Gibbs Phase Rule

Degree of freedom

Extensive variable depends on the size or mass of the system. Example: Volume,
total mass, entropy, internal energy, heat capacity, etc. Intensive variables do not
depend on the size or mass of the system. Example: Temperature, pressure, specific
heat capacity, density, etc.
 What is a phase ?

 If for a region of space physical properties such as

density, hardness, chemical composition) of a material
are essentially uniform, the region is called as a phase.
Example
Chemical Constituent

The rule is

No. of degree of freedom = (no. of chemical

constituents) – (no. of phases) + 2

F = C – P +2
One phase System

Two phase System

Three phase System

Pressure vs. Temperature Phase
Diagrams
Pressure vs. Temperature Phase
Diagrams
Temperature Vs. Composition Phase Diagrams
Phase diagram for typical isomorphous binary system
• at% signifies atomic percentage, so Cu-27at%Al would have
27% of the atoms in the alloy as Aluminium and 73% of the
atoms in the alloy as Copper.

• wt% signifies weight percentage, so Cu-27wt%Al would have

27% of the weight of the alloy as Aluminium and 73% of the
weight of the alloy as Copper
at% signifies atomic percentage, so Cu-27at%Al would have 27% of the atoms
in the alloy as Aluminium and 73% of the atoms in the alloy as Copper.

wt% signifies weight percentage, so Cu-27wt%Al would have 27% of the

weight of the alloy as Aluminium and 73% of the weight of the alloy as Copper
 Introduction
to Material Sciences
Course Code: PHYS4126
Instructor: Dr. Masood Yousaf

Division of Science & Technology, University of Education, Lahore

The Tie Line
Lever Rule
Cooling Curves
Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Phase Diagram
Figure 1: Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Phase Diagram
Important Phases
 Ferrite and Austenite Phase

Cementite and Delta-Ferrite Phase

Steel Portion of Phase Diagram
Pearlite
Comparing Different Phases
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
• Here we will learn about the mechanical
behavior of structures and materials
 Important Terms Related To
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
 1. Stress

• Stresses occur in any material that is subject to a

load or any applied force.

• It can be applied by external forces to the bulk

material (such as gravity) or to its surface (such as
contact forces, external pressure, or friction).
 Types of Stress

Stress

Normal Stress Shear Stress

Tensile Stress

Compressive Stress
 1.1 Normal Stress
Normal stress or direct stress is a stress that acts
perpendicular to the area.
The formula for the normal stress is given by
 1.1.1 Tensile Stress
It is induced in a body when it is subjected to
two equal and opposite pulls and is called
tensile stress.
 Effect of Tensile Stress

• Due to the tensile stress there is an increase in the

length of the body and decrease in the cross section
area of the body.

• Tensile stress is a type of normal stress, so it acts at

90 degree to the area.
 1.1.2 Compressive Stress
• The stress which induced in a body when
it is subjected to two equal and opposite
pushes.
 Effect of Compressive Stress

•Due to the compressive stress, there is a decrease in

the length and increase in the cross section area of the
body.

•Compressive stress is also a type of normal stress and

so it also acts at 90 degree to the area
 1.2 Shear stress
• It is induced in a body when it is
subjected to two equal and opposite forces
that acts tangential to the area.

• It acts in plane to the stressed area at right-

angles to compressive or tensile stress.
• Stress parallel to a plane is shear stress and
can be expressed as
 Effect of Shear Stress

•Shear stress is responsible for the

change in the shape of the body. It does on affect the
volume of the body.

•It is developed when external loads tend to cause the

two segments of a body to slide over one another.
 2. Strain (ε)
Strain is the amount of deformation experienced
by the material. Strain is related to change in
dimensions and shape of a material.
 Types of Stain

Strain

On the basis of On the basis of

direction of loading type of loading

Lateral Strain Normal Strain

Longitudinal Strain Shear Strain

Volumetric Strain
2.1 On the basis of direction of
loading

An elastic wire
 2.2 On the basis of Type of
loading
2.2.1 Normal Strain
Normal Strain

Compressive strain Tensile Strain

• Compressive Strain
It is strain measure under compressive loading.
It tends to increase the cross section area and
decrease the length of the material

An elastic wire
• Tensile Strain
It is strain measure under tensile loading.
It tends to decrease the cross section area and
increase the length of the material

An elastic wire
2.2.2 Shear Strain
When the shear stress is applied on a material, it
tends to deform the shape of the material. The
change in tangential angle in the direction of the
loading is called shear strain.
2.2.3 Volumetric strain
The ratio of change in volume to original volume under
normal loading condition is known as volumetric strain.

