeat
the process of heating, cooling and weighing at half hour intervals till the difference in
weigh in two consecutive weighing is less than 1 mg. Note the lowest weigh. If ash still
contains black particles then add 2-3 drops of pre-heated water at 60°C. Break the ash
and evaporate at 100-110C. Re-ash at 55°C. Until ash is white or slightly grey.
Calculation:
( )
Where, W1= Wt. of silica dish
W2= Wt. of silica dish + sample
W3= Wt. of silica dish + ash

P a g e | 57
5.5. Salt:
Salt has a tightening action on flour proteins thus improving the gas retention power in the
dough. Salt being hygroscopic, it helps to keep bread fresh and moist for a longer period of time.
The color of the crust is largely dependant on the amount of salt added while making the dough.
MOISTURE CONTENT:
Principle:
The moisture content is the loss in weight of a sample when heated under specified
conditions.
Scope:
It is applicable to salts. Higher moisture may lead to spoilage and lump formation
during storage. Several methods are available to determine moisture content e.g. air
oven method, direct distillation, chemical and electrical methods. In air over method 5
gm sample is kept in a dish for one hour at 105°C. Electrical method could also be used
satisfactorily provided they are accurately calibrated.
Apparatus:
1) Aluminium
2) DishOven
3) Dessicator
4) Weighing machine
Method:
1) Weigh accurately about 5g of a sample into a dried or tared moisture dish. Cover
and weigh dish at once. Subtract tare weight. And record weight of sample.
2) Now place them without covers beneath on shelf of oven, maintained at 105°C for 3
hours.
P a g e | 58
3) Remove dishes from oven, cover rapidly (using rubber finger insulators), and
transfer to desiccator as quickly as possible. Weigh dishes after they reach room
temperature (45-60 min, usually). Determine loss in weight as moisture.
Calculation:
( )
( )
( )
Where, A = wt. of flour + Aluminium dish before drying
B = wt. of flour + Aluminium dish after drying
C = wt. of aluminium dish
 Purity of Salt:
The purity of salt is basically the amount of chloride content present in the salt.
Sample preparation:
The salt in crystalline form is grinded if necessary and mixed with water to form a
homogenous mixture. This mixture is stored in containers to check purity.
Principle:
The purity test is performed to determine whether the salt that is using in the food is
pure or not. To check purity of salt Mohr‘s titration is performed. This method
determines the chloride ion concentration of a solution by titration with silver nitrate.
As the silver nitrate solution is slowly added, a precipitate of silver chloride forms.
Ag(aq) + Cl(aq) → AgCl(s)
The end point of the titration occurs when all the chloride ions are precipitated. Then
additional chloride ions react with the chromate ions of the indicator, potassium
chromate, to form a red-brown precipitate of silver chromate.
2 Ag+(aq) + CrO42–(aq) → Ag2CrO4(s)

P a g e | 59
This method can be used to determine the chloride ion concentration of salt, water.
Apparatus:
1) Burette and stand
2) 10 and 20 mL pipettes
3) 100 mL volumetric flask
4) 250 mL conical flasks
5) 10 mL and 100 mL measuring cylinders
Solutions required:
Silver nitrate solutions :( 0.1 mol L−1) If possible, dries 5 g of AgNO3 for 2 hours at
100°C and allow to cool. Accurately weigh about 4.25 g of solid AgNO3 and dissolve
it in 250 mL of distilled water in a conical flask. Store the solution in a brown bottle.
Potassium chromate indicator solution: (approximately 0.25 molL-1) Dissolve 1 g of

K2CrO4 dissolved in 20 mL distilled water)
Method:
1) Pipette a 10 mL aliquot of salt solution into a conical flask and add about 1 mL of
chromate indicator.
2) Titrate the sample with 0.1 mol L−1 silver nitrate solution. Although the silver
chloride that forms is a white precipitate, the chromate indicator initially gives the
cloudy solution a faint lemon-yellow colour. The endpoint of the titration is
identified as the first appearance of a red-brown colour of silver chromate.
3) Repeat the titration with further aliquots of salt until concordant results (titres
agreeing within 0.1 mL) are obtained.
Calculations:
Determine the average volume of silver nitrate used from your concordant titres.
P a g e | 60
Where,
N= Normality of AgNO3 & V= Average volume of AgNO3 used.
5.6. YEAST:
Yeast is a biological material, and thus its activity is affected by many factors such as storage
temperature, relative humidity and moisture content, etc. In order to produce good quality
fermented product it is important to check the freshness of yeast.
Yeast Freshness Test

