Europe in Space: An Example of

Successful European Cooperation

by Reimar Lust
Director General, European Space Agency
Working Paper Series #10
This paper was presented on April 14, 1988, as part of the Harvard-MIT "Technology in
Europe" Series organized by Professor Eugene Skolnikoff and Dr. Jean de Gunzburg. Sponsors
for the Series were the Harvard Center for European Studies, the Kennedy School of
Government Center for Science and International Affairs (Harvard), the MIT Center for
International Studies, and the MIT Center for Science, Technology and Society.
Europe in Space
An Example of Successful European CooperatioR
Reimar Lust
European Space Agency
I. Introduction
Economic considerations and requirements have been the
strongest drive motivating European States to work more closely
together.
European cooperation really started in the coal and steel
sectors when six European States decided to establish a common
market in the framework of the Schuman plan. In my view it is
significant that the political will to work jointly first
manifested itself in these two sectors which were traditionally
considered the very backbone of European Industry.
The next step was the establishment of cooperation in the most
advanced industrial field. namely the of nuclear
energy through EURATOM. However, the cooperation within Euratom
did not involve the technical developments of nuclear power
plants, since this was reserved to private industry within
national programmes.
- 2
Nevertheless. at that time European countries were not consid
ering cooperating in the field of technology. This is because
rnill
vgovernments as such were not involved in technological develop
ment at all. But in the 19605. when the general technological
gap between their continent and the United States was stated.
technology became a political issue. But before real measures
were taken a considerable amount of time elapsed. For instance
Germany established an independent research and technology
ministry only at the beginning of the seventies.
Considering the organisation of the European cooperative
efforts. it is important to realize that Europe is made up of
independent sovereign States whose governments are exclusively
responsible to national parliaments elected by the citizens of
individual States. Therefore. it is absolutely necessary for an
international organisation to be successful to follow the
common interests and goals and to try and harmonize national
aims and aspirations. True collaboration is only possible when
a consensus between the sovereign partners can be reached.
Space has aroused interest in practically all European
countries. Although the motivation might differ from State to
State it was always possible to identify common interests and
common goals for Joint space activities. From the outset it
became clear that the stakes were such that this was a matter
for governments and could not be left to the private sector.
- 3
, .
The very diversity of the European context explains the request
for flexibility in a European international organisation. For

some States the driving force at the beginning was basic
science, and space research in particular; for others the
applications were more important, such as weather forecasting,
earth observation or telecommunications. Some countries were
also interested in the connection between space technology and
their defence or security requirements.
A strong motivation for European collaboration in space is the
fact that no European State can c o v e ~ all space activities by
itself due to limited resources and the relatively high
financial requirements for a competitive and useful space
programme. In this respect the smaller States depend even more
on European collaboration since larger States are more able to
carry out some national programmes independently and apart from
a joint European programme.
Smaller States are understandably also sensitive to the fact
that larger States have more potential in research and develop
ment facilities: this is particularly true when the size of a
technological research programme has to be agreed upon. Indeed
larger States have their own facilities, while smaller States
depend on those of j oint organizations, such as the European
Space Agency, ESA.
..
- 4.
A very important motive for setting up ESA was the fact that
European states did not want to leave space entirely to the

Americans and the Russians. The pride and prestige of European
governments was at stake, but more was required: all Member
States had the promise of substantial gains through advancing
technology.
I will now try to outline how the Europeans have developed
their joint activities and why they have succeeded in some
cases better than in others. In the second part of my
presentation I will describe ESA's initiative in technological
developments for the future of the European space activities.
The European Centre for Nuclear Research in Geneva, CERN, is
very often mentioned as the best example of a successful
European Organisation and this is certainly true. But one
should not forget that CERN is involved in basic science
exclusively. Commercial aspects never came into play,
significantly not even when the industrial contracts for the
development of the large nuclear acceleriltors were placed in
industry.
This is in contrast to Space activities which from the
beginning never related exclusively to basic science. Tech
no logical advancement, competition between industries and
commercial aspects were always of importance.
- 5
.