Volumetric 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

=
strain 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
 1. Stress-Strain Relations
Materials undergo strain when they are subject to
stress. The relationship between stress and strain is
different for different materials.

1.1 How to Obtain Stress-Strain Relations

• Load or stress is applied to the material under

study with increasing interval and related values
of stress are collected.
 1.3 Linear Elastic

Load / Stress

Deformation / Strain
1.4 Non-Linear Elastic

Load / Stress

Deformation / Strain
1.5 Non-Linear Elastic

Load / Stress

Deformation / Strain
 1.6 Elastic Plastic

Load / Stress

Deformation / Strain
2. Elastic Modulus
Stresses and strains are assumed to be related
by Hooke’s Law. In its simplest form, Hooke’s
Law can be stated as:

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Constant =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

where the constant is known as an elastic modulus

or simply a modulus.
 2.1 Types of
Modulus

Young’s Modulus or Rigidity Modulus

Bulk Modulus
Modulus of Elasticity or Shear Modulus
2.1.1 Young’s Modulus or Modulus of
Elasticity
• It is defined as ratio of Normal Stress to
Longitudinal Strain. Young’s Modulus is also
called as Modulus of Elasticity.

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s Modulus =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
 2.1.2 Bulk Modulus
• Bulk Modulus is defined as, when a body is subject to three
mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, the ratio
of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is
known as Bulk Modulus. Stress which are Normal to the plane
on which they act are called Direct Stresses and they are
either tensile or compressive.

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Bulk Modulus =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
 2.1.3 Rigidity Modulus or Shear
Modulus
• It is defined as ratio of Shear stress to Shear
Strain. Rigidity Modulus is also called as Shear
Modulus.

Shear 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Rigidity Modulus =
Shear 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
 3. Elastic Strain Energy
Stressing an object stored energy in it.

L 𝛁
L1
L1
A bar of elastic material
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 F/A
Young’s Modulus = E=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿/𝐿1
 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s Modulus =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
F/A
E=
𝐿1/𝐿
F𝐿
L1 =
𝐸𝐴
The total work done during the complete extension up to
a final force F and final extension L1 is stored as elastic
strain energy U
1
U= 𝐹𝐿1
2

F2𝐿
U=
2𝐸𝐴
 𝛁
L1 x
L1
Force Extension Curve for Uniaxial Load for a Bar of Elastic Material

𝐿 F2
U= ‫׬‬0 2𝐸𝐴 𝑑𝑥
 Numerical

3kN

A bar of elastic material having E= 300GPa

𝐿 F2
U= ‫׬‬0 2𝐸𝐴 𝑑𝑥
 Stress Strain Curve – Relationship
• Stress strain curve is the plot of stress and strain of a material or metal on the
graph. In this the stress is plotted on y- axis and its corresponding strain on the x-
axis. After plotting the stress and its corresponding strain on the graph, we get a
curve, and this curve is called stress strain curve or stress strain diagram. The stress
strain curve for different material is different. It may vary due to the temperature
and loading condition of the material.
• How to Draw Stress Strain Curve or Diagram
How to Draw Stress Strain Curve
Explanation of Stress Strain Curve
 Poisson's ratio
• Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension
strain in the direction of stretching force. Tensile deformation is considered
positive and compressive deformation is considered negative. The definition of
Poisson's ratio contains a minus sign so that normal materials have a positive ratio.
 Biomaterials
• A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact with
biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic (treat,
augment, repair or replace a tissue function of the body) or a diagnostic
one.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomaterial
existing at birth

relating to appearance

bone disease
Ultra-high-
molecular-weight
polyethylene
The Biological Enviornment
 Example – Hip Implant
• With age or certain illnesses joints deteriorate.
Particularly those with large loads (such as hip).

Adapted from Fig. 22.25, Callister 7e.

94
 Example – Hip Implant

• Requirements
– mechanical
strength (many
cycles)
– good lubricity
– biocompatibility

Adapted from Fig. 22.24, Callister 7e.

95
Example – Hip Implant

Adapted from Fig. 22.26, Callister 7e. 96