Follow these steps if you are unsure of the freshness of your yeast (or just want to give it a 'good
start').
1) Using a one-cup liquid measuring cup, dissolve 1 teaspoon of granulated sugar in 1/2 cup
warm tap water at 110°F-115°F.
2) Using a thermometer is the most accurate way to determine the correct liquid temperature.
Any thermometer will work as long as it measures temperatures between 75°F and 130°F.
3) If you don't have a thermometer, the tap water should be warm but NOT hot to the touch.
4) Stir in one 1/4 oz. packet (7g) or 2-1/4 tsp of dry yeast until there are no more dry yeast
granules on top. Yeast should be at room temperature before using.
5) In three to four minutes, the yeast will have absorbed enough liquid to activate and start to
rise.
6) After ten minutes, the foamy yeast mixture should have risen to the 1-cup mark and have a
rounded top. It should look like the picture below.
7) If this is true, your yeast is very active and should be used in your recipe immediately.
8) Remember to deduct 1/2 cup liquid from the recipe to adjust for the water used in this test.
9) If the yeast did not rise to the 1-cup mark, your yeast has little or no activity. Discard this
yeast.
P a g e | 61
6. FINAL PRODUCT TESTING:

Bread is a highly nutritious food eaten in one form or another by nearly every person on
earth. Consequently, proximate analysis provides an indication of the nutritional value of
the bread we consume. As an excellent source of protein, carbohydrates, and vitamins, bread
has been an essential element of human diet for centuries in all regions, (countries) except
rice growing
The simplest breads are made from grains such as wheat, oats, barley, rye, millet and corn mixed
with water or milk. These ingredients are mixed into dough, shaped and cooked usually
by baking. Salt, eggs, sugar and other ingredients may be added to give the bread flavor, change
its texture or increase its nutritional value. A special ingredient is added often called leavening
agent to make the dough rise by enlarging the air spaces in the dough, giving it a lighter
texture and more volume.
Sampling of Bread:
Cut the sample into small pieces and mix together so as to form a composite sample and transfer
to a clean dry airtight glass container.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAMPLING :

In drawing, preparing, storing and handling samples, the following precautions and directions
shall be observed.
1) Samples shall be taken in a protected place not exposed to damp air, dust or soot.
2) Precautions shall be taken to protect the samples, the lots being sampled, the sampling
instrument and the containers for samples from adventitious contamination.
3) Loose bread samples, or the representative small packs, shall be placed in airtight, clean and
dry glass tin or aluminium containers of appropriate size.
4) The samples shall be stored at room temperature.
5) Each container containing the samples shall be sealed airtight and marked with full details
of sampling, such as date and time of sampling, batch or code number, name of the
manufacturer, and other relevant particulars.
P a g e | 62
Testing Requirement:
General Requirements:
The breads shall be properly baked and they have uniform texture and appearance. They shall
have an agreeable flavor. The bread shall be free from fungus and insect infestation rancid taste
and odour.
 Determination of Moisture:
Apparatus:
1) Moisture Dish –made of porcelain, silica, glass or aluminium.
2) Oven –Electirc, maintained at 1050 ± 1°C.
3) Desiccator.
Procedure:
Weigh accurately about 5g of the prepared sample in the moisture dish, previously dried in the
oven and weighed. Place the dish in the oven maintained at 104 ± 1°C for 4 hours. Cool in the
disiccator and weigh. Repeat the process of drying, cooling and weighing at 30- minute intervals
until the difference between the two consecutive weighing is less than one milligram. Record the
lowest weight.
Calculation:
( )
( )
Where
W1= weight in g of the dish with the material
W2= weight in g of the dish with the material after drying to constant weight, and
W = weight in g of the empty dish
Ref:-PS 383 : 1980

P a g e | 63
 Determination of Acid Insoluble Ash:

Apparatus:
1) Dish –Silica or porcelain
2) Muffle Furnace –maintained at 600
3) Water Bath
4) Desiccator
Reagent:
Dilute Hydrochloric Acid –approximately 5N prepared from concentrated hydrochloric
Procedure:
Weigh accurately about 30g of the sample in the dish and ash in the muffle furnace at 600°±
20°C until light grey ash is obtained. Remove the dish from the furnace and allow it to cool at
room temperature. Add 25 ml of the hydrochloric acid to the dish, cover with a watch glass and
heat on the water- bath for 10 minutes. Mix the contents with the tip of a glass rod and filter
through Whatman filter paper. No.42 or its equivalent. Wash the filter paper with water until the
washings are free from acid tested with a blue litmus paper Return the washed filter paper to the
dish for ashing in the muffle- furnace as above. Cool the dish in a desiccator and weigh. Repeat
this operation until the dish has a constant weight, the difference between successive weighing
being less than 1mg. Filter 25 ml of the hydrochloric acid through blank filter paper, wash, ash
and weigh it as in the case of acid insoluble ash. Subtract its weight from the weight of insoluble
ash of the sample.
Calculation:
Acid insoluble ash, percent by weight
( )
( )
Where
W1= weight in g of the dish containing acid insoluble ash

