Textile

Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based

materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric
types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven
fabrics.[1]: 3  [2]: 5  [3] However, weaving is not the only
manufacturing method, and many other methods were later
developed to form textile structures based on their intended use.
Knitting and non-woven are other popular types of fabric
manufacturing.[4] In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy the
material needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing Handmade floral patterns on textiles,
to bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.[3][5][4] The production of textiles which were
initially artisanal work, has grown into
Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles for domestic a vast field today that includes the
purposes and technical textiles. In consumer textiles, aesthetics and production of fibers, yarns, fabrics,
comfort are the most important factors, while in technical textiles, and various fibrous products for
functional properties are the priority.[4][6] different domestic and industrial
usages.
Geotextiles, industrial textiles, medical textiles, and many other
areas are examples of technical textiles, whereas clothing and
furnishings are examples of consumer textiles. Each component of
a textile product, including fiber, yarn, fabric, processing, and
finishing, affects the final product. Components may vary among
various textile products as they are selected based on their fitness
for purpose.[4][7][6]

Fiber is the smallest component of a fabric; fibers are typically spun

into yarn, and yarns are used to manufacture fabrics.[8][7] Fiber has
a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio. The In textile production, longitudinal
sources of fibers may be natural, synthetic, or both. The techniques yarns are referred to as warp and are
of felting and bonding directly transform fibers into fabric. In other interlaced with weft or filing yarns to
cases, yarns are manipulated with different fabric manufacturing create a woven fabric.
systems to produce various fabric constructions. The fibers are
twisted or laid out to make a long, continuous strand of yarn.[2]
Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, tatting, or
braiding.[9][10][5] After manufacturing, textile materials are processed and finished to add value, such as
aesthetics, physical characteristics, and increased usefulness.[11] The manufacturing of textiles is the oldest
industrial art.[12] Dyeing, printing, and embroidery are all different decorative arts applied to textile
materials.[13]

Etymology

Textile
The word 'textile' comes from the Latin adjective textilis, meaning
'woven', which itself stems from textus, the past participle of the
verb texere, 'to weave'.[14] Originally applied to woven fabrics, the
term "textiles" is now used to encompass a diverse range of
materials, including fibers, yarns, and fabrics, as well as other
related items.[2][1][3]

Fabric

A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn,

directly from fibers, polymeric film, foam, or any combination of
these techniques. Fabric has a broader application than
cloth.[15]: 2 07 [16] Fabric is synonymous with cloth, material, goods,
or piece goods.[4][5] The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, with
roots in the Proto-Indo-European language. Stemming most
recently from the Middle French fabrique, or "building," and earlier Weaving
from the Latin fabrica ('workshop; an art, trade; a skillful
production, structure, fabric'), the noun fabrica stems from the
Latin faber" artisan who works in hard materials', which itself is
derived from the Proto-Indo-European dhabh-, meaning 'to fit
together'.[17]

Cloth
Weaving demonstration on an 1830
Cloth is a flexible substance typically created through the processes handloom in the weaving museum in
of weaving, felting, or knitting using natural or synthetic Leiden
materials.[18] The word 'cloth' derives from the Old English clað,
meaning "a cloth, woven, or felted material to wrap around one's
body', from the Proto-Germanic kalithaz, similar to the Old Frisian
klath, the Middle Dutch cleet, the Middle High German kleit and
the German kleid, all meaning 'garment'.[19]

It is worth noting that although cloth is a type of fabric, not all

fabrics can be classified as cloth due to differences in their
manufacturing processes, physical properties, and intended uses.
Materials that are woven, knitted, tufted, or knotted from yarns are
referred to as cloth, while wallpaper, plastic upholstery products,
Cloth merchant's shop
carpets, and nonwoven materials are examples of fabrics.[20]: 2 07 

History
Textiles themselves are too fragile to survive across millennia; the tools used for spinning and weaving
make up most prehistoric evidence for textile work. The earliest tool for spinning was the spindle to which
a whorl was eventually added. The weight of the whorl improved the thickness and twist of spun thread.
Later the spinning wheel was invented. Historians are unsure where; some say China and others India.[21]

The precursor of today's textiles includes leaves, barks, fur pelts, and felted cloths.[22]
The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example of warp ikat
in Southeast Asia, is displayed at the National Museum of the
Philippines. The cloth was most likely made by the native Asian
people of the northwest Romblon. The first clothes, worn at least
70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of
animal skins and helped protect early humans from the elements. At
some point, people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles. The
discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in the Republic of Georgia
dated to 34,000 BCE suggests that textile-like materials were made
as early as the Paleolithic era.[23][24] A replica draper's shop at the
Museum of Lincolnshire Life, Lincoln,
The speed and scale of textile production have been altered almost England
beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of
modern manufacturing techniques.[25]

Textile industry

The textile industry grew out of art and craft and was kept going by guilds. In the 18th and 19th centuries,
during the industrial revolution, it became increasingly mechanized. In 1765, when a machine for spinning
wool or cotton called the spinning jenny was invented in the United Kingdom, textile production became
the first economic activity to be industrialised. In the 20th century, science and technology were driving
forces.[26][27]

