Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 1 STS
Chapter 1 STS
MODULE IN GEd 109
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Abegail L. Gonzales
Erma D. Maalihan
Sherryl M. Montalbo
Table of Contents
TOPIC
PAGE No.
PART I
General Concepts and STS Historical Developments
Chapter 1 – Historical Antecedents
A. Historical Antecedents in Which Social
Considerations Changed the Course of Science and Technology
What is Science, Technology and Society 1
Historical Antecedents in the World 5
From Ancient Times to 600 BC 5
The Advent of Science 6
Islamic Golden Age 6
Ancient China 7
The Renaissance 8
The Enlightenment Period 9
Industrial Revolution 10
20th Century Science 11
Fourth Industrial Revolution 12
Activities 14
B. Historical Development of Science and Technology
in the Philippines
Pre-Spanish Era 18
Spanish Colonial Era 19
American Period 20
Commonwealth Period 21
S&T Since Independence 21
S&T in the 60s to 90s 22
Hopes in Philippines S&T 25
Current Initiatives in Philippine S&T 26
C. Paradigm Shifts
What is a paradigm? 28
What is a paradigm shift? 29
Chapter 2 – Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society
A. What is an Intellectual Revolution? 31
B. The Birth of Modern Science 31
C. Copernican Revolution 32
D. Darwinian Revolution 35
E. Freudian Revolution 36
F. Scientific Revolution in MesoAmerica 38
G. Asian Scientific Revolution 39
H. Scientific Revolution in Middle East 39
I. Scientific Revolution in Africa 41
J. Information Revolution 43
K. Activity: Standing on the Shoulders of Giants 45
Chapter 3 - Science and Technology, and Nation Building
A. The Philippine Government S&T Agenda 48
B. In Focus: Batangas State University KIST Park 51
C. Major Development Programs in Science and Technology 52
D. Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines 54
E. Science Education in the Philippines 58
Part II
Science and Technology and the Human Condition
Chapter 4 - The Human Person Flourishing in terms of Science and Technology
A. Technology as a Way of Revealing 62
B. Human Flourishing 64
Chapter 5 – The Good Life
A. What is a Good Life? 69
B. What is Human Existence? 72
C. What is a Public Good? 73
Chapter 6 - When Technology and Humanity Cross
A. The Ethical Dilemmas of Robotics 76
B. Human, Morals and Machines 79
C. Why the Future Does Not Need Us? 81
D. Activity 86
Part III
Specific Issues in Science, Technology and Society
Chapter 7 - The Information Age
A. Pre-Gutenberg Period 89
B. Gutenberg Revolution 90
C. Printed Materials as Agents of Change 91
D. Post-Gutenberg Period
E. Activity 94
Chapter 8 – Biodiversity and Healthy Society
A. Biodiversity and Healthy Society 96
B. Threats to Biodiversity 97
C. GMOs 99
D. Risk Related to the Use of GMOs 104
E. Activity 106
Chapter 9 – The Nano World
A. What is Nanotechnology 108
B. Environmental Aspects of Nanotechnology 111
C. Nanotechnology in the Philippines 112
D. Nanotechnology and Education 113
E. Activity 115
Chapter 10 – Gene Therapy
A. Approaches to Gene Therapy 117
B. Stem Cell Therapy 118
C. Activity 119
Chapter 11 - Climate Change, Energy Crisis and Environmental Awareness
A. What is Climate Change 121
B. Causes of Climate Change 121
C. Impacts of Climate Change 122
D. Activity 125
Chapter 1
Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed
the Course of Science and Technology
Introduction
This section presents an overview of how science and technology evolved from
ancient times to the present. It shows how man was able to develop crude technological
tools and eventually improve them through time to make his way of living more convenient
and the society more progressive.
Intended Learning Outcomes:
1. Discuss the interactions between science and technology and society throughout
history
2. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the
environment
3. Identify the paradigm shifts in history
A. General Concepts
What is Science, Technology and Society?
Science and Technology and Society is an interdisciplinary course designed to
examine the ways that science and technology shape, and are shaped by, our society,
politics, and culture. It explores the conditions under which production, distribution and
utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems occur;; and the effects of
these processes upon the entire society. History and philosophy of science and
technology, sociology and anthropology are greatly interconnected to the discussion of
STS because these are the very factors that molded the development of science and
technology as we know it today.
Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is based on theoretical expositions
and experimental and empirical activities that generates universal truths. Technology, on
the other hand is the application of science and creation of systems, processes and
objects designed to help humans in their daily activities. The development of science and
technology has brought immense progress in society and men. Scientific knowledge and
technology influences individuals and society. Better understanding of science and
technology is essential to know the unique attributes of each enterprise, then addressing
their implications for society.
Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the interactions
that we engage in to understand the nature of things and to create things. It is also defined
as a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group
sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political
authority and dominant cultural expectations (Science Daily).
Science, technology and society is important to the public because it helps address
issues and problems that are of concern to the general population. Scientific and
technological principles have been and continue to be applied to solve problems that
people experience in their day-to-day aspects of living. But scientific findings must be
applied at the right scales. The impact of technological breakthroughs on people, society
and the environment must be critically assessed to preserve its value.
A lot of our problems in modern society involve not only technology but also human
values, social organization, environmental concerns, economic resources, political
decisions, and a myriad of other factors. These things sits at the interface between the
three fields and can also be solved (if they can be solved at all) by the application of
scientific knowledge, technical expertise, social understanding, and humane compassion.
In the past, science is learned as an independent study from other fields. It focuses
on the scientific methods, natural processes and understanding nature. But in the current
global scenario, science is studied holistically, often in an interdisciplinary method,
emphasizing systems rather than processes, synthesis more than analysis and predicting
nature’s behavior in order to have useful application in solving contemporary problems.
