Machine

A machine is a physical system using power to apply forces and

control movement to perform an action. The term is commonly
applied to artificial devices, such as those employing engines or
motors, but also to natural biological macromolecules, such as
molecular machines. Machines can be driven by animals and
people, by natural forces such as wind and water, and by chemical,
thermal, or electrical power, and include a system of mechanisms
that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of
output forces and movement. They can also include computers and
sensors that monitor performance and plan movement, often called A Honda F1 racecar engine.
mechanical systems.

Renaissance natural philosophers identified six simple machines which were the elementary devices that
put a load into motion, and calculated the ratio of output force to input force, known today as mechanical
advantage.[1]

Modern machines are complex systems that consist of structural elements, mechanisms and control
components and include interfaces for convenient use. Examples include: a wide range of vehicles, such as
trains, automobiles, boats and airplanes; appliances in the home and office, including computers, building
air handling and water handling systems; as well as farm machinery, machine tools and factory automation
systems and robots.

Etymology
The English word machine comes
through Middle French from Latin
machina,[2] which in turn derives from
the Greek (Doric μαχανά makhana,
Ionic μηχανή mekhane 'contrivance,
machine, engine',[3] a derivation from
μῆχος mekhos 'means, expedient,
remedy'[4]).[5] The word mechanical
(Greek: μηχανικός) comes from the
same Greek roots. A wider meaning of
'fabric, structure' is found in classical
Latin, but not in Greek usage. This
meaning is found in late medieval
French, and is adopted from the
French into English in the mid-16th
century. James Albert Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine, invented in 1880
and patented in 1881.
In the 17th century, the word machine
could also mean a scheme or plot, a
meaning now expressed by the derived machination. The modern meaning develops out of specialized
application of the term to stage engines used in theater and to military siege engines, both in the late 16th
and early 17th centuries. The OED traces the formal, modern meaning to John Harris' Lexicon Technicum
(1704), which has:

Machine, or Engine, in Mechanicks, is whatsoever hath Force sufficient either to raise or

stop the Motion of a Body. Simple Machines are commonly reckoned to be Six in Number,
viz. the Ballance, Leaver, Pulley, Wheel, Wedge, and Screw. Compound Machines, or
Engines, are innumerable.

The word engine used as a (near-) synonym both by Harris and in later language derives ultimately (via
Old French) from Latin ingenium 'ingenuity, an invention'.

History
The hand axe, made by chipping flint to form a wedge, in the hands of a human
transforms force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting forces and
movement of the workpiece. The hand axe is the first example of a wedge, the
oldest of the six classic simple machines, from which most machines are based.
The second oldest simple machine was the inclined plane (ramp),[6] which has
been used since prehistoric times to move heavy objects.[7][8]

The other four simple machines were invented in the ancient Near East.[9] The
wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia
(modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[10] The lever mechanism first
appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple Flint hand axe found
balance scale, [11] and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology. [12] in Winchester.
The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane
machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,[11] and then in ancient
Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC.[13] The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the
early 2nd millennium BC,[14] and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1802 BC).[15] The
screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented,[16] first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-
Assyrian period (911-609) BC.[17] The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple
machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever.[18]

Three of the simple machines were studied and described by Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd
century BC: the lever, pulley and screw.[19][20] Archimedes discovered the principle of mechanical
advantage in the lever.[21] Later Greek philosophers defined the classic five simple machines (excluding the
inclined plane) and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage.[1] Heron of Alexandria (ca.
10–75 AD) in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can "set a load in motion"; lever, windlass,
pulley, wedge, and screw,[20] and describes their fabrication and uses.[22] However, the Greeks'
understanding was limited to statics (the balance of forces) and did not include dynamics (the tradeoff
between force and distance) or the concept of work.