Naming

Most textiles were called by their generic names, their place of

origin, or were put into groups based loosely on manufacturing
techniques, characteristics, and on their designs.[28][29][30][31]
Nylon, Olefin, Acrylic are all generic names for some synthetic
fibers.[4]: 2 19 

Sample of calico printed with a six-

colour machine by Walter Crum &
Co., from Frederick Crace Calvert,
Dyeing and Calico Printing (1878)
 Name Product Textiles named by Description

Wool fiber Cashmere is synonymous with the Kashmir

obtained from shawl, with the term "cashmere" derived
Cashmere Origin Kashmir
cashmere
goats from an anglicisation of Kashmir.[32]

Plain weave
The fabric originated in the southwestern
Calico textile Origin Calicut
Indian city of Calicut.
material
Lightweight
cotton fabric Jagannath Jaconet is anglicisation of Jagannath where
Jaconet Origin
in plain Puri it was originally produced.[33]
weave

Jersey, Jersey fabric was produced first at Jersey,

A type of
Jersey Origin Channel
Knitted fabric
Islands Channel Islands.[32]

A coarse Kersey, The fabric is named after the town in the

Kersey Origin
woolen cloth Suffolk east of England.[32]

Paisley A type of Paisley, A town situated in the west central

Design
(design) motif Renfrewshire Lowlands of Scotland.[32]

In and around the 19th century Punjab and

Gujarat were famous destination for various
handspun cloths. Dosuti was distinguished
A coarse and by the number of yarns [Do+Suti translates
A handspun to two yarns] used to produce it. Eksuti
Dosuti Characteristics thick cotton
cotton cloth was another variation with a single thread.
cloth
[34][35]

Dacca, India's eastern subcontinent, had a

Mulmul types
Fine muslin wide range of handwoven and spun
such as āb-i-
fabric muslins. Baft Hawa, which means "woven
ravān running Delicate
variations Characteristics air", Shabnam, which means "evening
water, Baft muslin types
from Dacca in dew", and ab-i-ravan, which means "flowing
Hawa woven
Bengal water" are some poetic names for soft
air[36]
muslins.[36][37]
A plain weave Nain + Sook translates to "eye-
Pleasing to
Nainsook fabric with Characteristics
soft hand
the eyes pleasing".[33]

Appears and A18th century fabric developed at

A woven
Swanskin Characteristics feels like
flannel cloth Shaftesbury.[38]
swan skin

Another type Tan + Sukh translates to "body pleasing".

of Muslin with Tansukh was a fine, soft, and delicate
Pleasing to textured cloth. The cloth type is mentioned
Tansukh soft and Characteristics
the body in the 16th century Mughal time records,
delicate
texture Ain-i-Akbari.[39]

Related terms

The related words "fabric"[10] and "cloth"[18] and "material" are often used in textile assembly trades
(such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these
terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibers, including carpeting and
geotextiles, which may not necessarily be used in the production of further goods, such as clothing and
upholstery. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, felting, stitching, crocheting or
bonding that may be used in the production of further products, such as clothing and upholstery, thus
requiring a further step of the production. Cloth may also be used synonymously with fabric, but often
specifically refers to a piece of fabric that has been processed or cut.

Greige goods: Textiles that are raw and unfinished are referred to as greige goods. After
manufacturing, the materials are processed and finished.[40][11]
Piece goods: Piece goods were textile materials sold in cut pieces as specified by the buyer.
Piece goods were either cut from a fabric roll or made to a specific length, also known as
yard goods.[41][42]

Types
Textiles are various materials made from fibers and yarns. The term
"textile" was originally only used to refer to woven fabrics, but today it
covers a broad range of subjects.[1] Textiles are classified at various
levels, such as according to fiber origin (natural or synthetic), structure
(woven, knitted, nonwoven), finish, etc.[28][29][30][31] However, there
are primarily two types of textiles:

Consumer textiles

Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for A baby wearing many items of
clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household, soft winter clothing: headband,
textiles are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, cap, fur-lined coat, scarf and
towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. sweater
Textiles are used in many traditional hand crafts such as sewing,
quilting, and embroidery.[4]

Technical textiles

Textiles produced for industrial purposes, and designed and chosen

for technical characteristics beyond their appearance, are commonly
referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile
structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (such as
implants), geotextile (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles
(textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (such as clothing
resistant to heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against
molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests).
Technical textile is a branch of textile
In the workplace, textiles can be used in industrial and scientific
that focuses on the protection,
processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags,
safety and other functional
backpacks, tents, nets, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as
performance attributes of textiles,
balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to
unlike domestic textiles, where the
provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and
primary focus is aesthetics and
industrial geotextiles.[4][6] comfort., an EOD technician wearing
a bomb suit Explosive Ordnance
Disposal (EOD) suit.
Due to the often highly technical and legal requirements of these
products, these textiles are typically tested in order to ensure they
meet stringent performance requirements. Other forms of technical
textiles may be produced to experiment with their scientific
qualities and to explore the possible benefits they may have in the
future. Threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, when woven
into fabric, have been shown capable of "self-powering
nanosystems", using vibrations created by everyday actions like
wind or body movements to generate energy.[43][44]
Nonwoven geotextile bags are much
more robust than woven bags of the
Significance same thickness.