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The scientific data that have built up a considerable base of knowledge led to a vast
portfolio of useful technologies, especially in the 21st century, to solve many of the
problems now facing humankind (UNESCO, 1999).
To solve our contemporary problems, science needs to become more
multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote cooperation and
integration between the social and natural sciences. A holistic approach also demands
that science draw on the contributions of the humanities (such as history and philosophy),
local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the wide variety of cultural values.
The influence of science and technology on people’s lives is expanding. While
recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled in the history of the human species, in some
instances the impact has been harmful or the long-term effects give causes for serious
concerns. A considerable measure of public mistrust of science and fear of technology
exists today. In part, this stems from the belief by some individuals and communities that
they will be the ones to suffer the indirect negative consequences of technical innovations
introduced to benefit only a privileged minority. The power of science to bring about
change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great caution both in what they do and
what they say. Scientists should reflect on the social consequences of the technological
applications or dissemination of partial information of their work and explain to the public
and policy makers alike the degree of scientific uncertainty or incompleteness in their
findings. At the same time, though, they should not hesitate to fully exploit the predictive
power of science, duly qualified, to help people cope with environmental change,
especially in cases of direct threats like natural disasters or water shortages.
The Role of Science and Technology
1. alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound
effects on economic development;;
2. key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions
underpin economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and
infrastructure;;
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new
sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-communications, bio-technology and
nano-technology. Products are transforming business practices across the
economy, as well as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most
remarkable breakthroughs will come from the interaction of insights and
applications arising when these technologies converge.
4. have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries
5. differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by
growing and developing their economies, and those that are not.
6. engine of growth
7. interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and genetic
engineering
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Reflective Question:
With the whole world suffering from CoViD-19 pandemic, discuss the interplay
between science, technology and society in mitigating this problem.
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B. Historical Antecedents in the World
Just like with any other discipline, the best way to truly understand where
we are in science today is to look back at what happened in the past. The history
of science can teach us many lessons about the way scientists think and
understand the world around us. A historical perspective will make us appreciate
more what science really is.
From Ancient Times to 600 BC
Science during ancient times involved practical arts like healing practices
and metal tradition. Some of the earliest records from history indicate that 3,000
years before Christ, the ancient Egyptians already had reasonably sophisticated
medical practices. Sometime around 2650 B.C., for example, a man named
Imhotep was renowned for his knowledge of medicine. Most historians agree that
the heart of Egyptian medicine was trial and error. Egyptian doctors would try one
remedy, and if it worked, they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried didn’t
work, the patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that next time they
should try a different remedy. Despite the fact that such practices sound primitive,
the results were, sometimes, surprisingly effective.
The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with other
ancient nations because of one of the early inventions of Egyptian civilization – the
papyrus. The papyrus is an ancient form of paper, made from the papyrus plant,
a reed which grows in the marshy areas around the Nile river. As early as 3,000
years before Christ, Egyptians took thin slices of the stem of the papyrus plant, laid
them crosswise on top of each other, moistened them, and then pressed and dried
them. The result was a form of paper that was reasonably easy to write on and
store. The invention of this ancient form of paper revolutionized the way
information was transmitted from person to person and generation to generation.
Before papyrus, Egyptians, Sumerians, and other races wrote on clay tablets or
smooth rocks. This was a time-consuming process, and the products were not
easy to store or transport. When Egyptians began writing on papyrus, all of that
changed. Papyrus was easy to roll into scrolls. Thus, Egyptian writings became
easy to store and transport. As a result, the knowledge of one scholar could be
easily transferred to other scholars. As this accumulated knowledge was passed
down from generation to generation, Egyptian medicine became the most
respected form of medicine in the known world. Papyrus was used as a writing
material as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt, and continued to be used to some
extent until around 1100 AD.
Although the Egyptians were renowned for their medicine and for papyrus,
other cultures had impressive inventions of their own. Around the time that papyrus
was first being used in Egypt, the Mesopotamians were making pottery using the
first known potter’s wheel. Not long after, horse-drawn chariots were being used.
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As early as 1,000 years before Christ, the Chinese were using compasses to aid
themselves in their travels. The ancient world, then, was filled with inventions that,
although they sound commonplace today, revolutionized life during those times.
These inventions are history’s first inklings of science.
The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)
The ancient Greeks were the early thinkers and as far as historians can tell,
they were the first true scientists. They collected facts and observations and then
used those observations to explain the natural world. Although many cultures like
the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Chinese had collected observations
and facts, they had not tried to use those facts to develop explanations of the world
around them.
Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from the 6th
century BC in pre-Socratic philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In circa 385
BC, Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's student Aristotle begins the
"scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period culminating in the 3rd to 2nd
centuries with scholars such as Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of
Samos, Hipparchus and Archimedes.
This period produced substantial advances in scientific knowledge,
especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and
astronomy;; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems,
especially those related to the problem of change and its cause;; and a recognition
of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena
and of undertaking empirical research.
The scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek
thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their
scientific investigations. This was passed on from ancient Greek philosophers to
medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and
Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.
Islamic Golden Age
The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific
flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the
fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era
to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to have
begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the
inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various
parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and
translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and
subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and
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technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and
technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt,
India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements,
innovations and inventions.
Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject
areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Scientific inquiry was
practiced in other subjects like alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy,
geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics and zoology.
Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes as well as
the goal of understanding. Astronomy was useful in determining the Qibla, which
is the direction in which to pray, botany is applied in agriculture and geography
enabled scientists to make accurate maps. Mathematics also flourished during the
Islamic Golden Age with the works of Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al
Kashi that led to advanced in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic
numerals.