P a g e | 64
W= weight in g of empty dish in which the sample is taken for ashing, and
W2 = weight in g of the sample
Note –Correct the acid insoluble ash weight for the blank of filter paper, if any.
( ( ) )
Where
A = acid insoluble ash, percent by weight
M = percentage of moisture in the bread.
Ref:-PS 383 : 1980
 Determination of Non-Fat Milk Solids in Milk Bread:

Principles:
The method is colorimetric one of the estimation of non fat milk solid in milk is based on orotic
acid (2, 6 dihydroxy pyrimidine – 4 carboxylic acid) contents. the mean orotic content of non
fat milk is 62.5mg/100mg (range 48.0-74.5 /100mg).
Apparatus:
1) Air oven
2) Homogeniser
3) Pipettes 5,10 and 25 ml
4) Glass stopper test tubes
5) Volumetric glass 10, 50, 100, and 500 ml capacity
6) Water bath
7) Colorimeter
P a g e | 65
Reagents:
1) Zinc sulphate 23% (w/v)
2) Potassium hexacyanoferrate 15.0%v (w/v)
3) P-demethyl amino benazaldehyde in propanol 13% (w/v)
4) Standard orotic acid – dissolve 50 mg of orotic acid in the mixture of 1 ml of 0.88 ammonia
and 10 ml water. Dilute to 500 ml with water. Take 10 ml aliquot and dilute with 100 ml of
water. Further dilute 2.5 , 5 ,10 and 15 ml of this solution containing 2.5, 5, 10 and 15 µg of
orotic acid per 500 ml.
5) Saturated bromine water
6) Ascorbic acid solution 10%
7) N- butyl acetate
8) Anhydrous sodium sulphate
Procedure:
Weight 5 mg of dried sample obtained after determination of moisture, transferred to the
homogeniser.add 100 ml of water and mix at the maximum speed for 1 min. filter the supernatant
liquid through a 15cm whatman filter paper no 541, rejecting the first 10 ml. only 5 ml is
required for the determination. Into a series of glass stoppered tubes, add by pipette 5 ml of test
solution (containing 2- 15 µg orotic acid) 5 ml of each of the orotic acid solution and 5 ml of
water to act as a blank. Add to each tube 1.5 ml of saturated bromine water and allow the
mixture to stand at the room temperature for not more than 5 minutes.
As the addition of bromine water is made to the series of tubes, the time will vary slightly
between each, the time of reaction is not critical provided it is between 1 and 5 min. add 2 ml of
10% ascorbic acid solution to each tube and place the tube in water bath at 40°C for 5 min. cool
to the room temperature, add to each tube 4 ml n-butyl acetate and shake vigorously for 15
seconds. transfer the upper separated layer to dry test tube containing 1 gm anhydrous sodium
sulphate. Mix gently. Add another mg of anhydrous sodium sulphate. Mix gently and allow to
separate. Transfer the clear butyl acetate layer to 1cm cell and measure the optical density at
461 – 462 nm at the blank.
P a g e | 66
Calculation:
Draw a calibration graph of the standard orotic acid plotting the optical density on the X- axis
against the concentration of orotic acid on the Y- axis. Determine the orotic acids contents in the
5 ml of sample extracted by the interpolation of colorimetric reading on the calibration graph and
hence the amount in the dry sample. For converting to milk assume that skimmed milk powder
containing 62.5 mg orotic acid per 100 mg.
(Ref: I.S 12711 : 1989 BAKERY PRODUCTS –method of analysis / Pearson composition and analysis of food 9th
edition page# 316).
 Determination of alcoholic acidity:

Reagents:
1) Neutral ethyl alcohol - 90% (v/v)
2) Standard sodium hydroxide solution approx. 0.05 N
3) Phenolpthalein solution – 1% sol in ethyl alcohol
Procedure:
Weight 5 mg of dried sample in a stoppered conical flask and add 50 ml of 90% neutral ethyl
alcohol. Stopper, swirl gently and allow it stand for next 24 hours with occasional swirling. Filter
the alcoholic extract through a dry filter paper. Titrate the combined alcoholic extract against
0.05N standard sodium hydroxide to a pink end point using phenolphthalein as indicator.
Whatman filter paper is to be used for the filtration process.
Calculation:
(Ref:-I.S 12711: 1989 Bakery products – Methods of Analysis)

P a g e | 67
7. PACKAGING
What does packaging means?
A few partial definitions of packaging are as follows:
1. A means for ensuring safe delivery of products to the consumer in sound condition at
minimal cost.
2. An art, science, or technology required for preparing foods for transport, storage, or sales
elsewhere from the point of production.
3. A technological and economic function aimed at minimizing costs of delivery while
maximizing sales.
Packaging brings about protection of materials of all kinds by means of containers designed to
isolate the contents to some known degree from outside influences. It is an indispensable aspect
of food value addition.
Why package foods?