Textiles are all around us. The textile is a component of basic needs
like food and shelter. Textiles are everywhere in our lives, from bath towels to space suits. Textiles help
humans by comforting, protecting, and extending their lives. Textiles meet our clothing needs, keeping us
warm in the winter and cool in the summer. There are several applications for textiles, such as medical
textiles, intelligent textiles, and automotive textiles. All of them contribute to the well-being of humans.[2]

Serviceability in textiles

The term "serviceability" refers to a textile product's ability to meet the needs of consumers. The emphasis
is on knowing the target market and matching the needs of the target market to the product's serviceability.
Serviceability in textiles or Performance is the ability of textile materials to withstand various conditions,
environments, and hazards. Aesthetics, durability, comfort and safety, appearance retention, care,
environmental impact, and cost are the serviceability concepts employed in structuring the
material.[2]: 1 to 12 

Components
Fibers, yarns, fabric construction, and finishes and designing [of garments] are the various components of a
textile product. The selection of components varies with the intended use. Henceforth, the fibers, yarns, and
fabric manufacturing systems are selected with consideration of the required performance.[2]: 1 to 12 

Use and applications

Technical
Commercial
textiles/
textiles/
End uses Industrial End uses
Domestic
purpose
textiles
textiles

Agro-textiles are used in agriculture,

Clothing items for men,
women and children.
nightwear, sportswear, lingerie,
Clothing undergarments, swimsuit.
Accessories such as caps,
umbrella, socks, gloves, and
handbags.[4][45]
Upholstery, curtains,
Furnishing draperies, carpets,
towels.[4][45]
Bed sheets, khes, blankets,
Bedding
pillows.[4][45]
Others Shower curtains.[4]
horticulture, aquaculture, landscape
gardening and forestry. Mainly for crop
protection, in crop development for
Agro-textiles instance shade nets, thermal insulation and
sunscreen materials, windshield, antibird
nets, covering livestock protection,
suppressing weed and insect control,
etc.[46]
Technical textiles which are used in civil
engineering, roads, airfields, railroads,
embankments, retaining structures,
Geotextile reservoirs, canals, dams, bank protection,
coastal engineering and construction site
silt fences, and protection of melting
glaciers.[47]
Automotive Airbags, seat belts, headliners, upholstery,
textile car carpets, and door card.[48]
implants, sutures, dressings, bandages,
Medical textile
medical gowns, face masks.[4]
This particular sector includes conveyor
belts, drive belts, ropes and cordages,
filtration products, glass battery separators,
decatising and bolting cloth, AGM
Indutech (absorption glass mat) plasma screens,
coated abrasives, composite materials,
printed circuit boards, printer ribbon, seals,
gaskets, paper making fabrics.[6]

Other uses

Textiles, textile production, and clothing were necessities of life in prehistory, intertwined with the social,
economic, and religious systems. Other than clothing, textile crafts produced utilitarian, symbolic, and
opulent items. Archaeological artifacts from the Stone Age and the Iron Age in Central Europe are used to
examine prehistoric clothing and its role in forming individual and group identities.[49]

Source of knowledge

Artifacts unearthed in various archaeological excavations informs us about the remains of past human life
and their activities.[50] Dyed flax fibers discovered in the Republic of Georgia indicate that textile-like
materials were developed during the Paleolithic period. Radiocarbon dates the microscopic fibers to 36,000
years ago, when modern humans migrated from Africa.[24]

Several textile remnants, such as the Inca Empire's textile arts remnants, which embody the Incas' aesthetics
and social ideals, serve as a means for disseminating information about numerous civilizations, customs,
and cultures.[51][52]

There are textile museums that display history related to many aspects of textiles. The Textile Museum
raises public awareness and appreciation of the artistic merits and cultural significance of the world's textiles
on a local, national, and international scale. Textile Museum in Washington, D.C., was established in
1925.[53]

Narrative art

The Bayeux Tapestry is a rare example of secular Romanesque art. The art work depicts the Norman
Conquest of England in 1066.[54][55]

Decorative art

Textiles are also used for decorative art. Appliqué work of pipili is decorative art of Odisha, a state in
eastern India, used for umbrellas, wall hangings, lamp sheds, and bags. To make a range of decorative
products, colored clothes are sewn in the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, and magnificent walls on a base
cloth.[56]

Architextiles

Architextiles, a combination of the words architecture and textile, are textile-based assemblages. Awnings
are a basic type of architectural textile.[57] Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent, which was a movable palace, is an
example of the architextiles of the Mughal period.[58]

Currency

Textiles had been used as currency as well. In Africa, textiles were used as currency in addition to being
used for clothing, headwear, swaddling, tents, sails, bags, sacks, carpets, rugs, curtains, etc.[59]Along the
east–west axis in sub-Saharan Africa, cloth strip, which was typically produced in the savannah, was used
as a form of currency.[60]

Votive offering

Textiles were among the objects offered to the gods [votive offering] in ancient Greece for religious
purposes.[61]

Fiber
The smallest component of a fabric is fiber; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to make
fabrics. Fibers are very thin and hair-like structures. The sources of fibers may be natural, synthetic, or
both.[2][15]: 6 4, 6 9 