There was also great progress in medicine during this period. Al-Biruni, and
Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of the preparation of hundred
of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Islamic doctors
describe diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical Greek
medical knowledge.
Likewise, Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Biruni and others
studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticized Aristotle’s view
of motion.
The significance of medieval Islamic science has been debated by
historians. The traditionalist view holds that it lacked innovation, and was mainly
important for handing on ancient knowledge to medieval Europe. The revisionist
view holds that it constituted a scientific revolution. Whatever the case, science
flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean and further afield, for
several centuries, in a wide range of institutions.
Science and Technology in Ancient China
Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific
innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific
disciplines including the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, military
technology, mathematics, geology and astronomy.
Ancient China gave the world the Four Great Inventions that include the
compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing. These were considered as
among the most important technological advances and were only known to Europe
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1000 years later or during the end of the Middle ages. These four inventions had
a profound impact on the development of civilization throughout the world.
However, some modern Chinese scholars have opined that other Chinese
inventions were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese
civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological
interaction between East and West.
As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press
were the three great inventions which ushered in bourgeois society. Gunpowder
blew up the knightly class, the compass discovered the world market and found
the colonies, and the printing press was the instrument of Protestantism and the
regeneration of science in general;; the most powerful lever for creating the
intellectual prerequisites.”
The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD)
The 14th century was the beginning of the cultural movement of the
Renaissance, which was considered by many as the Golden Age of Science.
During the Renaissance period, great advances occurred
in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, anatomy,
manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was
accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention
of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas.
Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the
early phase of the Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. More recently, Peter Dear
has argued for a two-phase model of early modern science: a Scientific
Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the
natural knowledge of the ancients;; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century,
when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.
But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness.
There were no new developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for
classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the
universe. Renaissance philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and
deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At the same
time, Renaissance humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an
animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Science
would only be revived later, with such figures as Copernicus, Gerolamo
Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.
The most important technological advance of all in this period was the
development of printing, with movable metal type, about the mid-15th century in
Germany. Johannes Gutenberg is usually called its inventor, but in fact many
people and many steps were involved. Block printing on wood came to the West
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from China between 1250 and 1350, papermaking came from China by way of the
Arabs to 12th-century Spain, whereas the Flemish technique of oil painting was
the origin of the new printers’ ink. Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his
contemporaries Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer—seem to have taken the final
steps, casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press. The invention spread
like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and Poland in the 1470s, and
Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of Europe had produced some six
million books. Without the printing press it is impossible to conceive that the
Reformation would have ever been more than a monkish quarrel or that the rise of
a new science, which was a cooperative effort of an international community,
would have occurred at all. In short, the development of printing amounted to a
communications revolution of the order of the invention of writing;; and, like that
prehistoric discovery, it transformed the conditions of life. The communications
revolution immeasurably enhanced human opportunities for enlightenment and
pleasure on one hand and created previously undreamed-of possibilities for
manipulation and control on the other. The consideration of such contradictory
effects may guard us against a ready acceptance of triumphalist conceptions of
the Renaissance or of historical change in general.
The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)
The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was characterized by
radical reorientation in science, which emphasized reason over superstition and
science over blind faith. This period produced numerous books, essays,
inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and
French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and
respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The
Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism.
The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included the key
natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to
1680s England, where in the span of three years Isaac Newton published his
“Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human
Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and
philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances.
In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the natural
sciences is regarded as the main exemplification of, and fuel for, such progress.
Isaac Newton’s epochal accomplishment in his Principia Mathematica consists in
the comprehension of a diversity of physical phenomena – in particular the motions
of heavenly bodies, together with the motions of sublunary bodies – in few
relatively simple, universally applicable, mathematical laws, was a great stimulus
to the intellectual activity of the eighteenth century and served as a model and
inspiration for the researches of a number of Enlightenment thinkers. Newton’s
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system strongly encourages the Enlightenment conception of nature as an orderly
domain governed by strict mathematical-dynamical laws and the conception of
ourselves as capable of knowing those laws and of plumbing the secrets of nature
through the exercise of our unaided faculties. – The conception of nature, and of
how we know it, changes significantly with the rise of modern science. It belongs
centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute to the new
knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical framework within which to
place and interpret this new knowledge.
Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1840)
The rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were closely
connected. It is difficult to show any direct effect of scientific discoveries upon the
rise of the textile or even the metallurgical industry in Great Britain, the home of
the Industrial Revolution, but there certainly was a similarity in attitude to be found
in science and nascent industry. Close observation and careful generalization
leading to practical utilization were characteristic of both industrialists and
experimentalists alike in the 18th century.
What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that careful
observation and experimentation might improve industrial production
significantly. The science of metallurgy permitted the tailoring of alloy steels to
industrial specifications, the science of chemistry permitted the creation of new
substances, like the aniline dyes, of fundamental industrial importance, and that
electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor. Until
that period science probably profited more from industry than the other way
around. It was the steam engine that posed the problems that led, by way of a
search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of thermodynamics. Most
importantly, as industry required ever more complicated and intricate machinery,
the machine tool industry developed to provide it and, in the process, made
possible the construction of ever more delicate and refined instruments for science.
As science turned from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and molecules,
electric currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses, and nebulae and
galaxies, instruments increasingly provided the sole contact with phenomena. A
large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to observe nebulae was as
much a product of 19th-century heavy industry as were the steam locomotive and
the steamship.