Packaging serves the following functions:
 Containment – enabling the food to be presented in a fixed measure by weight or volume of

contents.
 Protection – against chemical and physical damage.
 Barrier – against transfer of oxygen, moisture, chemical compounds, and microorganisms
that are detrimental to quality of food.
 Convenience – provides convenience in using the product. Also furnishes consumer
convenience about microwavability, resealability, ease of opening, and reusability.
 Product information – conveys product information to the consumer, including description of
food contents, weight/volume ratio, manufacturer‘s name, directions for use, sell-by date, and
nutritional content.
 Marketing – serves as effective marketing tool for promoting product identification and sales
P a g e | 68
 Processing requirement – certain food processing operations demand specific product

packaging to facilitate the processing (e.g. canning)
 Dispensing – certain packages facilitate dispensing of product (e.g. beer, salt, or soft drinks)
Packaging materials:
1) Paper
Paper is a low cost, popular, readily available, and versatile packaging material. It accounts for
about 50% of all packaging. Paper can be used as flexible pouches for primary packaging as well
as more rigid outer secondary food packages. Flexible papers are used as overwraps, bags, or
liners. Examples include Kraft paper, greaseproof paper, glassine, and waxed paper. Kraft paper
is used for making paper sacks with capacities of even 50 kg for packaging dehydrated meat
scraps, granulated sugar, dried grains (as multi-wall paper sacks) and powdered milk (laminated
on the inside with plastics). Kraft paper is also used for making paperboard and boxboard cartons
for secondary (outer) packaging. Polyethylene-coated Kraft papers are used for liquid packaging
cartons and frozen food containers. Polyester-coated paper, capable of withstanding high
temperatures, is used for ovenable or microwavable trays.
2) Plastics
Plastics for food packaging are either commodity plastics or barrier plastics. Commodity plastics
(e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride) are low cost and have
relatively poor oxygen barrier property. Barrier plastics (e.g. polyvinylidene chloride and
ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer) are relatively expensive but exhibit much better oxygen
barrier property. Polyethylene is the most popular plastic polymer in food packaging. There two
types: low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE). LDPE is
transparent and softer (for film packaging as grocery sacks, shrink wrap films, and stretch wraps)
, while HDPE is stiffer, harder, less transparent and, resistant to oils and greases, and more
resistant to gas and vapor transmission (used milk bottles and breakfast cereal liners).
Polypropylene (PP) also finds use in food packaging film wraps, containers, and closures.
Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) is used for wrapping candies and sweets. PP is lighter
than all other plastics. The major polyester for food packaging is polyethylene terephthalate
P a g e | 69
(PET). Biaxially oriented PET films are used as components for boil-in-bag food packages and
retortable pouches, vacuum packaging of cooked meat products, packaging of carbonated soft
drinks and edible oils. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), commonly known as saran, is used for
packaging meat, sausage, fish, and cheese. Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) is used for
making bottles for retortable food packages, tomato ketchup, mayonnaise, and jellies
3) Glass
Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials. It was initially used for packaging wines. The use
of glass for packaging heat-processed foods began in 1804. Glass is a desirable package for
foods because it does not react with foods, has excellent barrier properties, transparent, reusable,
reasonably strong, easy to open, can be moulded into any shape, and usable on many filling
machines. However, glass is heavy, breakable, and susceptible to sudden temperature shocks.
Plastics and laminates have largely overtaken glass in food packaging.
4) Metals
Important metals for packaging foods include the sanitary tin can (for retortable packages) and
aluminium (mainly as cans or flexible foil material). Aluminium cans are used mainly for beer
and soft drinks packaging, while aluminium foils are used as laminates, retortable pouches,
microwavable trays, and foil liddings.
5) Earthenware
Earthen pots traditionally found extensive use as cooking vessels and for storage of water and
fluid foods such as uji. However, weight, fragility, and low hygienic conditions are a drawback
to their use.
6) Fiber/Textiles
Sisal bags have been used extensively for packaging dried cereal and pulse grains, coffee,
potatoes, sugar, and tea leaves (on transit to the factory). However, plastics bags (woven or
moulded) are fast replacing sisal bags.
P a g e | 70
7) Composites/Laminates
Lamination, either with metal foils or plastics (e.g. polyethylene), is intended to improve barrier
and strength properties of packaging materials. As laminates, aluminium foil and polyethylene
form part of the ubiquitous Tetrapak for dairy, fruit juice, and soft drinks packaging.
Choosing a packaging material