Global consumption

Global fiber production per person has increased from 8.4 kilograms in 1975 to 14.3 kilograms in 2021.
After a modest drop due to COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, global fiber output rebounded to 113 million
tons in 2021. Global fiber output roughly doubled from 58 million tons in 2000 to 113 million tons in 2021
and is anticipated to reach 149 million tons in 2030.[62]

The demand for synthetic fibers is increasing rapidly. This has numerous causes. Reasons include its low
price, the demand-supply imbalance of cotton, and its [Synthetic fibers'] versatility in design and
application. Synthetic fibers accounts for 70% of global fiber use, mainly polyester.[63] By 2030, the
synthetic fiber market will reach 98.21 billion US dollars. From 2022 to 2030, the market is anticipated to
increase by 5.1% per year.[64]

Fiber Sources
Natural fibers are obtained from plants, animals and minerals.[2]: 18  Since prehistoric times,
textiles have been made from natural fibers. Natural fibers are further categorized as
cellulosic, protein, and mineral.[15]: 70 
Synthetic or manmade fibers are manufactured with chemical synthesis.[2]: 18 
Semi-synthetic: A subset of synthetic or manmade fibers is semi-synthetic fiber. Rayon is a
classified as a semi-synthetic fiber, made with natural polymers.

Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. Polymers in fibers are of two types: additive or
condensation. Natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, have a condensation polymer type, whereas
synthetic fibers can have either an additive or a condensation polymer type. For example, acrylic fiber and
olefin fibers have additive polymers, and nylon and polyester are condensation polymers.[15]

Types

Types of fibers[15]: 68 
Semi-
Natural Synthetic
synthetic
Cellulosic fibers (Vegetable or Protein fibers (Animal Mineral Petroleum Cellulose
plant fibers) fibers) fibers based based

Cotton Wool Asbestos Nylon Rayon

Linen Silk Glass fiber Polyester Acetate

Jute Acrylic fiber Triacetate

Hemp Olefin fiber

Spandex
Aramid
Fiber properties

Fiber properties influence textile characteristics such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, and cost.[15]: 6 9 
Fineness is one of the important characteristics of the fibers. They have a greater length-to-width ratio [100
times the diameter]. Fibers need to be strong, cohesive, and flexible. The usefulness of fibers are
characterized on the basis of certain parameters such as strength, flexibility, and length to diameter ratio,
and spinnability. Natural fibers are relatively short [staple] in length. Synthetic fibers are produced in longer
lengths called filaments. Silk is the only natural fiber that is a filament. The classification of fibers is based
on their origin, derivation, and generic types.[2][15]: 6 4, 6 9 

Certain properties of synthetic fibers, such as their diameter, cross section, and color, can be altered during
production.[15]: 6 6 

Cotton: Cotton has a long history of use in the clothing due to its favorable properties. This fiber is soft,
moisture-absorbent, breathable, and is renowned for its long durability.

Blends (blended textiles)

Fabric or yarn produced with a combination of two or more types of different fibers, or yarns to obtain
desired traits. Blending is possible at various stages of textile manufacturing. Final composition is liable for
the properties of the resultant product. Natural and synthetic fibers are blended to overcome disadvantage of
single fiber properties and to achieve better performance characteristics and aesthetic effects such as devoré,
heather effect, cross dyeing and stripes pattern etc. Clothing woven from a blend of cotton and polyester
can be more durable and easier to maintain than material woven solely from cotton. Other than sharing
functional properties, blending makes the products more economical.[65][66]

Union or Union fabrics is the 19th century term for blended fabrics. While it is no longer in use.[67] Mixture
or mixed cloth is another term used for blended cloths when different types of yarns are used in warp and
weft sides.[68][69]

Blended textiles are not new.

Mashru was a 16th-century fabric, is one of the earliest forms of "mixed cloth", a material
composed of silk and cotton.[70]
Siamoise was a 17th-century cotton and linen material.[71]

Composition

Fiber composition[72] the fiber blend composition of mixtures of the fibers,[73] is an important criterion to
analyze the behavior, properties such as functional aspects, and commercial classification of the
merchandise.[74][75][76]

The most common blend is cotton and polyester. Regular blended fabric is 65% polyester and 35% cotton.
It is called a reverse blend if the ratio of cotton predominates—the percentage of the fibers changes with the
price and required properties.
Blending adds value to the textiles; it helps in reducing the cost (artificial fibers are less expensive than
natural fibers) and adding advantage in properties of the final product.[77][78] For instance, a small amount
of spandex adds stretch to the fabrics.[79] Wool can add warmth.[80]

Uses of different fibers

Natural fibers

Plant
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope.
In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose,
while in the last two, only fibers from the plant are used.
Coir (coconut fiber) is used in making twine, and also in
floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and
sacking.
Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a
dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.
Fibers from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and
nettle are used in making paper.
Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal, banana, bamboo, lotus,
eucalyptus, mulberry, and sugarcane are all used in
clothing.[81][82][83] Piña (pineapple fiber) and ramie are
also fibers used in clothing, generally with a blend of
other fibers such as cotton. Nettles have also been used
to make a fiber and fabric very similar to hemp or flax.
The use of milkweed stalk fiber has also been reported,
Bridal gown made from nettle fibers,
but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibers like
probably worn by Eleonora Sophie
hemp or flax.
Rantzau (1779-) at her wedding to
The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that Preben Bille-Brahe, Hvedholm
has been used to make clothing and accessories as well
Castle. National Museum of
as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Denmark.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain
fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fiber known as alginate is
produced and is used as a holding fiber; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved,
leaving an open area.
Rayon is a manufactured fabric derived from plant pulp. Different types of rayon can imitate
feel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.