2. The EurQpean Space Agency as a EurQPean OrganisatiQn
FQIIQwing the launch Qf the Russian 'Sputnik' in OctQber 1957
and the American 'ExplQrer' in January 1958. a small grQUp Qf
EurQpean scientists recQgnised the impQrtance Qf space research
for b o t h science and technQIQgy. Realising that cQmpetitiQn
wi th the Americans and Rus s ians wa s PQ S S i bl e on I y if EurQpe
wQrked as on e entity, they met in January 1960 tQ work out
plans fQr a EurQpean cooperative venture in space. They
identified CERN as a gQQd example fQr such a cQQperation. CERN
was develQping successfully and mQst EurQpean countries had
been participating in it since the mid-fifties.
I shQuld like tQ stress that it was the fQresight and
dedicatiQn Qf the scientists which jQgged the political elbQw
as it were, to dispel the idea that scientists always have
their head in a cloud, or their eyes to a telescope. The
scientists succeeded in convincing their various gQvernments.
and gQvernment representatives met fQr the first time at the
end Qt 1960 at the premises ot CERN.
In the beginning p e n p Le had d e ub t s about these proj ects, but
fears that scientists were being carried away by their
enthusiasm was dispelled by the success Qt the scientific
satellites, SQ that applicatiQns satellites c ou Ld be added to
the programme as a next step.
- 6
Governments were increasingly interested in the wide social and
economic benefit, which it was felt would come from the
development of applications satellites. At the same time
industry started to exhibit a real interest. They were proved
right: The reception by the user communities of the meteoro
logical satellites and the orbital communication test satellite
with its maritime and communication successors was clear
evidence that we were in a growing and commercially promising
market.
Two events guided Europe's next step: the acceptance by the USA
that Europe had emerged as a space power. leading to an offer
to participate in the post-Apollo programme, and after the
demise of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDOl
the demand from some Member States that Europe should still
seek autonomy in the launcher market as a prerequisite to a
strong, independent European space policy. This is why the
European Space Agency was created.
At present ESA has thirteen Member States: Austria,' Belgium,
Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Finland is
an Associate Member, and Canada is what we call a Cooperating
State.
-7
ESA's convention lays down its main aims which are:
- to provide for and to promote, for exclusively peaceful
purposes, cooperation among European States in space
research, space technology, and their space applications.
- to elaborate and implement a European space programme.
- to elaborate and implement an industrial policy.
The ESA Head Office is situated in Paris and has a staff of
some 350. The scientific and technical centre ESTEC (European
Space Research and Technology Centre) is located at Noordwijlt
in the Netherlands. Its staff of about 1000 consists mainly of
scientists. engineers and technicians who are responsible for
the study. design, development. and testing of spacecraft.
associated technology, and some p a y l o a d ~ , in collaboration with
industry and the scientific and other user communities.
The European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) is located at
Darmstadt in Germany. Its permanent staff. some 280. are in
charge ot all satellite operations and the corresponding ground
facilities and communication Networks.
-
The Agency's Information Centre, ESRIN, is at Frascati, near
Rome: it houses two separate activities - ESA-IRS (Information
Retrie\ral Service) and Earthnet which collects, preprocesses
and distributes images and data trom remote-sensing
satellites. In addition, a group ot technicians is on
detachment to the French launch base in Kourou, French Guiana.
- 8
To facilitate collaboration among ESA Member States, two kinds
of ESA programmes were conceived: the Mandatory Programme to
which all Member States participate according to their GNP, and
a whole series of Optional Programmes financed by Member States
according to their interest in each particular programme.
The Mandatory Programme includes the scientific programme and
the basic activities necessary for the general operation of the
organisation and includes costs for research carried out at the
technical centre at Noordwijk.
The Optional Programme covers Space applications in the widest
sense. Examples are the programme for communication satellites,
for Earth Observation, as well as for research in the
microgravity environment, and space transportation systems such
as Ariane, the manned space laboratory (Spacelab) and the Space
Station Programme, Columbus.
3.1. Science Programmes
ESA's science programme is directed towards the following
targets:
- the Earth's near-space environment
- the Solar-Terrestrial relationship
- the Interplanetary medium
- the Planetary system with the Moon, planets and the other
bodies
- the Stars and the Universe.
- 9
To investigate these objects. ESA land its forerunner ESRO) has
developed and launched 14 scientific satellites. all of which
functioned successfully, and of which two are still in orbit
and one in operation. Several of them had a life-time much
longer than planned. and the scientific community's enthusiasm
for keeping them in operational condition has. paradoxically.
caused the Agency financial embarrassment at times.