The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the
development of modern science. The prospect of applying science to the problems
of industry served to stimulate public support for science. Governments, in varying
degrees and at different rates, began supporting science even more directly, by
making financial grants to scientists, by founding research institutes, and by
bestowing honors and official posts on great scientists. By the end of the 19th
century the natural philosopher following his private interests had given way to the
professional scientist with a public role.
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The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological,
socioeconomic, and cultural. The technological changes included the following: (1)
the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of
new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal,
the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine, (3)
the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that
permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy, (4) a
new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed
increased division of labor and specialization of function, (5) important
developments in transportation and communication, including the
steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and (6)
the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes
made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass
production of manufactured goods.
20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age
The 20th century was an important century in the history of the sciences. It
generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research – often thanks to the
introduction of novel research methods – and it established an intimate connection
between science and technology. With this connection, science is dealing now with
the complexity of the real world. The scientific legacy of the 20th Century gave
proof of the revolutionary changes in many areas of the sciences – in
particular, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and
environmental sciences – and how they contributed to these changes.
The epistemological and methodological questions as well as the
interdisciplinary aspects become ever more important in scientific research. The
common denominator of the sciences is the notion of discovery, and discovery is
an organised mode of observing nature. Twentieth century cosmology greatly
improved our knowledge of the place that man and his planet occupy in the
universe. The “wonder” that Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought,
today extends to science itself. Questions now arise on the origin and on the whole,
its history and its laws.
The start of the 20th century was strongly marked by Einstein’s formulation
of the theory of relativity (1905) including the unifying concept of energy related to
mass and the speed of light: E = mc2 . He made many more contributions, notably
to statistical mechanics, and he provided a great inspiring influence for many other
physicists.
In the second half of the 20th century several branches of science continued
to make great progress and we here list physics, chemistry, biology, geology and
astronomy. For example, there was the development of the semi-conductor
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(transistor), followed by developments in nanotechnology that led to great
advances in information technology. In nuclear physics the discovery of sub-atomic
particles provided a great leap forward.
Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline contributing to all
today’s basic natural sciences, astronomy, chemistry and biology. Although it took
a hundred years since Clausius’s time for it to be fully recognized that all biological
processes have also to obey the laws of thermodynamics, the border between the
origin of the living and the non-living worlds has now at last been blurred. The year
1953 was an important landmark for biology with the description by Crick and
Watson of the structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic information (Rosch, 2014).
Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of matter and
we are well on the way to an ever more consistent and unitary understanding of
the entire structure of natural reality, which we discover as being made up not only
of matter and energy but also of information and forms. The latest developments
in astrophysics are also particularly surprising: they further confirm the great unity
of physics that manifests itself clearly at each new stage of the understanding of
reality.
Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of genetics,
allows us to penetrate the fundamental processes of life and to intervene in the
gene pool of certain organisms by imitating some of these natural mechanisms.
Information technology and the digital processing of information have transformed
our lifestyle and our way of communicating in the space of very few decades. The
20th century has seen medicine find a cure for many life-threatening diseases and
the beginning of organ transplants.
It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results that
have broadened our knowledge and influenced our world outlook: from progress
in computational logic to the chemistry of materials, from the neurosciences to
robotics. Scientific research not only gives expression to the strength of rationality
in explaining the world and the way in which this is done. The application of
scientific knowledge can induce changes of environmental and thus living
conditions. It is these aspects, the interrelations between scientific progress and
social development, which together with insights into the epistemological structure
and the ethical implications of science play an important role in the life and the
work of scientists.
Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the blurring of
boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. It’s a fusion of
advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D
printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and other technologies. It’s the
collective force behind many products and services that are fast becoming
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indispensable to modern life. Think GPS systems that suggest the fastest route to
a destination, voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized
Netflix recommendations, and Facebook’s ability to recognize your face and tag
you in a friend’s photo (https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what-is-the-
fourth-industrial-revolution-4IR.html).
As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth Industrial
Revolution is paving the way for transformative changes in the way we live and
radically disrupting almost every business sector. It’s all happening at an
unprecedented, whirlwind pace.
The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on
the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can
“think” like humans — recognizing complex patterns, processing information, drawing
conclusions, and making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting
patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect on your phone.
New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They enable
computers to process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the advent
of the “cloud” has allowed businesses to safely store and access their information from
anywhere with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing technologies now in
development will eventually make computers millions of times more powerful. These
computers will have the potential to supercharge AI, create highly complex data
models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of new materials.
Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset)
that simulate the real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical
worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally
experiment with makeup products before buying them, and the Google Translate
phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus,
and other text.
Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new
technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new
pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing processes, and
cleaner, more efficient energy sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are
working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced.
Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and
commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home, technological
advances have made robots increasingly complex and sophisticated. They are used
in fields as wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and human assistance.
3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less
tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can be
customized to ensure a perfect fit.
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Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials, promise
to shake up sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy, construction, and
healthcare.
The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that
monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels —
being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for
businesses is that they can collect customer data from constantly connected products,
allowing them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor marketing
campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, such as farmers
putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes and inform decisions such as
when to fertilize.
Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector,
spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy technologies and improvements in
battery storage capacity.
Activity:
1. List down the scientific discoveries and technological breakthroughs in each
period. You may conduct additional researches and share what you have found in
the class.
a. Ancient Times to 600 BC
__________________________ __________________________
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b. Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)
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c. Islamic Golden Age
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d. Ancient China and the Far East
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e. Renaissance
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f. Enlightenment Period
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g. Industrial Revolution
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h. 20th century
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i. Fourth Industrial Revolution
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2. If given a chance to live back in time and considering the influence of science and
technology in the society and the environment, which period would you choose
and why? Would you prefer a less technologically driven society or you wouldn’t
trade the comforts of modern life?
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Assignment:
Film Viewing.
1. Watch the World’s Greatest Invention
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYYyfAl9Usc) and then answer the following
guide questions.
a. Among the mentioned greatest invention in the video, which do you think created
the most impact in your life now? Why?
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b. Name one invention and discuss how it transformed the society.
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2. Watch Stephen Colbert’s interview with Neil Tyson on YouTube
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXh9RQCvxmg&noredirect=1) and then
answer the following guide questions.
Guide Questions:
1. Stephen Colbert starts the interview by asking Dr. Neil de Grasse Tyson, “Is it
better to know or not to know?” Ponder on this question and decide which one
is better. Give as many reasons as to why.
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2. Enumerate the various statements that Dr. Neil de Grasse Tyson said about
the importance of science literacy and its relationship to society.
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C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines
The current state of science and technology in the country can be traced back to its
historical development and the latent events that helped shape it since the pre-colonial
period to contemporary time. What we have or lack today in terms of science and
technology is very much an effect of the government policies that had been enacted by
past public officials in trying to develop a technological society that is responsive to the
needs of time.
Pre-Spanish Era.
There is not much written about the Philippines during pre-colonial time but analysis
from archeological artifacts revealed that the first inhabitants in the archipelago who
settled in Palawan and Batangas around 40 000 years ago have made simple tools or
weapons of stone which eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and
polishing hard stones. This very primitive technology was brought by primal needs of
survival by hunting wild animals and gathering fruits and vegetables in the forest. They
learned that by polishing hard stones, they can develop sharp objects that are useful in
their day to day activities. From this early, we can see that technology was developed
because of a great necessity.
Still on its primitive state, the first inhabitants in the country are learning what can
be harnessed from the environment. They have come to understand that when clay is
mixed with 2 water and then shaped into something before sun drying, it hardens to an
object that can also be useful to them. And because clay is moldable, it can be shaped
into various objects.
As the early Filipinos flourished, they have learned how to extract, smelt and refine
metals like copper, gold, bronze and iron from nature and consequently fashion them into
tools and implements. At this point, the inhabitants of the country are showing a deeper
understanding of their nature because they were able to obtain valuable resources from
nature.
As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to another and learned to
settle in areas near the water source, they also learned how to weave cotton, engaged
themselves in agriculture and are knowledgeable on building boats for coastal trade.
From the above mentioned facts, it can be concluded that primitive Filipinos are
practicing science and technology in their everyday lives. The ancient crafts of stone
carving, pottery and smelting of metals involves a lot of science, which is understanding
the nature of matter involved. The ingenuity of the Ifugaos in building the Banaue Rice
Terraces The smelting of metals exhibited the primitive Filipino’s knowledge on the
composition of alloy and the optimum temperature that will produce the metal with
acceptable tensile strength. All in all, the primitive Filipinos were living in perfect harmony
with nature and they obtain from it what is just needed in their everyday life through a very
simple science of understanding how mother nature operates
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Spanish Colonial Era.
As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and technology in
the country can be traced back to the Spanish regime because they established schools,
hospitals and started scientific research that had important consequences in the
development of the country. These schools, which are mostly run by Spanish friars,
formed the first Filipino professionals. The The 3 highest institution of learning during this
time was the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas.
But the very strict hold of the church among citizens and its intervention and
meddling to the government propelled by fear of intellectual awakening among Filipinos
have greatly hindered the progress of these professionals to further enhance their
knowledge, conduct scientific investigations and contribute to the advancement of
society. But a few of persistent Filipino scientists succeeded by educating themselves
abroad. One notable example of course is our national hero, the great Dr. Jose P. Rizal.
Dr. Jose Rizal is the epitome of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He is a
scientist, a doctor, an engineer (he designed and built a water system in Dapitan), a
journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero. Being a doctor and scientist, he had
extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to operate his mother’s blinding eye.
When he was deported in Dapitan, his knowledge on science and engineering was
translated into technology by creating a water system that improved the sanitation of
households in the area. Dr. Jose
Dr. Jose Rizal was a brilliant man and his life stood out among his contemporaries.
But it cannot be said that there is no contribution to science and technology among the
Filipino men and women during the Spanish era. The charity hospitals became the
breeding ground for scientific researches on pharmacy and medicine, with great focus on
problems of infectious diseases, their causes and possible remedies. And in 1887, the
Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was created and whose functions were to
conduct biochemical analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations
for clinical and medico-legal cases. Its publication, probably the first scientific journal in
the country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showed the studies
undertaken during that time.
As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to exploit the natural
resources of the country through agriculture, mining of metals and minerals and
establishing various kinds of industries to further promote economic growth. As such,
scientific research on these fields were encouraged by the government. By the nineteenth
century, Manila has become a cosmopolitan center and modern amenities were
introduced to the city. However, little is known about the accomplishments of scientific
bodies commissioned by the Spanish government during this time. Because of limited
scientific research and its consequent translation to technology during the Spanish
regime, none of the industries prosper. The Philippines had evolved into a primary
agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the researches undertaken on
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this field, but was largely because of the influx of foreign capital and technology which
brought modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production.
American Period
If the development in science and technology was very slow during the Spanish
regime, the Philippines saw a rapid growth during the American occupation and was
made possible by the government’s extensive public education system from elementary
to tertiary schools. The establishment of various public tertiary schools like the Philippine
Normal School and University of the Philippines provided the needs for professionally
trained Filipinos in building the government’s organization and programs. The growth and
application of science were still concentrated on the health sector in the form of
biochemical analyses in hospitals. The government supported basic and applied research
in the medical, agricultural and related sciences. The University of the Philippines Los
Baños opened the College of Agriculture in 1909 while the University of the Philippines –
Diliman opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering and Veterinary Medicine in 1910. The
College of Medicine was opened four years later.