The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian
Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.[23] The earliest practical wind-
powered machines, the windmill and wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic
Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.[24][25][26][27] The
earliest practical steam-powered machine was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by
Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.[28][29]
 The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD,[30]
and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the
early 11th century,[31] both of which were fundamental to the
growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was also a
precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development
during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.[32] The
crankshaft and camshaft were invented by Al-Jazari in Northern
Mesopotamia circa 1206,[33][34][35] and they later became central
to modern machinery such as the steam engine, internal combustion
engine and automatic controls.[36]

The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim

An ore crushing machine powered by world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument,
a water wheel was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music
sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu
Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the
9th century. [37][38] In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata/robots. He described four
automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could
be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.[39]

During the Renaissance, the dynamics of the Mechanical Powers, as the simple machines were called,
began to be studied from the standpoint of how much useful work they could perform, leading eventually
to the new concept of mechanical work. In 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived the mechanical
advantage of the inclined plane, and it was included with the other simple machines. The complete dynamic
theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche
("On Mechanics").[40][41] He was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy, they
merely transform it.[40]

The classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), but
remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699) and were
further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).[42]

James Watt patented his parallel motion linkage in 1782, which made the double acting steam engine
practical.[43] The Boulton and Watt steam engine and later designs powered steam locomotives, steam
ships, and factories.

The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing,
mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural
conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Western
Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.

Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously
manual labour and draft-animal-based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the
mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of
refined coal.[44]

Simple machines
The idea that a machine can be decomposed into simple movable elements led Archimedes to define the
lever, pulley and screw as simple machines. By the time of the Renaissance this list increased to include the
wheel and axle, wedge and inclined plane. The modern approach to characterizing machines focusses on
the components that allow movement, known as joints.

Wedge (hand axe): Perhaps the first example of a device

designed to manage power is the hand axe, also called biface
and Olorgesailie. A hand axe is made by chipping stone,
generally flint, to form a bifacial edge, or wedge. A wedge is a
simple machine that transforms lateral force and movement of
the tool into a transverse splitting force and movement of the
workpiece. The available power is limited by the effort of the
person using the tool, but because power is the product of
force and movement, the wedge amplifies the force by
reducing the movement. This amplification, or mechanical
advantage is the ratio of the input speed to output speed. For a
wedge this is given by 1/tanα, where α is the tip angle. The
faces of a wedge are modeled as straight lines to form a sliding
or prismatic joint.

Lever: The lever is another important and simple device for

managing power. This is a body that pivots on a fulcrum.
Because the velocity of a point farther from the pivot is greater
than the velocity of a point near the pivot, forces applied far
from the pivot are amplified near the pivot by the associated Table of simple mechanisms, from
decrease in speed. If a is the distance from the pivot to the Chambers' Cyclopædia, 1728.[45] Simple
point where the input force is applied and b is the distance to machines provide a "vocabulary" for
the point where the output force is applied, then a/b is the understanding more complex machines.
mechanical advantage of the lever. The fulcrum of a lever is
modeled as a hinged or revolute joint.

Wheel: The wheel is an important early machine, such as the chariot. A wheel uses the law of the lever to
reduce the force needed to overcome friction when pulling a load. To see this notice that the friction
associated with pulling a load on the ground is approximately the same as the friction in a simple bearing
that supports the load on the axle of a wheel. However, the wheel forms a lever that magnifies the pulling
force so that it overcomes the frictional resistance in the bearing.

The classification of simple machines to provide a strategy for the

design of new machines was developed by Franz Reuleaux, who
collected and studied over 800 elementary machines.[46] He
recognized that the classical simple machines can be separated into the
lever, pulley and wheel and axle that are formed by a body rotating
about a hinge, and the inclined plane, wedge and screw that are
similarly a block sliding on a flat surface.[47]

Simple machines are elementary examples of kinematic chains or

linkages that are used to model mechanical systems ranging from the
steam engine to robot manipulators. The bearings that form the
fulcrum of a lever and that allow the wheel and axle and pulleys to
rotate are examples of a kinematic pair called a hinged joint. Similarly,
the flat surface of an inclined plane and wedge are examples of the Illustration of a four-bar linkage
kinematic pair called a sliding joint. The screw is usually identified as from The Kinematics of
its own kinematic pair called a helical joint. Machinery, 1876
This realization shows that it is the joints, or the connections that provide movement, that are the primary
elements of a machine. Starting with four types of joints, the rotary joint, sliding joint, cam joint and gear
joint, and related connections such as cables and belts, it is possible to understand a machine as an assembly
of solid parts that connect these joints called a mechanism .[48]

Two levers, or cranks, are combined into a planar four-bar linkage by attaching a link that connects the
output of one crank to the input of another. Additional links can be attached to form a six-bar linkage or in
series to form a robot.[48]

Mechanical systems
A mechanical system manages power to accomplish a
task that involves forces and movement. Modern
machines are systems consisting of (i) a power source
and actuators that generate forces and movement, (ii) a
system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to
achieve a specific application of output forces and
movement, (iii) a controller with sensors that compare
the output to a performance goal and then directs the
actuator input, and (iv) an interface to an operator
consisting of levers, switches, and displays. This can
be seen in Watt's steam engine in which the power is
provided by steam expanding to drive the piston. The
walking beam, coupler and crank transform the linear
movement of the piston into rotation of the output
pulley. Finally, the pulley rotation drives the flyball
governor which controls the valve for the steam input
to the piston cylinder.

The adjective "mechanical" refers to skill in the The Boulton & Watt Steam Engine, 1784
practical application of an art or science, as well as
relating to or caused by movement, physical forces,
properties or agents such as is dealt with by mechanics.[49] Similarly Merriam-Webster Dictionary[50]
defines "mechanical" as relating to machinery or tools.

Power flow through a machine provides a way to understand the performance of devices ranging from
levers and gear trains to automobiles and robotic systems. The German mechanician Franz Reuleaux[51]
wrote, "a machine is a combination of resistant bodies so arranged that by their means the mechanical
forces of nature can be compelled to do work accompanied by certain determinate motion." Notice that
forces and motion combine to define power.

More recently, Uicker et al.[48] stated that a machine is "a device for applying power or changing its
direction."McCarthy and Soh[52] describe a machine as a system that "generally consists of a power source
and a mechanism for the controlled use of this power."

Power sources
Human and animal effort were the original power sources for early machines.
Waterwheel: Waterwheels appeared around
the world around 300 BC to use flowing water
to generate rotary motion, which was applied
to milling grain, and powering lumber,
machining and textile operations. Modern
water turbines use water flowing through a
dam to drive an electric generator.

Windmill: Early windmills captured wind

power to generate rotary motion for milling
operations. Modern wind turbines also drives a
generator. This electricity in turn is used to
drive motors forming the actuators of
mechanical systems. Diesel engine, friction clutch and gear transmission of an
automobile.
Engine: The word engine derives from
"ingenuity" and originally referred to
contrivances that may or may not be physical devices.[53] A steam
engine uses heat to boil water contained in a pressure vessel; the
expanding steam drives a piston or a turbine. This principle can be
seen in the aeolipile of Hero of Alexandria. This is called an
external combustion engine.

An automobile engine is called an internal combustion engine

because it burns fuel (an exothermic chemical reaction) inside a
cylinder and uses the expanding gases to drive a piston. A jet
engine uses a turbine to compress air which is burned with fuel so Early Ganz Electric Generator in
that it expands through a nozzle to provide thrust to an aircraft, and Zwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium
so is also an "internal combustion engine." [54]

Power plant: The heat from coal and natural gas combustion in a boiler generates steam that drives a steam
turbine to rotate an electric generator. A nuclear power plant uses heat from a nuclear reactor to generate
steam and electric power. This power is distributed through a network of transmission lines for industrial
and individual use.

Motors: Electric motors use either AC or DC electric current to generate rotational movement. Electric
servomotors are the actuators for mechanical systems ranging from robotic systems to modern aircraft.

Fluid Power: Hydraulic and pneumatic systems use electrically driven pumps to drive water or air
respectively into cylinders to power linear movement.

Electrochemical: Chemicals and materials can also be sources of power.[55] They may chemically deplete
or need re-charging, as is the case with batteries,[56] or they may produce power without changing their
state, which is the case for solar cells and thermoelectric generators.[57][58] All of these, however, still
require their energy to come from elsewhere. With batteries, it is the already existing chemical potential
energy inside.[56] In solar cells and thermoelectrics, the energy source is light and heat respectively.[57][58]

Mechanisms
The mechanism of a mechanical system is assembled from components called machine elements. These
elements provide structure for the system and control its movement.
The structural components are, generally, the frame members, bearings, splines, springs, seals, fasteners and
covers. The shape, texture and color of covers provide a styling and operational interface between the
mechanical system and its users.

The assemblies that control movement are also called "mechanisms."[51][59] Mechanisms are generally
classified as gears and gear trains, which includes belt drives and chain drives, cam and follower
mechanisms, and linkages, though there are other special mechanisms such as clamping linkages, indexing
mechanisms, escapements and friction devices such as brakes and clutches.

The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism, or its mobility, depends on the number of links and
joints and the types of joints used to construct the mechanism. The general mobility of a mechanism is the
difference between the unconstrained freedom of the links and the number of constraints imposed by the
joints. It is described by the Chebychev-Grübler-Kutzbach criterion.

Gears and gear trains

The transmission of rotation between contacting toothed

wheels can be traced back to the Antikythera mechanism of
Greece and the south-pointing chariot of China. Illustrations
by the renaissance scientist Georgius Agricola show gear trains
with cylindrical teeth. The implementation of the involute
tooth yielded a standard gear design that provides a constant
speed ratio. Some important features of gears and gear trains
are:

The ratio of the pitch circles of mating gears defines the

speed ratio and the mechanical advantage of the gear
set.
The Antikythera mechanism (main
A planetary gear train provides high gear reduction in a
fragment)
compact package.
It is possible to design gear teeth for gears that are non-
circular, yet still transmit torque smoothly.
The speed ratios of chain and belt drives are computed in the same way as gear ratios. See
bicycle gearing.

Cam and follower mechanisms

A cam and follower is formed by the direct contact of two specially shaped links. The driving link is called
the cam (also see cam shaft) and the link that is driven through the direct contact of their surfaces is called
the follower. The shape of the contacting surfaces of the cam and follower determines the movement of the
mechanism.

Linkages

A linkage is a collection of links connected by joints. Generally, the links are the structural elements and the
joints allow movement. Perhaps the single most useful example is the planar four-bar linkage. However,
there are many more special linkages:

Watt's linkage is a four-bar linkage that generates an approximate straight line. It was critical
to the operation of his design for the steam engine. This linkage also appears in vehicle
 suspensions to prevent side-to-side
movement of the body relative to the wheels.
Also see the article Parallel motion.
The success of Watt's linkage lead to the
design of similar approximate straight-line
linkages, such as Hoeken's linkage and
Chebyshev's linkage.
The Peaucellier linkage generates a true
straight-line output from a rotary input.
The Sarrus linkage is a spatial linkage that
generates straight-line movement from a
rotary input.
The Klann linkage and the Jansen linkage
are recent inventions that provide interesting
walking movements. They are respectively a
six-bar and an eight-bar linkage.
Schematic of the actuator and four-bar linkage that
position an aircraft landing gear.
Planar mechanism

A planar mechanism is a mechanical system that is constrained so the trajectories of points in all the bodies
of the system lie on planes parallel to a ground plane. The rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the
bodies in the system are perpendicular to this ground plane.

Spherical mechanism

A spherical mechanism is a mechanical system in which the bodies move in a way that the trajectories of
points in the system lie on concentric spheres. The rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the bodies in
the system pass through the center of these circle.

Spatial mechanism

A spatial mechanism is a mechanical system that has at least one body that moves in a way that its point
trajectories are general space curves. The rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the bodies in the
system form lines in space that do not intersect and have distinct common normals.

Flexure mechanisms

A flexure mechanism consists of a series of rigid bodies connected by compliant elements (also known as
flexure joints) that is designed to produce a geometrically well-defined motion upon application of a force.

Machine elements
The elementary mechanical components of a machine are termed machine elements. These elements
consist of three basic types (i) structural components such as frame members, bearings, axles, splines,
fasteners, seals, and lubricants, (ii) mechanisms that control movement in various ways such as gear trains,
belt or chain drives, linkages, cam and follower systems, including brakes and clutches, and (iii) control
components such as buttons, switches, indicators, sensors, actuators and computer controllers.[60] While
generally not considered to be a machine element, the shape, texture and color of covers are an important
part of a machine that provide a styling and operational interface between the mechanical components of a
machine and its users.

Structural components

A number of machine elements provide important structural functions such as the frame, bearings, splines,
spring and seals.

The recognition that the frame of a mechanism is an important machine element changed
the name three-bar linkage into four-bar linkage. Frames are generally assembled from truss
or beam elements.
Bearings are components designed to manage the interface between moving elements and
are the source of friction in machines. In general, bearings are designed for pure rotation or
straight line movement.
Splines and keys are two ways to reliably mount an axle to a wheel, pulley or gear so that
torque can be transferred through the connection.
Springs provides forces that can either hold components of a machine in place or acts as a
suspension to support part of a machine.
Seals are used between mating parts of a machine to ensure fluids, such as water, hot
gases, or lubricant do not leak between the mating surfaces.
Fasteners such as screws, bolts, spring clips, and rivets are critical to the assembly of
components of a machine. Fasteners are generally considered to be removable. In contrast,
joining methods, such as welding, soldering, crimping and the application of adhesives,
usually require cutting the parts to disassemble the components

Controllers
Controllers combine sensors, logic, and actuators to maintain the performance of components of a machine.
Perhaps the best known is the flyball governor for a steam engine. Examples of these devices range from a
thermostat that as temperature rises opens a valve to cooling water to speed controllers such as the cruise
control system in an automobile. The programmable logic controller replaced relays and specialized control
mechanisms with a programmable computer. Servomotors that accurately position a shaft in response to an
electrical command are the actuators that make robotic systems possible.

Computing machines
Charles Babbage designed machines to tabulate logarithms and other functions in 1837. His Difference
engine can be considered an advanced mechanical calculator and his Analytical Engine a forerunner of the
modern computer, though none of the larger designs were completed in Babbage's lifetime.

The Arithmometer and the Comptometer are mechanical computers that are precursors to modern digital
computers. Models used to study modern computers are termed State machine and Turing machine.

Molecular machines
The biological molecule myosin reacts to ATP and ADP to alternately engage with an actin filament and
change its shape in a way that exerts a force, and then disengage to reset its shape, or conformation. This
acts as the molecular drive that causes muscle contraction. Similarly the biological molecule kinesin has two
 sections
that
alternately
engage
and
disengage
with

Arithmometre, designed by Charles Xavier

Thomas, c. 1820, for the four rules of arithmetic,
manufactured 1866-1870 AD. Exhibit in the
Tekniska museet, Stockholm, Sweden.
A ribosome is a biological machine that
utilizes protein dynamics
microtubules causing the molecule to move along the
microtubule and transport vesicles within the cell, and dynein,
which moves cargo inside cells towards the nucleus and produces the axonemal beating of motile cilia and
flagella. "In effect, the motile cilium is a nanomachine composed of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular
complexes, many of which also function independently as nanomachines. Flexible linkers allow the mobile
protein domains connected by them to recruit their binding partners and induce long-range allostery via
protein domain dynamics. "[61] Other biological machines are responsible for energy production, for
example ATP synthase which harnesses energy from proton gradients across membranes to drive a turbine-
like motion used to synthesise ATP, the energy currency of a cell.[62] Still other machines are responsible
for gene expression, including DNA polymerases for replicating DNA, RNA polymerases for producing
mRNA, the spliceosome for removing introns, and the ribosome for synthesising proteins. These machines
and their nanoscale dynamics are far more complex than any molecular machines that have yet been
artificially constructed.[63] These molecules are increasingly considered to be nanomachines.

Researchers have used DNA to construct nano-dimensioned four-bar linkages.[64][65]

Impact

Mechanization and automation

Mechanization or mechanisation (BE) is providing human operators with machinery that assists them with
the muscular requirements of work or displaces muscular work. In some fields, mechanization includes the
use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies machinery
more complex than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as an un-geared horse or donkey
mill. Devices that cause speed changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary motion, using means
such as gears, pulleys or sheaves and belts, shafts, cams and cranks, usually are considered machines. After
electrification, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous
with motorized machines.[66]

Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the need for human work
in the production of goods and services. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond
mechanization. Whereas mechanization provides human operators with machinery to assist them with the
muscular requirements of work, automation greatly decreases the
need for human sensory and mental requirements as well.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world
economy and in daily experience.

Automata

An automaton (plural: automata or automatons) is a self-

operating machine. The word is sometimes used to describe a
robot, more specifically an autonomous robot. A Toy Automaton
was patented in 1863.[67]

Mechanics
Usher[68] reports that Hero of Alexandria's treatise on Mechanics
focussed on the study of lifting heavy weights. Today mechanics
refers to the mathematical analysis of the forces and movement of a
mechanical system, and consists of the study of the kinematics and
dynamics of these systems. A water-powered mine hoist used for
raising ore. This woodblock is from
De re metallica by Georg Bauer
Dynamics of machines (Latinized name Georgius Agricola,
ca. 1555), an early mining textbook
The dynamic analysis of machines begins with a rigid-body model that contains numerous drawings and
to determine reactions at the bearings, at which point the elasticity descriptions of mining equipment.
effects are included. The rigid-body dynamics studies the
movement of systems of interconnected bodies under the action of
external forces. The assumption that the bodies are rigid, which means that they do not deform under the
action of applied forces, simplifies the analysis by reducing the parameters that describe the configuration of
the system to the translation and rotation of reference frames attached to each body.[69][70]

The dynamics of a rigid body system is defined by its equations of motion, which are derived using either
Newtons laws of motion or Lagrangian mechanics. The solution of these equations of motion defines how
the configuration of the system of rigid bodies changes as a function of time. The formulation and solution
of rigid body dynamics is an important tool in the computer simulation of mechanical systems.

Kinematics of machines

The dynamic analysis of a machine requires the determination of the movement, or kinematics, of its
component parts, known as kinematic analysis. The assumption that the system is an assembly of rigid
components allows rotational and translational movement to be modeled mathematically as Euclidean, or
rigid, transformations. This allows the position, velocity and acceleration of all points in a component to be
determined from these properties for a reference point, and the angular position, angular velocity and
angular acceleration of the component.

Machine design
Machine design refers to the procedures and techniques used to address the three phases of a machine's
lifecycle:
1. invention, which involves the identification of a need, development of requirements,
concept generation, prototype development, manufacturing, and verification testing;
2. performance engineering involves enhancing manufacturing efficiency, reducing service
and maintenance demands, adding features and improving effectiveness, and validation
testing;
3. recycle is the decommissioning and disposal phase and includes recovery and reuse of
materials and components.

See also
Automaton
Gear train
History of technology
Linkage (mechanical)
List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by
revenue
Mechanism (engineering)
Mechanical advantage
Outline of automation
Outline of machines
Power (physics)
Simple machines
Technology
Virtual work
Work (physics)

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Further reading
Oberg, Erik; Franklin D. Jones; Holbrook L. Horton; Henry H. Ryffel (2000). Christopher J.
McCauley; Riccardo Heald; Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (eds.). Machinery's Handbook
(26th ed.). New York: Industrial Press Inc. ISBN 978-0-8311-2635-3.
Reuleaux, Franz (1876). The Kinematics of Machinery. Trans. and annotated by A. B. W.
Kennedy. New York: reprinted by Dover (1963).
Uicker, J. J.; G. R. Pennock; J. E. Shigley (2003). Theory of Machines and Mechanisms.
New York: Oxford University Press.

Oberg, Erik; Franklin D. Jones; Holbrook L. Horton; Henry H. Ryffel (2000). Christopher J.
McCauley; Riccardo Heald; Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (eds.). Machinery's Handbook
(30th ed.). New York: Industrial Press Inc. ISBN 9780831130992.

External links
Media related to Machines at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Machine at Wikiquote
Reuleaux Collection of Mechanisms and Machines at Cornell University (http://kmoddl.librar
y.cornell.edu/model.php?m=reuleaux)

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