Fibers from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibers. Hemp Fiber
is yellowish-brown fiber made from the hemp plant. The fiber characteristics are coarser, harsher, strong
and lightweight. Hemp fiber is used primary to make twine, rope and cordage.[84]

Animal

Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the case of silkworms).
 Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types
of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and
the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool
grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.[85] The lanolin and other contaminants are
removed from the raw wool before further processing.[86] Woolen refers to a yarn produced
from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibers
which have been combed to be parallel.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama
wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos,
blankets, and other warm coverings.
Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African
angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness. Used in the production of
sweaters and scarfs.
Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool
of the muskox.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is
spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk:
'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk (wild silk).
Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for
consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves.
Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.[87] Silk production
consists of pillow covers, dresses, tops, skirts, bed sheets, curtains.

Microbes

Bacterial cellulose can be made from industrial organic and agricultural waste, and used as material for
textiles and clothing.[88]

Mineral
Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels
and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables,
reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective
fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with
Teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer
layer of United States space suits since 1968.
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of
cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of steel
wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a
more open weave.

Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery abrasive
glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it,
employed like emery cloth or coarse sandpaper.

Synthetic
In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibers made from petroleum. Textiles are made in
various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one
denier to the sturdiest canvas.

Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geotextiles.
Synthetic fibers are those that are chemically constructed, therefore are unsustainable.

Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as
cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools,[89] including cashmere, and is often used in
replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon
fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without
impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits.
Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic,
allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name
Tyvek.
Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is
more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was
developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during
the 1930s.[90] Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to
human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable,
renewable synthetic fibre.[91]
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre
reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization.

Production methods
Textile manufacturing has progressed from prehistoric crafts to a fully automated industry.[15] Over the
years, there have been continuous improvements in fabric structure and design.[92]
 Production methods
Production Inventors, inventions and
Description
method milestones in progression

Barkcloth Barkcloth is made by Bark is an older known

pounding bark until it fabric; ancient people around
is soft and the world wore bark cloth
flat.[93][2]: 245  daily until woven fabrics
replaced it. In Indonesia, the
bark cloth is associated with
the Torajan people, who
made it from the fermentation
of inner bark of certain local
trees, mulberry and
pandanus. The Torajans used
stones and wooden beaters
to produce bark cloth.[94]

Barkcloth dress of Lore Bada people

in Lore Valley, Poso Regency,
Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. This
collection of Central Sulawesi
Museum was exhibited in Textile
Museum Jakarta in November 2016.

Felting Felting is a method of Both felt and Tapa cloth (a

manufacturing fabric type of bark cloth) have a
directly from fibers by history that dates back to
entangling, antiquity. Felting is another
interlocking the fibers old method of fabric
by rubbing and manufacturing. While
pressing.[2]: 245  civilizations in the western
Mediterranean improved their
weaving skills, nomads in
Central Asia learned how to
make felt, a non-woven
material, from
Kazakh felt yurt
wool.[15]: 5 [2]: 245 Felting
involves applying pressure
and friction to a mat of fibers,
working and rubbing them
together until the fibers
become interlocked and
tangled, forming a nonwoven
textile. A liquid, such as
soapy water, is usually added
to lubricate the fibers, and to
open up the microscopic
scales on strands of
wool.[2]: 245 
Nonwoven Nonwoven fabrics are Nonwovens and felting share
manufactured by the a similar history. The first
bonding of fibers to fabric that was made without
make fabric. Bonding yarn [nonwoven] was felt.
may be thermal, Later on, needle punched,
mechanical, or bonded nonwovens were
chemical, or developed.[15]: 5 [2]: 245 
adhesives can be
used.[95]

Nonwoven fabrics

Weaving Weaving is a textile Handlooms: Early Looms

production method date to 5000 BC. From
which involves antiquity until the mediaeval
interlacing a set of times, the loom improved in
longer threads (called both Asia and Europe,
the warp) with a set of despite the fact that the
crossing threads loom's fundamental operation
(called the weft). This remained unchanged.[96] In
is done on a frame or 200 BC, the Chinese
machine known as a invented vertical looms and
loom, of which there pedal looms, transforming
are a number of the craft into an industry. By
types. Some weaving decreasing the worker's
is still done by hand, workload, innovative
but the vast majority solutions improved
is productivity.
mechanized.[92]: 1–14 
Warp and weft
There were harnesses
and heddles to govern
the movement of the
warp yarn, a shuttle to
transport the weft yarns,
a reed to compact the
cloth, and a take up
roller to roll down the
cloth. By the 1st century
AD, all necessary
components for a loom
were assembled.[15]: 6 

Power looms: John Kay

invented the flying
shuttle in 1734 in Bury,
Lancashire. It was one
of the first innovations in
the cotton woven fabric
industry.[97] Samuel
Crompton invented a
spinning machine in
1779 that produced
yarn faster than ever
before. Then Edmund
Cartwright invented the
first power loom in
1785.[15]: 10 
 Jacquard loom: The
Jacquard machine was
a modified version of
programmable loom
developed in 1804. It
was developed by
Joseph Marie Jacquard
based on earlier
inventions by Basile
Bouchon (1725), Jean
Baptiste Falcon (1728),
and Jacques
Vaucanson (1740).