SCIENTIAC SPACECRAFT LAUNCHED
SPACECRAn MISSION LAUNCH DATe END OF UFE
URO-a8 COSMIC RAYS AND SOLAR X-RAYS 17.0S." . 0'.01.71
ESAo-1A POLAR IONOSPHERE AND AURORAL PHENOMINA 03.10." . a1.0I.70
HEOS-1. SOLAR WIND AND INTERPLANETARY MEDIUM 01.12." . 21.10.71
E.SRo-18 POLAR IONOSPHERE AND AURORAL PHENOMENA . 01.10." . n.11."
HEos-a POLAR MAGNETOSPHERE AND INTERP\.AHETARY MEDIUM .
'1.01.71 . oa.0I.74
TO-1. ULTRAV1Ql.eT ASTRONOMY 12.03.72. 04.01.74
E.SRo-4 IONOSPHERE AND SOLAR PART1CLU . 22.11.71 . 1I.04.T4
cos-e . GAMMA RAY ASTRONOMY. Ot.ol.n. 21.04.12
GEOS-1 MAGHElOIPHEM 20.04.77 . n.0I.7'
IKE-2 MAGNETOSPHERE AND SUN-EARTH RELATIONI 22.10.77 . 2'.0 .IT
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".".....
!SA/NASA PROJECT AT PAEKNT DORMANT
Several other scientific spacecraft are at present under
development or awaiting launch.
The science programme as a mandatory programme is the back bone
of the agency and it plays an eminent role in the development
of our applications programmes. Firstly it provides the
knowledge of the physical conditions in the near-space
environment of the Earth. Without this knowledge we could never
- 10
build satellites that could withstand the extreme conditions
experienced when in orbit tor many years. Secondly scientific
missions very often demand extraordinary technological
innovations. They represent great challenges to the engineers
not merely to apply known techniques but to trigger further
technological development which can then be put at the service
of the application programmes.
3.2. Application Programme
The application programmes are all optional programmes, since
here the interests of the Member States might be quite
different. The term applic.ations covers a gamut of widely
differing specialisations such as Earth Observation, research
in Microgravity environment and telecommunication.
development of meteorological satellites which in the meantime
So far ESA has developed and put in orbit 8 application
satellites that operated very well. It started with the
\
have grown into essential tools tor weather forecasting in
Europe. The major momentum tor application satellites came,
however, from communication requirements with communication
sa tell i te s r epre senting an important pa rt of the comme reial
space market.
-11
ESA APPUCATIONS SATELLITES LAUNCHED
SATELLITE MISSION LAUNCH DATE
.
METEOSAT-1 . METEOROLOGY 23.11.1177
OTS-2 COMMUNICATIONS 11.5.1171
METEOSAT-2 . METEOROLOGY 19.8.1981
MARECS-A MARmME COMMUNICATIONS . 20.12.1981
ECS-1. COMMUNICATIONS 18.8.1983
ECS-2 . COMMUNICATIONS 4.8.1984
MARECS B-2. MARITIME COMMUNICAnONS . ... 10.11.1984
ECS-4 . COMMUNICATIONS . . 15.09.1987
(OPERATIONAL SYSTEM) .
The exploitation of microgravity is still in its infancy. but
it may well have considerable hidden potentials. No-one can say
today whether a weightless existance would. to coin a phrase.
take a load off our shoulders: but we do know that many things
would be rather different: the usual distinction between
above' and below' would no longer apply; liquids would go
haywire; and in particular. all compensating convection
processes would cease to operate. Many of the phenomena and new
processes become possible. These have already awakened the
keenest scientific interest. above all in such areas as:
- material sciences
- chemistry
- fluid dynamics
- pharmacy
- life sciences.
\
- 12
But it is above all because performance levels in high tech
nology are otten constrained by the physical characteristics of
materials involved that it is widely believed that advances in
knowledge in microgravity research will, in the long term, lead
to new techniques for processing special materials and will
thus have economic consequences on a scale that is still too
difficult to imagine.