A. Mechanical properties
The packaging material must be strong enough to prevent physical damage to the food (e.g.
bruising of fruits and vegetables and breakage of biscuits) and to other packaging materials (e.g.
glass bottles in fiberboard containers).
B. Physical properties
The packaging material must be able to protect the final physical nature of the food after
processing as well as protect the environment around the food. To do this, the material must be
able to control the movement of water, water vapor, oils and gases. It must also protect against
UV-light and heat gains and losses where necessary.
C. Chemical and biochemical properties
The package material must offer protection against chemical and biochemical spoilage by
maintaining an environment around the food that reduces or prevents deteriorative chemical and
biochemical spoilage reactions. Products of chemical deterioration must also not migrate into the
food in any large quantities (e.g. corrosion of tin cans).
D. Microbiological aspects
The packaging material must be able to protect the food and prevent contamination from external
sources. The package environment should be able to slow or prevent the growth of undesirable
microorganisms in or on the food by use of anaerobic conditions or inert gas atmosphere.
P a g e | 71
E. Insect and rodent infestation
The package material must protect against insect and rodent infestation, particularly in bulk
storage, in open warehouses, or where consumer storage conditions are likely to be inadequate.
Paper may not be suitable here but laminates can provide the necessary protection.
F. Nature of the food to be packed
 The package material must not contaminate the food by leakage or migration of toxic
elements from it to the food.
 The final condition of the processed food will determine the nature of packaging material (is
the food raw or fresh, is packaging required for processing, etc.).
 Susceptibility to microbial and insect attack and inherent flora will influence the nature of
packaging material.
 If the food is still respiring or undergoing postmortem changes, the package material must be
chosen to control the in-package changes.
 Many foods possess an odor or are susceptible to aroma loss or odor pick-up during storage.
The packaging material must be selected to resist odors in the manufacturer stores and in the
consumer‘s home environment.
 The packaging material must be easy to handle for rapid and uninterrupted production and
should allow for easy retrieval of the food by the consumer.
G. Availability & cost

The package material must be easily available at a reasonable cost.
Shelf-life of packaged food products

Shelf life is the period during which a packaged product maintains marketable or acceptable
quality under specific storage conditions. The shelf life of a product depends on the following:
 Initial quality of the food product

 Amount of quality change that can be allowed
 Prevailing environmental conditions
 Barrier properties of the packaging material
 Compatibility between food product and package
P a g e | 72
Principles of package development

The packaging for your competitor's product in the market may not be the best or optimum
package design, but it is a good starting point for developing the package of your own product.
To ensure successful package development, the following should be considered:
 Product assessment
 Hazards of distribution (mechanical, climatic, biological, etc.)
 Marketing requirements (competitors, retail service, customer, convenience, etc.)
 Selection of packaging material and packaging machinery
The essential point in developing or choosing an optimal package for your product is that you
should know your product well (in terms of its life cycle, physical, chemical and microbiological
characteristics, major spoilage parameters, hazards of distribution, etc).
One should determine when to change a package, why change the package, and how to change
the package. When to change a package is dictated by the life cycle of the product. The stages in
the life cycle of a product are as follows (see figure provided):
 Introduction
 Growth
 Maturity
 Obsolescence
When introducing a new food product to the market, the packaging should be just right.
Particular attention should be focused on the design and convenience features of the package.
This will help the product to take off successfully. Subsequently, when sales begin to fall off
during product maturity, design of new packages can help generate a new image and increased
sales. Other reasons for changing a package may be as follows:
 To reduce unit costs