The industrial revolution

in the 18th century led
to mass production of
yarn and cloth, which
led to the growth of the
woven fabric part of the
textile industry.[98]

Knitting Knitting involves Hand knitting: Though

interlacing loops of knitting was developed by
yarn, which are Danes around 900 BC it did
formed either on a not reach to other
knitting needle, civilizations until 900
needle, or on a AD.[15]: 5  Europe learned to
crochet hook, knit by hand around 1400.
together in a line. The Three to four stockings could
processes are be knit in a week by 1450.
different in that William Lee invented a
knitting has several stocking frame in 1589 that
active loops at one could knit one stocking per Loop formation. Structure of
time, on the knitting day. Acceptance of Lee's
needle waiting to stockinette stitch in a weft knitted
invention and subsequent
interlock with another modifications resulted in a fabric.
loop.[99] wide range of fabrics in
Europe.[15]: 8  The machine
knitting is separated into two
main groups of production
processes: warp knitting and
weft knitting.
Looping, and Looping and Nålebinding is a precursor of
crocheting crocheting never have crocheting and knitting.
more than one active
loop on the needle. Crocheting is type of
Knitting can be
performed by
knitting which was
machine, but crochet originally practised by
can only be Scottish peasants with
performed by a small, hooked needle
hand.[99]
known as a shepherd's
hook.[100] Most crochet uses one hook and
works upon one stitch at a time.
Crochet may be worked in circular
rounds without any specialized tools,
as shown here.

Spread tow Spread tow is a

production method
where the tow fibers
are spread into thin
tapes, and then the
tapes are woven as
warp and weft. This
method is mostly
used for composite
materials; spread tow
fabrics can be made
in carbon, aramid and
other fibers.

Braiding or Braiding or plaiting

plaiting involves intertwining
threads together into
cloth. Knotting
involves tying threads
together and is used
in making tatting and
macrame.[101][92]: 279 

Braiding

Lace Lace is made by

interlocking threads
together
independently, using
a backing alongside
any of the methods
described above, to
create a fine fabric
with open holes in the
work. Lace can be
made by either hand
or machine.[102] Lace structure

3D Textiles Complex All technologies - weft

interlacement of knitting, warp knitting,
yarns where the final weaving and braiding allow
product has not plain production of complex
products with 3D form if
 form as flat fabrics, suitable machine
but 3D form. configuration and pattern are
used. This technologies are
used for woven heart valves,
composite profiles and other.

Additive Fabric manufacturing

manufactured by 3D printer employs
textile like additive
structures manufacturing, also
known as additive
layer manufacturing
(ALM), a CAD-aided
manufacturing
technique that builds
the object layer by
layer. The method is 3D-printed outfit
used in manufacturing
of Auxetic textiles
and in composite
materials.[103]

Important parameters in fabric selection:

The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the
application. Similar types of fabric may not be suitable for all applications.[15]: 1 8 

Fabric weight is an important criteria while producing different fabrics. A carpet requires a fabric with 1300
GSM, but a robe may be made with 160 GSM. Certainly, fabrics for clothes and carpets have distinct
weights.[15]: 1 8 

Range of fabric weights typically used in various textile products[104]

GSM (grams per square
Categorization Termed as Suitable for the textile products
meter) range

Sheer curtains, Lingerie items,

0-50 Sheer fabric
Wedding dresses,
50-150 Light weight Top weight Blouse, Lining, Shirt, T-shirt, Dress

Bottom Skirt, Trousers, Kind of denims, and

150-300 Medium weight
weight Suits

Medium to heavy Drapery, Overcoat, Towel, Slipcover,

300-600 Bull denim
weight Workwear
Carpet, Mat, Upholstery, Type of
More than 600 Heavy
Winter coats

Stretchable fabrics have greater movability and are thus more comfortable than fabrics with no stretch or
less stretch.[15]: 2 3 

Textile exports

According to the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database, the global textiles and apparel
export market reached $772 billion in 2013.[106]

Changing dynamics of the market

China is the largest exporter of textile goods. The majority of China's Top five exporters of textiles—2013
exports consist of apparel, apparel accessories, textile yarns, and ($ billion)
textile products. The competitive advantages of the China are low China 274
prices and abundant labor, lowered commercial obstacles, and a
ready supply of raw materials. China, along with the United States India 40
and India, is a major producer of cotton.[107][108] Italy 36

China's apparel market share has declined in recent years due to Germany 35

various reasons and a shift toward high-end, sophisticated products. Bangladesh 28

Additionally, the investors from China made stakes in Myanmar,
Source:[105]
Vietnam, and Cambodia. Last year, its market share was 36.7%, or
$161 billion, a decline of 8% year-over-year. In other words, China lost $14 billion in garment work orders
to other countries in a single year. In 2016, Bangladesh's apparel market share was valued at $28 billion,
increasing 7.69 percent from the previous year.