It was against this background that ESA developed Space1ab, the
first space laboratory. Spacelab also opened the door to
European manned spaceflight - the first mission was flown in
November 1983 on a US Shuttle with the European astronaut
Ulf Herbold on board.
The first Spacelab mission accomodated 72 scientific
experiments from a variety of fields. Hare than 120 scientists
from many parts of the world were involved in the experiments.
Some of the experiments were designed to be executed fully
automatically, while others required the participation of the
on-board payload specialists.
Since then Spacelab has been used on three other occasions
twice for NASA missions and once for the Federal Republic of
Germany's D1 mission. flown in October/November 1985. The D1
mission attracted widespread attention. 75 experiments were on
board. Two German astronauts, Reinhard Furrer and Ernst Messer
schmid, and ESA's Wubbo Ockels, from the Netherlands, were on
board as payload specialists.
- 13
3.3. European Laynchers
While it is important to develop and build satellites. it may
be even more important to place them in the appropriate orbit.
Without independent access to space. Europe would have been
unable to compete in . the world satellite market. The
seriousness of such an inability became particularly clear
at the beginning of the 1970s when the Americans were unwilling
to provide the Europeans with guaranteed launch slots for their
commercial satellites. Today Europe has its own launcher.
Ariane, and through the foresight of those who insisted on
Europe developing such a vehicle, has a strong place in the
world launcher market. A total of 17 successful Ariane
launches, placing 26 satellites in the desired orbit, have
confirmed European competence in this area.
ARIANE: THE EUROPEAN HEAVY LAUNCHER
LAUNCH RECORD
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- 14
Today the Ariane launcher family comprises three versions with
different payload capacities. A fourth version has been
developed and will be added very soon. The first test launch of
Ariane-04 is scheduled for June of this year. Ariane-04 will
become the new workhorse until the middle of the nineties.
4. ESA's Contribution to technological developments
If one analyses the motives and interests of the European
States in space, one can identify six reasons for a European
commitment to space.
Space Research, which covers a broad spectrum of scientific
disciplines, is a major component of modern basic research.
It epitomises the human search for knowledge. cultural
advancement, and technical ingenuity.
Space has also played a significant role in modernising Euro
pean industry. not only in its technical outlook. but in the
way it structures and manages itl affairs. Having to cross
many national boundaries, different tax regimes and fluctua
ting currencies has taught Europeans' to think and act in a
more flexible way - always an advantage when seeking world
markets.
* Space opens up new fields of economic activity. Space activi
ties and the use of space have given rise to a new multi-pro
duct market for transportation systems, satellites and
.:
- 15
associated ground facilities. Microgravity looks likely to
provide a new potential for economic and industrial
activities. the possibilities of which remain to be explored.
and can therefore not yet be estimated.
* Communications satellites are not only important commercial
ly. but have already revolutionised global communications.
Their social and political impact will be further increased
with. the advent of direct broadcasting by satellite. One
cannot help commenting that technology is well ahead of the
ability of television companies and others to provide new
material to occupy the many extra opportunities direct broad
casting will present. Satellites for maritime and aerial
navigation will be of possible significant future advantage
for safety and other uses. These are only in their infancy.
* Although Earth observation by satellite is already in use,
its full potential remains to be achieved. Space-based recon
naissance will certainly lead. with the further development
of meteorological satellites and. above all. in conjunction
with the use of large computers. to greater precision in
weather forecasting. This could lead considerable savings
in. for example. agriculture. off-shore fishing.
and shipping. Special efforts are being put into Earth obser
vation at the present time. and many areas will benefit from
this. not least environmental protection.
- 16
* Finally, one should not forget the great political impact
- indeed prestige - of large-scale space projects, especially
when they ar:e manned. Of course ,this cannot provide the main
impetus for a European space policy, but as a political
symbol and a factor of political self confidence, manned
space exploration is of particular importance. And alongside
this consideration are the scientific benetits which having
astronauts on board co.nfer on some disciplines.
A seventh reason is being discussed now but it remains to be
seen whether ESA should be involved in the development of a
European observation satellite for defense purposes. This could
be a task for ESA only if all observations would be made
available to the public at large.
One might ask now: what has ESA done for technological
developments? ESA has regarded itself as a research and
development organisation in order to help scientific institutes
and users in the Member States. As soon as a system becomes
operational an effort is made to transfer it to other organisa
tions be they commercial or governmental.