 Promote wholesale, retail, and/or consumer acceptance of the product
 Improve shelf life
 Increase turnover, sales and profits
 Provide customers with better method of using the product
 Improve handling in transport or retail outlet
P a g e | 73
Levels of packaging
The primary package holds the basic product. It may be a bag, can, carton, bottle, tube, sachet, or
other form of container. If such small primary packages are to be distributed in large quantities, it
is necessary to group them together in a larger package called a secondary package. A corrugated
fiber board carton holding several units of canned fruit is an example of secondary packaging. It
is often necessary to group secondary packages together in pallets to facilitate materials handling
equipment in warehouses and loading in or out of trucks and ships. This forms a tertiary package.
PACKAGING OF BREAD
One of the priorities of today's bread-making industry is to find suitable packaging solutions
to satisfy the peculiar requirements of bread, mostly appreciated by Italian consumers for its
crispy crust. The packaging material should allow for both rapid heat exchange with the
environment and water vapour evaporation to prevent condensation inside the package.
Perforated orientated polypropylene (OPP) films are currently the best materials available for
satisfying the industry's requirements. Recently, our group demonstrated that bread wrapping
with perforated films is efficacious against bread contamination. The aim of this work was to
verify whether these types of films could also influence the trend of phenomena related to
product ageing. In particular, variations in the moisture inside the loaf during storage and
their influence on changes in crumb softness were investigated. Three OPP films and one
double-layer film bag with different hole size characteristics were chosen for this study and
their performances were compared with those of a paper bag. Because of the considerable
differences in the hole size characteristics, the films showed very different barrier effects to
water evaporation. The C250 OPP film (hole mean diameter = 0.54 mm and density = 21.4
holes/cm2) played an interesting role in modulatin
P a g e | 74
TESTING OF PACKAGING MATERIAL:
Scope:
Package testing is primarily intended to assess the overall performance of the package design in
terms of its ability to meet the required level of protection for the enclosed materiel. This usually
involves subjecting a test package to a variety of tests in a sequence planned to provide evidence
for assessment of its performance in a cumulative manner.
Testing Requirement:
The prime objective of packaging is to extend the useful life-span of an item. The protected item
must remain in that state of protection until it is placed into service. To ensure this protection
thorough and efficient inspection and test procedures for packages are necessary.
Damage Hazards
Force: Damage may result from hazardous forces encountered in transportation, handling and
storage.
Exposure: Exposure to the different climatic conditions and weather hazards - such as high
humidity, rain, salt spray, extreme cold, dry intense heat - and the cycling of these weather
conditions tend to accelerate deterioration of unprotected items. Moisture in its different forms is
the main damaging factor. Exposure hazards are controlled by preservation and packaging.
P a g e | 75
Test Procedures:
Handling Test:
Scope:
This test is performed to demonstrate that a package can be handled either manually or with
various mechanical methods.
Apparatus:
The apparatus shall consist of an adequate pallet truck, forklift truck, dump truck, slip-sheet
truck, overhead crane, lifting cables, slings and chains, and personnel as applicable.
Procedure:
1) Packages fitted with handles shall be subjected to a static test load of three times the design
gross packaging mass distributed to maintain the normal centre of gravity. Lift the test item
and freely suspend it from each handle in turn.
2) Packages fitted with lifting attachments shall be subjected to a static load of twice the design
gross packaging mass distributed to maintain the normal centre of gravity. Lift the test item
using slings attached to the lifting points; the angles between the legs of a two legged sling
and the diagonally opposite legs of a four legged sling should not be greater than 90ºand not
less than 60º.
3) Packages fitted with forklift facilities shall be subjected to a static load of one and one
quarter times the design gross mass. The container shall be lifted clear of the ground by
forklift truck. The forks shall extend to two-thirds of the underside dimensions of the base of
the specimen across which the forks are
4) Packages providing for the use of grabs shall be loaded to twice the gross package mass and
lifted clear of the ground by grabs applied at the designed grab points.
5) Large packages with no lifting devices shall be loaded to three times the gross package mass
and lifted clear of the ground by two slings positioned atapproximately one sixth of the
P a g e | 76
length of the container from each end. The angle between the diagonally opposite legs ofthe
slings should not be greater than 90ºand not less than 60º
Dry Heat Test:
Scope:
Under dry hot conditions of storage or during transit, the materials used in construction of
packages will dry out and thus tend to alter the level of protection applied to the packaged item.
The test is primarily intended to assess the effects of drying out on the protective properties of
the package, e.g. through shrinkage of timber and loosening of fastenings such that the item is
permitted free movement; the dehydration of paper-based materials and degradation of some
rubbers and plastics.
Apparatus:
1) The temperature and humidity within the chamber shall be capable of control to meet the test
conditions and shall be monitored by sensing devices suitability located in the working space.
Provision shall be made for a continuous recordof chamber conditions throughout the period
of the test.
2) The conditions prevailing throughout in the working space shall be uniform and shall be
within the required limits. Air in the chamber shall be continuously agitated or circulated