During this time, there were already quite a number of qualified Filipino physicians
who held teaching positions in the College of Medicine, whereas most of the early
instructors and professors in other colleges such as in the sciences and engineering were
Americans and foreigners. Capacity building programs that include sending qualified
Filipinos abroad for advanced training were conducted to eventually fill up the teaching
positions in Philippine universities. Moreover, the American colonial government sent
Filipino youths to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers in
American colleges to further capacitate the Filipinos in various fields.
However, there was difficulty in recruiting students for science and technology
courses like veterinary medicine, engineering, agriculture, applied sciences and
industrial-vocational courses. The enrollment in these courses were dismal that the
government had to offer scholarships to attract students. The unpopularity of these
courses stemmed from the Filipinos’ disdain toward manual work that developed from the
400 years under Spanish colonization. The Filipinos then prefer prestigious professions
at that time like priesthood, law and medicine.
The government provided more support for the development of science and created
the Bureau of Government Laboratories in and was later changed to Bureau of Science.
It was composed of a biological laboratory, chemical laboratory, serum laboratory for the
production of virus vaccine, serums and prophylactics, and a library. The bureau was
initially managed by American senior scientists but as more Filipinos were trained and
acquire the necessary knowledge and skills, they eventually took over their positions. The
Bureau of Science served as the primary training ground for Filipino scientists and paved
the way for pioneering scientific research, most especially on the study of various tropical
diseases that were prevalent during those times like leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera,
dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Another great contribution of the Bureau of Science
to the development of science and technology in the country was the publication of the
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Philippine Journal of Science. This scientific journal published researches done in local
laboratories and reported global scientific developments that had relevance to the
Philippine society. The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of the
Philippines until World War II. Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the National Research
Council of the Philippines was established.
Commonwealth Period
When the Americans granted independence and the Commonwealth government
was established, the Filipinos were busy in working towards economic reliance but
acknowledge the importance and vital role of science and technology for the economic
development of the country by declaring that “The State shall promote scientific research
and invention…” The short-lived Commonwealth Government was succeeded by the
Japanese occupation when the Pacific war broke out in 1941. The prevailing situations
during the time of Commonwealth period to the Japanese regime had made
developments in science and technology practically impossible. This is also true when
World War II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital, in ruins. The government had
to rebuild again and normalize the operations in the whole country.
Science and Technology since Independence
In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science and was
placed under the Office of the President of the Philippines. However, the agency faced
lack of financial support from the government and experienced planning and coordination
problems. In a report by the US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a
lack of basic information which were necessities to the country's industries, lack of support
of experimental work and minimal budget for scientific research and low salaries of
scientists employed by the government. In 1958, during the regime of President Carlos
P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which established the
National Science Development Board (NSDB).
The Philippine government focused on science and technology institutional
capacity-building which were undertaken by establishing infrastructure-support facilities
such as new research agencies and development trainings. However good these projects
were, it produced insignificant effects because of lack of coordination and planning,
specifically technology planning, between concerned agencies which hindered them from
performing their assigned functions effectively. This was aptly illustrated in the unplanned
activities of the researchers within the agencies. Most areas of research were naively left
to the discretion of the researchers under the assumption that they were working for the
interests of the country. They were instructed to look for technologies and scientific
studies with good commercialization potential. Without clear research policy guidelines,
researches were done for their own sake, leaving to chance the commercialization of the
results.
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Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country involved establishing more state
funded manual and trading schools which would eventually become the current state
universities and colleges. The trade schools produced craftsmen, tradesmen and
technicians that helped in shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an
agricultural based nation. Eventually, when these trade schools were elevated to college
and university status, they produced much of the country’s professionals, although there
was a great disparity on the low proportion of those in agriculture, medical and natural
sciences with those from teacher training and commerce/business administration courses
which had higher number of graduates. The increase in the number of graduates led to
the rise of professional organizations of scientists and engineers. These organizations
were formed to promote professional interests and create and monitor the standards of
practice.
As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education and
training of scientists and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to the
conservative nature of self-regulation by the professional associations. Because of
specialized training, vertical organizations by disciplines and lack of liaison between
professions, professional associations have been unable to perceive the dynamic
relationship between science, technology and society and the relevance of their
training to Philippine conditions.
Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s
During these years, the government gave greater importance to science and
technology. The government declared in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine Constitution
that the “advancement of science and technology shall have priority in the national
development.”
On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in Bicutan,
Taguig as the site of the Philippine Science Community. Then in 1969, the government
provided funds to private universities to encourage them to conduct research and create
courses in science and technology. The government also conducted seminars for public
and private high school and college science teachers, training programs and scholarships
for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and workshops on fisheries and
oceanography.
In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to applied research and
the main objective was to generate products and processes that were supposed to have
a greater beneficial impact to the society. Relative to this, several research institutes were
established under the National Science Development Board (NSDB) which includes the
Philippine Coconut Research Institute and Philippine Textile Research Institute.
Moreover, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB,
explored the uses of atomic energy for economic development. To prepare the pool of
scientists who will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres. Marcos assisted 107
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institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad to study
nuclear science and technology, and providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors,
engineers and technicians. Then in 1972, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 4, the
National Grains Authority was created and it was tasked to improve the rice and corn
industry and thereby help in the economic development of the country. This was followed
by the creation of Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the progressive
development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country. The Marcos
administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and
Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of National
Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to ensure
the safety of the people through Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972. On the following
year, the Philippine National Oil Company was created by virtue of Presidential Decree
No. 334, s. 1973, to promote industrial and economic development through effective and
efficient use of energy sources. To strengthen the scientific culture in the country, the
National Academy of Science and Technology was established under Presidential Decree
No. 1003-A, s. 1976. The National Academy of Science and Technology was composed
of scientists with “innovative achievement in the basic and applied sciences” who will
serve as the reservoir of scientific and technological expertise for the country.