In this spirit the communication satellites for television have
been transferred.to another European Organisation, the European
Telecommunications Satellites Organisation, lEUTELSAT1, an
Organisation tormed by 26 PTTs trom European States not only
- 17
Member States of ESA. The two satellites for the communication
with ships on the oceans have been leased to the International

Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMARSATl. The operational use
of the Meteosatellites has been taken over by the newly created
European Meteorological Satellite Organisation (EUMETSATl.
Finally the Ariane launcher is now marketed by ARIANESPACE, a
private company set up by the Member States which invested in
ESA's development of the launcher.
Arianespace has to cover all costs o the r than d eve 10 pment
costs which are borne by ESA Member States - by income from its
customers. Even before the Challenger disaster, Arianespace had
succeeded in winning half the world market for commercial
satellite launches. Arianespace has to date managed to chalk up
64 satellite launch' contracts: 42 of the satellites being for
launch - at a price of 14.1 billion francs (about 2.35 billion
US dollarsl,
One might ask what is the impact of space projects carried out
by the European industries beyond the specialized space tech
nologies? A group of economists at the University of Strasbourg
made a study on this. Their first preliminary results indicate
that almost 50'1 of all contract payments are being spent in
smaller or medium sized firms. Secondly, there is a consider
able benefit with respect to improved technology, higher
quality products, sales increases, better organisation, as well
as highe r producti vi ty and an im,prove d work fac to r . All thi s
- 18'
results in general benefits expressed by a return coefficient
3.6. The study proves that this coefficient is rising and that
there exists a remarkable transfer of technology from the space
sector to the more general non-space sectors of the industry.
In 1986 there were 34.500 employees working in space projects.
According to a recent analysis conducted by Eurospace. an
association of European space companies. Of this total about
26 000 jobs were in the space industry. and 8500 (24.61) in
institutions and laboratories. This compares with about 250 000
jobs in the USA' s space sector (civil and mili taryl. and a
total space sector in the USSR (civil and military) of roughly
600 000 people. Also the turnovers result in 23 billion $ in
the US. 2 billion $ in Europe and roughly 1 billi.on $ in
.Japan. Unfortunately. no reliable figures of the USSR can be
obtained.
The forecast for the end of the century suggests that European
space sector staffing will need 14 500 employees in institutes
and laboratories. and 47 000 in space industry.
Industrial policy is the most difficult aspect when trying to
promote the advancement of technology.
As an opening premise, it is fair to say that every Member
State - quite naturally - has an interest in obtaining as many
contracts as possible for its industry. Theoretically each Mem
ber State should receive industrial contracts equivalent to its
contribution. This is not possible, but it's up to the Agency
- 19
to find an appropriate solution when allocating major
projects. In selecting European contractors the right mix has
to be found: one which offers the best technical solution. is
financially justifiable and finally does not throw the
industrial return situation completely out of balance. That
sounds like trying to square the circle. It is however. a
remarkable fact that ESA. in conjunction with European
industry. has always succeeded in finding solutions that were
both technically and financially valid. Nevertheless. consider
able efforts will still be needed in the future if giving up
real competition is not to become the price for sticking to the
equal return principle'. It is not only increasing costs for
ESA but also the competitivity of European industry on the
world market that is at stake here.
While the large Member States - with their indigenous aerospace
companies - have no return-investment problems I some smaller
Member States are in a difficult position. In those countries
the key issue is to increase the competitiveness of a few small
or medium sized firms. If the interests of the small Member
States are not taken into consideration there will be no hope
. of creating a strong Europe. An effort to make the rigid natio
nal procurement policies in the large Member States more
flexible could also open the way to real progress in the' area
of industrial policy. Only in this way will it be possible in
the long run for powerful European industrial consortia.
capable of competing in the world space technology market to
emerge.
- 20
5, EurQPe's space effort in comparison to the US. Japan and the
The comparison-of Europe's space effort to that of other space
powers reveals some considerable differences.
There is first Qf all the natural difference due to the size of
populations. The population of the ESA Member States amounts to
roughly 330 million compared to 240 US citizens and 120 million
inhabitants of Japan, But more significant is the Gross
National Product created by these populations. In 1985 the ESA
Member States had a GNP of roughly 2760 billion dollars
whereas the US reached 3950 billions and Japan 1330 billion
dollars.
The most significant gap, however, is caused by the degree of
preparedness of the different nations to invest in Research and
Development. Whilse highly developed countries in Europe and
the rest of the world benefit from remarkable expenditures in
Research and Development which can reach up to 31 or their GNP
there are many other countries in Europe which can only afford
to invest little more than 0.51 of their GNP on R&D.
- 21
This is reflected in the per capita expenditure for space
activities. A study of EUROCONSULT shows that in 1986 the US

invested 99 S per capita in space. This has to be compared to
Japan with 6.4 $ and Europe with 5.7 $. One has, however, to
consider that the 99 $ of the US also contain 68 $ which are
spent for military purposes. Neither Japan nor Europe attach a
similar'importance to defence and security aspects.
Nevertheless between the remaining 31 $ of the US and the 5.7 $
of Europe's per capita expenditure for civil space activities
there really exists a factor of more than 5.
Another yardstick for the comparison of space efforts might be
the number of satellite launches. In 1985 the US launched
17 satellites, Europe 3. Japan 2, China 1 and the USSR 98.
Between 1957 and 1987 the Americans launched 1300 satellites.
40'1 of which were for military purposes; the Russians placed
2400 satellites in orbit. three quarters of which for military
purposes.
- 22
6. ESA's future long term programme
At a ministerial meeting in November in the Hague the ministers
responsible for research and for industry approved ESA's long
term programme which will cover the space activities to the
year 2000. Three main aims for this period were defined:
1. Europe's autonomous capability in space should be expanded.
2. Europe's competitiveness in all sections of space should be
maintained and enhanced;
3. Europe' s standing as a cOll\petent partner for international
cooperation in particular for cooperation with the United
States should be strengthened.
In order to achieve this. a programme has been developed during
the last three years in consultation with all the Member
States. The programme is marked by its coherence. its complete
ness and its balance. It is coherent with regard to the diff
erent programme elements in science, application and the
necessary infrastructure in space and on the ground. It is
complete in the sense that all major space disciplines are
represented and the specialisations within these disciplines
given a fair portion of the programmes. Finally it is balanced
with regard to the different disciplines and in particular to
those programmes making use of space and those investments in
building up the means to go into space and to stay in space.
- 23
The long term programme continues the activities in space
science. earth observation. microgravity research and tele
communication. In addition to these. four major programmes had
been decided.
1. In order that Europe remains competitive in the launcher
market the more powerful ARIANE 5, will be developed.
2. Europe is prepared to participate in the development of the
Space Station together with the US. Canada and Japan. The
European contribution - called the COLUMBUS Programme - will
include a Pressurized Module docked to the Space Station. A
further element, to be launched by Ariane 5, will be a free
flying laboratory equipped with a resource module which will
be serviced from time to time by astronauts. An additional
free-flying platform to be placed in polar orbit for Earth
observation purposes is also included.
)
3. A spaceplane, called HERMES, will be developed as a further
step towards European autonomy in the manned space flight.
The spaceplane Hermes will be launched by Ariane 5. It will
be used for servicing the Space Station as well as the Man
Tended-Free-Flyer.
4. ESA will develop a Data-Relay-Satellite to establish an
inde pendent c ommunica ti on 1ink to the Spa c e Station, the
Man-Tended-Free-Flyer and the Polar Platform.
- 24
All Member States with the exception of the UK are strongly in
favour of this Long Term Programme. Unfortunately, the UK could

not agree with certain aspects of the long-term strategy of the
Agency.
Cooperation within Europe a patchwork of independent and
autonomous States is no simple matter, as past experience
has shown. ESA's achievements are a reminder that successful
cooperation can be achieved even in an area of growing economic
importance. In this sense. space is contributing to European
un i t Y. The pol i tica 1 r 0 a d to a un it e d Eu rap e , ma p p e d 0 u t by
Robert Schuman as early as 1950 in his Montan plan, is still
valid today, in the mid-1980s. However, Europe as an entity
will not be achieved overnight nor will it happen all at once!
This entity will gradually come to exist as a result of
practical achievements which in turn will bring about real
European solidarity.
,.
EIJR)PE m SPACE
An Exanp1e ot successful Eurq:lean
List of viewgraphs
1. Esa Member states
2.Main aims of Esa
3. Esa establishments
4.Esa staft
5.Fstec
6. Fstec(l:uildin)
7.Fsoc
8. Fsoc(l:uildin)
9. Fsoc(main control roan)
10.Esr.in
11. Esr.in(l:uildin)
12.Ka1rcu
13.Ka1rcu:Ela 1 &2
14. Esa programmes
15. Space scierx::e
16. scientific spacecraft 1aUl'lC'hed
17. scientific projects urder deve1cpnent
18.1q:p1ication satellites launched
19.Meteosat image
20.Earth Observatioo programme 1
21. Earth Observatioo progranune 2
22.Mia:ogravity
23.Esa Mia:ogravity Research proJramme
24. Space1ab I
25. Space1ab
26.Space1ab II
27. Esa Space Telecarm..mi.cations progranune 1
28. CClnnunication satellites in Europe
29. In-oJ:bit Geostationcu:y Ccrmmmications am Meteorological
satellites for Year Erx:i 1986
30. 'n1e Ariana 1aurd1ers
31.Ariana 1auncb :t'eCX)rd 1
32.Ariana 1auncb :t'eCX)rd 2
33.seven reasa1S tor a European camnitJnent to space
34 <:altent ot Esa' s 1.orY;I..JI'erm Programme
35.Ar!anespace order book
36.Space In US,Eurc:p! am Japan 1986
37.Space 1986 as a percent of GNP
38. civil space b.d::Jets ceatpared 1987
39.satel1ite 1aunc:'hes by oo.mtiy In 1985
40.satel1ite 1aunc:'hes 1957.-1986
41.What's up In space:currently active satellites as of 10/4/87
42.Fsa Ministerial <hJncil at '!he Hague 9/10 November 1987
43.Ariana 5
44.Ariana 5jHemes
45. E>.1ropean c:ontribItion to the Space station
46.ARf
47.MrFF
48.Pf1t
49.Revised Baseline Configuraticm of Space statial
50.Hermes
51.Hermes servicinq H1'FF
52.lsa ~ 1988 (expeniitures)
53.lsa l:u:lget 1988 (inoaDe)
54.Protile ot expeniitures for Esa 1lI'P
55.Protile ot expeniitures for Esa 1lI'P by progranmes
5 6 . ~ bodies ot !sa
57.Faa ozoganigranme
Additional (new ones) :
l.Title
2. SChuman-Plan ard EurataD
3 Headi.rqs of chapters (G1iecleru:rq)
4. Fsa establishments
5.AI:P1icatiat satellites
s.six reasa1S for a European camdtment to space
7.GOP of Fsa Jtfe!nber cnmtries in 1985
a.oross danestic ~ t u r e at R&D in 1985
9.Gross danestic ~ t u r e al R&D in 1985 as percent of GOP
10.Gross danestic ~ t u r e al R&D. in 1985
(R & D financed by Govemment ard bJs1ness enteIprise)
11.Arlanespace launch contracts
12 Space related eq>loyment 1986
13.AiIrs of 1lI'P
The Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies
The Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies is an interdisciplinary program
organized within the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences and designed to promote the
study of Europe. The Center's governing committees represent the major social science
departments at Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Since its establishment in 1969, the Center has tried to orient students towards questions
that have been neglected both about past developments in eighteenth- and nineteenth
century European societies and about the present. The Center's approach is comparative
and interdisciplinary, with a strong emphasis on the historical and cultural sources which
shape a country's political and economic policies and social structures. Major interests of
Center members include elements common to industrial societies: the role of the state in
the political economy of each country, political behavior, social movements, parties and
elections, trade unions, intellectuals, labor markets and the crisis of industrialization,
science policy, and the interconnections between a country's culture and politics.
For a complete list of the Center for European Studies Working Papers and information
about its other publications (German Politicsand Society, a journal appearing three times
annually; French PoliticsandSociety, a quarterly journal; and the East European Working
Paper Series) please contact the Publications Department, 27 Kirkland St, Cambridge MA
02138. Additional copies can be purchased for $4.00. A monthly calendar of events at the
Center is also available at no cost.