throughout to reduce temperature and humidity variation. Air circulation shall be the
minimum consistent with satisfactory control.
Procedure:
1) The package shall be placed in a suitable test chamber at standard laboratory conditions. It
shall stand on its base or the face on which it is normally expected to be transported or
stored. The chamber temperature shall be raised to 55°+2°C at a rate not exceeding 3°C per
minute.
2) The chamber temperature shall be maintained at 55°+2°C for 48 hours.
P a g e | 77
3) At the completion of the high temperature phase, the chamber temperature shall be allowed
to return to standard laboratory conditions at a rate not exceeding 3°C per minute.
4) Throughout the test the relative humidity shall not exceed 75 per cent relative humidity or a
water vapour pressure of 30 millibars, whichever is the lesser.
Dry Heat Exposure Test:
Scope:
This test is more of a simulation of exposure to hot dry climatic conditions than the Dry Heat
Test, but will also enable assessment to be made of the effect of drying out the protective
properties of the package, i.e. shrinking, dehydration and the deterioration of constituent organic
materials. It will also condition the package for assessment of its physical protective quality if
subjected to subsequent movement and handling in the dry condition.
Apparatus:
1) The temperature and humidity within the chamber shall be capable of control and shall be
monitored by sensing devices suitably located in the working space. Provision shall be made
for continuous record of chamber conditions throughout the period of test.
2) The conditions prevailing throughout the working space shall be uniform and shall be within
the required limits prevailing in the immediate vicinity of the sensing devices. Air in the
chamber shall be agitated continuously or circulated throughout to reduce temperature and
humidity variation. Air circulation shall be the minimum consistent with satisfactory control.
3) To obtain a reasonably close simulation of the spectral energy distribution of natural solar
radiation it is necessary to use xenon or carbon arc lamps in combination with suitable filters.
However, if only the heating effects of sunlight exposure are of interest, then the use of
tungsten filament lamps to provide the desired radiant heating may be appropriate. But it
must be clearly appreciated that the spectral energy distribution of tungsten filament lamps
differs markedly from that of natural solar radiation. The radiation intensity must therefore be
adjusted so that the radiation absorbed by the surface ofthe package under test is the same as
it would be if the surface were irradiated by natural sunlight.
P a g e | 78
4) Test house staff must be made aware of the hazards associated with solar radiation testing.
Procedure:
1) The package shall be placed in a suitable test chamber. It shall stand on its base or the face
upon which it is normally expected to be transported or stored. It shall be exposed to the 24
hour test cycle detailed below.Through out the test the humidity shall not exceed 75%
Relative Humidity or a water vapor pressure of 30 millibar, whichever is less.
2) A heating period of approximately six hours during which the temperature shall rise at a
uniform rate to 55 ±2°C. During this period, simulated solar radiation shall be applied to the
top surface of the package and its intensity shall rise at a uniform rate from zero to 1120
Wm3(±10%) which it shall attain for four hours. The level shall be maintained for the
remaining two hours.
3) A period of four hours at a temperature of 55 ±2°C. Simulated solar radiation at 1120
W/m2(±10%) intensity shall continue to be applied for the first two hours of this period and
the level shall then fall at a uniform rate to 560 W/m2over the remaining two hours of the
period.
4) A cooling period of approximately 10 hours during which the temperature shall fall to 30
±2°C. The intensity of the simulated solar radiation shall continue to fall at a uniform rate
from 560 W/m2to zero over the first two hours of the period.
5) A period of not less than four hours during which the temperature shall be maintained at 30
±2°C.
6) When approved materials and/or techniques only are incorporated in the package design, the
package shall be subjected to four complete cycles.
Low Temperature Test:
Scope:
P a g e | 79
The test is primarily intended to condition the package and its contents to enable assessment to
be made of the effect of low temperature on the protective properties of the package, e.g. the
stiffening of cushioning materials, the contraction and stiffening of barriers, etc.
Apparatus:
1) A suitable environmental chamber, which shall be capable of control to meet the test
conditions and shall be monitored by sensing devices suitably, located in the working space.
Provisions shall be made for a continuous record of chamber conditions throughout the
period of test.
2) The conditions prevailing throughout the working space shall be uniform and shall be within
the required limits. Air in the chamber shall be continuously agitated or circulated throughout
to reduce temperature and humidity variation. Air circulation shall be the minimum
consistent with satisfactory control.
Procedure:
1) The package shall be placed in a suitable test chamber at a standard laboratory conditions. It
shall stand on its base or the face upon which it is normally expected to be transported or
stored.
2) The chamber temperature shall be lowered to the test temperature at a rate not exceeding 3°C
per minute.
3) The chamber temperature shall be maintained at this temperature for:
a. 16 hours after the package has reached the test temperature, or
b. 7 days if the time required for the complete package to attain the temperature cannot be
assessed.
4) Subsequent physical testing of the package, e.g. impact, should be carried out in the test
chamber following the period of exposure to low temperature but, where this is impractical,
the tests should be carried out immediately on removal of the package from the chamber.
P a g e | 80
SPECIFICATION CHARTS
(Raw materials)
Sugar:
Ref:- SAUDIA ARABIA STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR WHITE SUGAR (WO
2009066316 A1)
REQUIREMENTS FOR WHITE SUGAR AT THE TIME OF