In the 1980s, science and technology was still focused on applied research. In 1982,
NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA)
composed of four research and development Councils;; Philippine Council for Agriculture
and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD);; Philippine Council for Industry
and Energy Research Development (PCIERD);; Philippine Council for Health Research
and Development (PCHRD) and the National Research Council of the Philippines
(NRCP). NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and support agencies
under it. These are actually the former organic and attached agencies of NSDB which
have themselves been reorganized.
The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for high
calibre scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff universities and colleges.
Hence, measures have also been taken towards the improvement of the country’s
science and manpower. In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the
President which provided for the establishment of a national network of centers of
excellence in basic sciences. As a consequence, six new institutes were created: The
National Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences Research,
Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was the
establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by Presidential Decree
No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in
government and encourage young people to pursue science degrees and careers.
In 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science and Technology
Authority was replaced by the Department of Science and Technology, giving science
and technology a representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine
Development Plan for the years 1987-1992, science and technology's role in economic
recovery and sustained economic growth was highlighted. In this period, science and
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technology was one of the top three priorities of the government towards economic
recovery.
With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of Executive Order 128
signed on 30 January 1987, the functions and responsibilities of DOST expanded
correspondingly to include the following: (1) Pursue the declared state policy of supporting
local scientific and technological effort;; (2) Develop local capability to achieve
technological self-reliance;; (3) Encourage greater private sector participation in research
and development. moreover, funding for the science and technology sector was tripled
from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992.
The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science and
technology body in the country charged with the twin mandate of providing central
direction, leadership and coordination of all scientific and technological activities, and of
formulating policies, programs and projects to support national development. The Science
and Technology Master Plan was formulated which aimed at the modernization of the
production sector, upgrading research activities, and development of infrastructure for
science and technological purposes. A Research and Development Plan was also
formulated to examine and determine which areas of research needed attention and must
be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be pursued were, development
of local materials, probability of success, potential of product in the export market, and
the its strategic nature. The grants for the research and development programs was
included in the Omnibus Investment Law.
During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant increase in personnel
specializing in the science and technology field. In 1998, there was an estimated 3,000
competent scientists and engineers in the Philippines. Adding to the increase of scientists
would be the result of the two newly built Philippine Science High Schools in Visayas and
Mindanao which promotes further development of young kids through advance S&T
curriculum. The government provided 3,500 scholarships for students who were taking
up professions related to S&T. Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta
for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was established. The
award was published in order to give incentives and rewards for people who have been
influential in the field of S&T.
Still under the Ramos administration, DOST established the “Science and
Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)”, a program that was significant
to the field of S&T. It identified seven export products, 11 domestic needs, three other
supporting industries, and the coconut industry as priority investment areas. The seven
identified export products were computer software;; fashion accessories;; gifts, toys, and
houseware;; marine products;; metal fabrications;; furniture;; and dried fruits. The domestic
needs identified were food, housing, health, clothing, transportation, communication,
disaster mitigation, defense, environment, manpower development, and energy. Three
additional support industries were included in the list of priority sectors, namely,
packaging, chemicals, and metals because of their linkages with the above sectors.
24
In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, numerous laws and projects were
implemented which concerns both the environment and science to push technology as a
tool to increase the country’s economic level. This is to help increase the productivity from
Science, Technology and Innovations (STI) and help benefit the poor people. Moreover,
the term “Filipinnovation” was the coined term used in helping the Philippines to be an
innovation hub in Asia.
The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education system
such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which focuses in science,
technology and mathematics in their curriculum. This helps schools produce get more
involve in this sector. Private sectors were also encouraged to participate in developing
the schools through organizing events and sponsorships. Future Filipino scientists and
innovators can be produced through this system.
Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in terms of Science and
Technology and Innovation (STI) index, citing the country’s strength in research and
commercialization of STI ideas (DOST, 2018). However, a study by the Philippine Institute
for Development Studies highlighted the weak ties between innovation-driven firms and
the government, and it also identified the country’s low expenditure in research and
development (R&D). This is the reason the government is now extending all its efforts to
reach out with the private sector, explaining that STI plays an important role in economic
and social progress and is a key driver for a long-term growth of an economy. Technology
adoption allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit from innovations created in other
countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap-frog obsolete technologies. Technology
adoption, the official said, allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit from innovations
created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap-frog obsolete
technologies.
One of these is the micro-satellite. In April 2016, the country launched into space
its first micro-satellite called Diwata-1. It was designed, developed and assembled by
Filipino researchers and engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts. The Diwata
(deity in English) satellite provides real-time, high-resolution and multi-color infrared
images for various applications, including meteorological imaging, crop and ocean
productivity measurement and high-resolution imaging of natural and man-made
features. It enables a more precise estimate of the country’s agricultural production,
provides images of watersheds and floodplains for a better understanding of water
available for irrigation, power and domestic consumption. The satellite also provides
accurate information on any disturbance and degradation of forest and upland areas.
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The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (NOAH),
which uses the Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology. Project NOAH was initiated
in June 2012 to help manage risks associated with natural hazards and disasters. The
project developed hydromet sensors and high-resolution geo-hazard maps, which were
generated by light detection and ranging technology for flood modeling. Noah helps the
government in providing timely warning with a lead time of at least six hours in the wake
of impending floods. The country is now training the Cambodians on this technology, as
part of the partnerships among ASEAN countries, just like in the case of Japan which
assisted the country’s scientists and engineers in building its first micro-satellite.
DOST, in cooperation with HEIs and research institutions, established advanced
facilities that seek to spur R&D activities and provide MSMEs access to testing services
needed to increase their productivity and competitive advantage.
One is the Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories. The center
houses advanced equipment for failure analysis and materials characterization to address
advanced analytical needs for quality control, materials identification and R&D. Closely
related to this facility is the Electronics Products Development Center, used to design,
develop and test hardware and software for electronic products.
There are also high-performance computing facilities that perform tests and run
computationally intensive applications for numerical weather prediction, climate
modeling, as well as analytics and data modeling and archiving.
The Philippines could also boast of its Genome Center, a core facility that
combines basic and applied research for the development of health diagnostics,
therapeutics, DNA forensics and preventive products, and improved crop varieties.
The country also has drug-discovery facilities, which address the requirements for
producing high-quality and globally acceptable drug candidates. She said the Philippines
also has nanotechnology centers, which provide technical services and enabling
environment for interdisciplinary and collaborative R&D in various nanotechnology
applications.
There are also radiation processing facilities that are used to degrade, graft, or
crosslink polymers, monomers, or chemical compounds for industrial, agricultural,
environmental and medical applications. The Philippines could also boast of its Die and
26
Mold Solutions Center, which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool and die
sector through the localization of currently imported dies and molds.
These are reflections that we are advancing, albeit slowly, to a culture that
embraces STI as a sure path to growth.
Activity:
Identify a contemporary Filipino invention and discuss how it improved the lives of our
countrymen. (Example: SALt lamp or “sustainable alternative lighting” lamp powered by
galvanic reaction of an anode with saline water invented by Aisa Mijeno)
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D. Paradigm Shift
What is a paradigm?
A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly accepted views
about a subject, conventions about what direction research should take and how it should
be performed.
The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the practices
that define a scientific discipline at a certain point in time." Paradigms contain all the
distinct, established patterns, theories, common methods and standards that allow us to
recognize an experimental result as belonging to a field or not.
Science proceeds by accumulating support for hypotheses which in time become
models and theories. But those models and theories themselves exist within a larger
theoretical framework. The vocabulary and concepts in Newton’s three laws or the central
dogma in biology are examples of scientific “open resources" that scientists have adopted
and which now form part of the scientific paradigm.
Paradigms are historically and culturally bound. For example, a modern Chinese
medical researcher with a background in eastern medicine, will operate within a different
paradigm than a western doctor from the 1800s.
A paradigm dictates:
what is observed and measured
the questions we ask about those observations
how the questions are formulated
how the results are interpreted
how research is carried out
what equipment is appropriate
Many students who opt to study science do so with the belief that they are
undertaking the most rational path to learning about objective reality. But science, much
like any other discipline, is subject to ideological idiosyncrasies, preconceptions and
hidden assumptions.
In fact, Kuhn strongly suggested that research in a deeply entrenched paradigm
invariably ends up reinforcing that paradigm, since anything that contradicts it is ignored
or else pressed through the preset methods until it conforms to already established
dogma.
The body of pre-existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes the collection
and interpretation of all subsequent evidence. The certainty that the current paradigm is
reality itself is precisely what makes it so difficult to accept alternatives.
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What is a Paradigm Shift?
"The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual
developmental pattern of mature science" - Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
The shift from one paradigm to another occurs when enough anomalies to the
current paradigm build up, causing scientists to question the foundational principles upon
which their worldview rests. During “normal science,” when the current paradigm is in
place, these anomalies are discounted as acceptable levels of error. However, during
“revolutionary science” or a paradigm shift, these anomalies become the center of
attention as scientists attempt to construct a new world view that incorporates and
explains them. This period of intense focus on explaining anomalies and developing a
new paradigm is considered “revolutionary science,” and it is sparked by a “crisis”
where the old paradigm fails explain key anomalies or outliers. Once a new paradigm is
developed, however, there is a return to “normal science” under the new worldview.
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An Example of a Paradigm Shift
Many physicists in the 19th century were convinced that the Newtonian paradigm
that had reigned for 200 years was the pinnacle of discovery and that scientific progress
was more or less a question of refinement. When Einstein published his theories on
General Relativity, it was not just another idea that could fit comfortably into the existing
paradigm. Instead, Newtonian Physics itself was relegated to being a special subclass of
the greater paradigm ushered in by General Relativity. Newton’s three laws are still
faithfully taught in schools, however we now operate within a paradigm that puts those
laws into a much broader context.
Interestingly, Kuhn’s theory itself was something of a game changer at the time,
since scientists were not accustomed to thinking of what they were doing in such
metaphysical terms. Kuhn’s theories are today understood to be part of a greater
paradigm shift in the social sciences, and have also been modified since their original
publication.
Kuhn later conceded that the process of scientific advancement might be more
gradual. For example, Relativity did not completely prove Newton wrong, but merely
reframed his theory. Even the Copernican revolution was a little more gradual in replacing
Ptolemy's beliefs.
The concept of paradigm is closely related to the Platonic and Aristotelian views
of knowledge. Aristotle believed that knowledge could only be based upon what is already
known, the basis of the scientific method. Plato believed that knowledge should be judged
by what something could become, the end result, or final purpose. Plato's philosophy is
more like the intuitive leaps that cause scientific revolution;; Aristotle's the patient
gathering of data.
Activity:
Create a poster or caricature that depicts a paradigm shift in science history. Share
and explain your work in the class.
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