In 2016 the leading exporters of apparel were; China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam
($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16 billion), Turkey ($15 billion), and Indonesia ($7
billion).[109]

Garment Exports in Bangladesh Reached Record High in 2021-2022 Fiscal Year; China ($220.302 billion),
Bangladesh ($38.70 billion), India ($8.127 billion), Pakistan ($19.33 billion).[110]

Finishing
The fabric, when it leaves a loom or knitting machine, is not readily
usable. It may be rough, uneven, or have flaws like skewing.
Hence, it is necessary to finish the fabric. Finishing techniques
enhance the value of the treated fabrics.[15]: 6   After manufacturing,
textiles undergo a range of finishing procedures, including
bleaching, dyeing, printing, as well as mechanical and chemical
finishing.[11]

Coloration

Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every

colour. The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of
water for each pound of clothing.[111] Coloured designs in textiles
can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours
(tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric
(embroidery), creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off
Early method of bleaching cotton and
areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), drawing wax designs
linen goods on lawns
on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various
printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used
in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at
least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimes bleached, making the textile pale or white.

Finishes
Textile finishing is the process of converting the loomstate or raw goods into a useful product, which can be
done mechanically or chemically. Finishing is a broad term that refers to a variety of physical and chemical
techniques and treatments that finish one stage of textile production while also preparing for the next.
Textile finishing can include aspects like improving surface feel, aesthetical enhancement, and adding
advanced chemical finishes.[11] A finish is any process that transforms unfinished products into finished
products.[112] This includes mechanical finishing and chemical applications which alter the composition of
treated textiles (fiber, yarn or fabric.)

Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have
been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.[113] More recently, nanomaterials research has
led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing
permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as
water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.[114]

Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From formaldehyde finishes (to
improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric,
the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on
the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes, for example, have been shown to be allergenic
to sensitive individuals.[115] Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce
purpuric contact dermatitis.[116]

Eisengarn, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the
19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are
then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant
yarn which is extremely hardwearing.[117][118]

Finishing techniques

Finishing Fabrics
Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen, referred to as pile fabrics, are made by interlacing a
Brushing
secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.[4]: 196 

"Shearing machine" is a machine equipped with shearing cylinder, ledger blade, fluff exhaust, and
Shearing joint seam sensors. The machine operates similarly to a lawn mower.[119][4]: 197  Moleskin and velvet
are sheared materials in which pile is cut to a certain level.[120]

Environmental and health impacts

After the oil industry, the fashion industry is the second biggest polluter of agricultural land, which has
several harmful impacts on the environment. As the industry grows, the effect on the environment is
worsening.[121] Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest and most technologically complicated industries.
This industry's fundamental strength stems from its solid manufacturing base of a diverse range of
fibers/yarns ranging from natural fibers such as jute, silk, wool, cotton, and jute,  to synthetic or
manufactured fibers that include polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic. Textile mills and their wastewater
have grown in proportion to the increase in demand for textile products, generating a severe pollution
concern around the world. Numerous textile industry chemicals pose environmental and health risks.
Among the compounds in textile effluent, dyes are considered significant contaminants. Water pollution
generated by the discharge of untreated wastewater and the use of toxic chemicals, particularly during
processing, account for the majority of the global environmental concerns linked with the textile
industry.[122]

Environmental impacts

Clothing is necessary to meet the fundamental needs of humans. Increased population and living standards
have increased the need for clothing, enhancing the demand for textile manufacturing; wet processing
needs more water consumption.[123] Conventional machinery and treatment procedures use enormous
quantities of water, especially for natural fibers, which require up to 150 kg of water per kg of material.[124]
The textile sector is accountable for a substantial number of environmental impacts. However, the discharge
of untreated effluents into water bodies is responsible for the majority of environmental harm produced by
the textile sector.[125] The textile sector is believed to utilise 79 trillion litres of water per year and to
discharge around 20% of all industrial effluent into the environment.[126] Reportedly, aromatic and
heterocyclic compounds with color-display and polar groups make up most of the dyes used in textile
coloration processes. The structure is more complex and stable, making it more difficult to degrade printing
and dyeing wastewater.[127]

Health impacts

Many kinds of respiratory diseases, skin problems, and allergies may be caused by dyes and pigments
discharged into the water.

Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic
reaction,[128] due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance.
Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their
potential toxicity, are concerned.[129]

Chemicals use, advantage and health impacts

Certain chemical finishes contain potential hazards to health and the environment. Perfluorinated acids are
considered to be hazardous to human health by the US Environmental Protection Agency.[130]

Advantage in Associated health risks and

Name of the substance References
textile products environmental impacts

Perfluorooctanoic acid ( PFOA), Hydrophobic [131][132]

Endocrine disruptor
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) effect
Hydrophobic [133]
Fluorocarbon (PFC) May cause respiratory illness
effect

Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic

Brominated flame [134]
Bromine substances may cause neurobehavioral
retardant
disorders and endocrine disruption

Environmental impact of silver

Antimicrobial [135][136]
Silver, silver nanoparticle nanoparticles and toxic effects on human
resistance
health
Testing

Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories. It is also possible to have
textiles tested according to the Oeko-tex certification standard, which contains limits levels for the use of
certain chemicals in textiles products.

Laws and regulations

Different countries have certain laws and regulations to protect consumers' interests. The Textile Fiber
Products Identification Act is a law that protects consumers in the United States. The act protects producer
and consumer interests by implementing labelling (required content disclosure) and advertising
requirements on textile products. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act applies to all textile fiber
products besides wool, which is governed by the Wool Product Label Number. The law prohibits
misinformation about the fiber content, misbranding, and any unfair advertising practice, as well as requires
businesses to operate in a particular manner.[137][4]

Testing of textiles
Testing occurs at various stages of the textile manufacturing process, from raw material to finished product.
The purpose of testing is to evaluate and analyze the regulatory compliance, the product's quality and
performance, as well as to measure its specifications. Textile testing encompasses a wide range of
methodologies, procedures, equipment, and sophisticated laboratories. Local governments and authorized
organization's such as ASTM International, International Organization for Standardization, and American
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists establish standards for testing of textiles.[138][139]

Some examples of tests at different stages:

For fiber: Fiber identification is a necessary test for determining fiber content and classifying products. The
labelling of items with their fiber content percentage is a regulatory requirement. Using microscopy,
solubility, and burn tests, fibers are distinguished from one another.[140] More fiber relating tests include
fiber length, diameter, Micronaire.[141]

For yarn: Yarn count, Denier, Strength, evenness.

For fabric: Dimensional stability, color fastness, thread count, G.S.M, pilling, flammability.[138][139][142]

Picture gallery

Textile market on the Magnified view of a Fabric shop in canal Late antique textile,
sidewalks of plain or tabby weave town Mukalla, Egyptian, now in the
Karachi, Pakistan textile Yemen Dumbarton Oaks
collection

Mrs. Condé Nast Traditional Textiles made from The Banton Burial
wearing a silk tablecloth, Alpaca wool at the Cloth, the oldest
Fortuny tea gown Maramureș, Otavalo Artisan existing example of
Romania Market in the Andes warp ikat in
Mountains, Ecuador Southeast Asia,
displayed at the
National Museum of
the Philippines. The
cloth was most likely
made by the native
Asia people of
northwest Romblon.
A double ikat Advertisement for A weaving shed of Textile machinery at
weaving made by Zepel, the trade the Finlayson & Co the Cambrian
the Tausug people name used to factory in Tampere, Factory, Llanwrtyd,
from Sulu, made of market Teflon as a Finland, in 1932[143] Wales, in the 1940s
banana leaf stalk fabric treatment
fiber (Abacá)

Cotton fiber Nylon A variety of A textile factory in

contemporary Israel, 1969
fabrics. From the left:
evenweave cotton,
velvet, printed
cotton, calico, felt,
satin, silk, hessian,
polycotton.
Woven tartan of Embroidered skirts A modern umbrella Appliqué cross. The
Clan Campbell, by the Alfaro-Nùñez fabric has specific edges are covered
Scotland family of Cochas, requirements for and stitches are
Peru, using colour fastness to hidden. It is overlaid
traditional Peruvian light, water and wet with decorative gold
embroidery rubbing, and thread.
methods[144] permeability.

Clothing made of Close-up view of a A fabric tunnel in A modern Manila

textiles, Thailand Barong Tagalog Moulvibazar District, hemp made on
made with piña fiber Bangladesh industrial weaving
in the Philippines machines

See also
Clothing in the ancient world Textile arts
International Down and Feather Testing Textile manufacturing (terminology)
Laboratory Textile printing
List of textile fibres Timeline of clothing and textiles
Technical textile technology

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Further reading
Boucher, François. 20,000 Years of Fashion: The history of costume and personal
adornment. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987 ISBN 0-8109-1693-2.
Conrad, James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of
America's Textile History". Technology and culture 36.1 (1995): 1–28. online (https://www.jst
or.org/stable/3106339).
Jenkins, David, ed.: The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-34107-8.
Payne, Blanche; Winakor, Geitel; Farrell-Beck Jane (1992) The History of Costume, from the
Ancient Mesopotamia to the Twentieth Century, 2nd Edn, HarperCollins ISBN 0-06-047141-
7.
Piponnier, Françoise, and Perrine Mane; Dress in the Middle Ages; Yale UP; 1997; ISBN 0-
300-06906-5.
Postrel, Virginia (10 Nov 2020). The Fabric of Civilization: How Textiles Made the World
(Hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-1-5416-1760-5.
Fisher, Nora (1994). Rio Grande Textiles (Paperbound ed.). Museum of New Mexico Press.
ISBN 0-89013-266-6. Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and
white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of the Museum
of International Folk Art.
Good, Irene (2006). "Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western
Asia". In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Honolulu:
University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 191–214. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4.
Arai, Masanao (Textile Industry Research Institute of Gunma). "From Kitsch to Art Moderne:
Popular Textiles for Women in the First Half of Twentieth-Century Japan (http://digitalcommo
ns.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1142&context=tsaconf)" (Archive (https://web.archive.
org/web/20150412060754/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1142&
context=tsaconf)). Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Textile Society of
America, January 1, 1998.

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