MANUFACTURE
P a g e | 81
Salt:
P a g e | 82
Water:
P a g e | 83
Wheat Flour:
P a g e | 84
SPECIFICATION CHART
(Final Product)
Approximate Nutrient Content of 100 g of Bread
Bread Type
White Wholemeal Wheat/Rye Multi-grain Multi-grain Italian Wheat /
Oat
Protein 7.30 8.1 9.1 7.70 8.80 9.60 9.6
(g)
Thiamin 0.33 0.66 0.84 0.4 0.30 0.14 0.4
(mg)
Niacin 1.6 2.1 2.1 1.30 2 1.6 1.6
(mg)
Riboflavin 0.09 0.16 0.19 0.15 0.12 0.03 0.1
(mg)
Iron 1 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.40 1.4 2.10
(mg)
Calcium 40 33 40 50 39 40 48
(mg)
Energy 216 198 207 189 230 232 222
(kcal)
Average Contribution to the Nutritional Needs of Our Diet by

100g of any bread
Protein Thiamin Niacin Riboflavin Iron Calcium Energy
15% 30% 7% 4% 14% 6% 9%
A healthy diet with bread
Substitution of bread for fats maintains the energy we need to get from our diet by providing
carbohydrates rather than fats for energy production. Worldwide, nutritionists and dieticians support this
recommendation, and advise that the following plan for good eating is used:
 Eat a wide variety of foods to get a good balance of vitamins and minerals.
 Eat mostly cereals, vegetables and fruit.Eat more complex carbohydrates and dietary
fibre.
 Eat less fats, refined sugar, salt and alcohol.
When its composition is considered along with its relatively low cost, bread is an ideal food to
complement the nutritious fillings we may choose to balance our diet. Four to six slices daily is the intake
often recommended for people of normal weight and health.
P a g e | 85
REFERENCES:
 http://www.bakerybazar.com/2010/05/process-flow-chart-for-bread.html
 http://www.ulmapackaging.com/packaging-solutions/food-
packaging/bread-bakery/bread
 http://modifiedatmospherepackaging.com/Applications/Modified-
atmosphere-packaging-bread-products
 http://fins.uns.ac.rs/index.php?mact=Magazines,cntnt01,details,0&cntnt01
hierarchyid=7&cntnt01sortby=magazine_id&cntnt01sortorder=asc&cntn
t01summarytemplate=current&cntnt01detailtemplate=detaljno&cntnt01c
d_origpage=178&cntnt01magazineid=47&cntnt01returnid=188
 Puler E.J., Gortonl A. (2008). Baking science & technology, vol I:
Fundamentals & Ingredients, Sosland Publ Co, Kansas City, USA
 http://www.ehow.com/info_8204863_preservatives-
bread.html#ixzz2ZtUVsooL
 http://www.grainfieldsaustralia.com/US/lactobacillus_research/bread_history.s
html
 http://www.botham.co.uk/bread/history.htm
 http://www.bakersassist.nl/processing5-2.htm
 http://www.baketran.com/publications/books
 http://www.google.com/patents/US5327704
 http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/type-container-increases-shelf-
life/

Quality Manual On Bread Processing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Quality Manual On Bread Processing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quality Manual On Bread Processing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2013

“I’M DEDICATING THIS MANUAL

TO MY GRAND-MOTHER AND GRAND-

FATHER WITH LOVE, APPRECIATION

 those that rise highest and so have to be baked in pans,

Whole meal or whole wheat bread:

Kibbled wheat and cracked wheat bread:

Sour dough bread:

Bread making involves the following basic steps:

2.2. Processing Steps Description:

2.2.1. MIXING & KNEADING:

developed/kneaded sufficiently. Underdeveloped dough will result in a holey, crumbly texture

a. STRAIGHT DOUGH METHOD:

b. SPONGE AND DOUGH METHOD:

c. CONTINUOUS MIXING METHOD:

 Improves dough handling characteristics.

Goals of yeast fermentation:

Fermentation achieves the following goals for the baker:

 Improves dough handling characteristics.The various complex reactions during fermentation

Factors Affecting Yeast Activity and Rate of Fermentation:

Specific ingredients in dough formulation:

2.2.3. DIVIDING, ROUNDING & MOLDING:

Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Bread Products:

3. INGREDIENTS AND THEIR

3.1. Wheat Flour:

The Best Preservatives for Bread

ii. Natural Preservatives

iii. Garlic and Clove

iv. Proper Storage

4. QUALITY CONTROL AND

 Product quality control

5.1. WHEAT FLOUR:

Where, A = wt. of flour + Aluminium dish before drying

B = wt. of flour + Aluminium dish after drying

C = wt. of aluminium dish

Standard values in flour:

Multiply % N by 5.7 to get % protein.

Alcoholic Magnesium Acetate Solution.

Acid insoluble ash:

Where, W1= Wt. of silica dish

W2= Wt. of silica dish + sample

W3= Wt. of silica dish + ash

Where, W4= Wt. of silica dish + acid insoluble ash.

Ash (%) 2.00 1.00

Acid insoluble ash (%) 0.15 0.10

 STARCH DAMAGE CONTENT:

% Damaged starch = mg maltose equivalent (B-S) × 0.082. from table.

B = ml of thiosulphate used for Blank &

S = ml of thiosulphate used for sample.

Buffer Solution of pH 4.0

Buffer Solution of pH 7.0

4) Make up the volume to 100 mL using distilled water.

Buffer Solution of pH 9.2

CALIBRATING THE INSTRUMENT:

Using the buffer solutions calibrate the instrument.

 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Total dissolved solids comprise:sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate,