WATER TREATMENT

BACKGROUND
• By nature, water is known to be pure as it is composed of strongly bonded atoms of
hydrogen and oxygen. However, the water supply across the globe has to share
space with other things such as organic materials, minerals, chemicals and manmade
pollutants. This brings about an undrinkable solution, since it can contain deadly
bacteria and viruses, among other disease-causing agents. Luckily, mankind was
able to develop different water treatment methods to allow our water supply to be
safe to drink. While there are some methods that are not effective on a larger scale,
all of them make untreated water potable for human consumption.
• The process of treating water may have slight differences at various locations, based
on the plant’s technology as well as the type of water that needs to be treated.
Nevertheless, the basic principals are the same. The following section talks about the
standard processes of water treatment.

• Primary objectives of water treatments are;

1. Remove suspended material (turbidity) , color, odour and taste, dissolved
minerals and harmful organic materials
2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms
 Preliminary studies
Feasibility Study
1. Planning period: 10 ~ 30 yrs
2. Water supply areas
3. Future population
4. Maximum daily water demand
Average annual rate: 100 (80~120) L/c.d
Maximum daily demand: 150% of avg. annual rate
5. Evaluation and selection of the water source ( River, lake, artificial reservoir,
groundwater, reclaimed sewage or seawater, etc.)
6. Quantity, quality, climatic conditions, operator safety, minimal operations and
maintenance costs, potential future contamination, easy intake expansion
7. Size of the water treatment plant… site area
Example the required available site area: One large plant vs two or three medium
size plants [Treatment plant size]
8. Geographical location, geological information, availability of electric power and
utilities, accessibility to major highways, history of flooding, construction cost, site
maintenance costs, provisions for future plant expansion
9. Financing
 Quality and Treatability of Raw Water
Surface water:
• Review 5 ~ 10 yrs of physical, chemical, microbiological,
and radiological characteristics of the raw water.
• Conduct a risk assessment for potential contamination.
• Assess the degree of present and future land development
in the water shed.

Groundwater:
• Consider the same factors associated with surface water.
• Geological conditions, water tables, the drawdown of the
water table due to pumping, seawater intrusion, potential
leaching of industrial wastes, domestic wastes, agricultural
chemicals, and fertilizers into the groundwater.
 Surface Water Treatment
Sedimentatio
Screen n
Surface water basin
from supply
Rapid Flocculation
Rapid Mix Basin
Sand Filter Sludge
Disinfection
To
Storage Distribution
System
 Screening
• To protect the main units of a treatment plant and to aid in their efficient operation, it
is necessary to use screens to remove any large floating and suspended solids that
are present in the inflow. These materials include leaves, twigs, paper, rags and other
debris that could obstruct flow through the plant or damage equipment. There are
coarse and fine screens.

Coarse screens are steel bars spaced 5–15 cm apart, which are employed to exclude
large materials (such as logs and fish) from entering the treatment plant, as these can
damage the mechanical equipment. The screens are made of corrosion-resistant bars
and positioned at an angle of 60º to facilitate removal of the collected material by
mechanical raking.
• Fine screens, which come after the coarse screens, keep out material that can
block pipework at the plant. They consist of steel bars which are spaced 5–20 mm
apart. A variation of the fine screen is the microstrainer (Picture below) which
consists of a rotating drum of stainless steel mesh with a very small mesh size
(ranging from 15 µm to 64 µm, i.e. 15–64 millionths of a metre). Suspended matter as
small as algae and plankton (microscopic organisms that float with the current in
water) can be trapped. The trapped solids are dislodged from the fabric by high-
pressure water jets using clean water, and carried away for disposal.
 Coagulation and flocculation
Coagulation / Flocculation
• Coagulation is adding liquid aluminum sulfate or alum and/or polymer to raw or
untreated water. The resulting mixture causes the dirt particles in the water to
coagulate or stick together. Then, the groups of dirt particles attach together, forming
larger particles named flocs that can easily be removed via filtration or settling.

• Coagulation is always considered along with flocculation and is used to remove

particles which cannot be removed by sedimentation or filtration alone.
• These particles are usually less than 1 μm in size and are termed colloids.
• They have poor settling characteristics and are responsible for the colour and
turbidity of water.

• They include clays, metal oxides, proteins, micro-organisms and organic substances
such as those that give the brown coloration to water from ‘peaty’ catchment areas.

• The important property which they all have is that they carry a negative charge and
this, along with the interaction between the colloidal particles and the water, prevents
them from aggregating and settling in still water.

• The particles can be aggregated by adding either multivalent ions or colloids having
an opposite (positive) charge. These are added as chemical coagulants.
 Three Steps
coagulation/flocculation consists of three processes - flash mix,
coagulation, and flocculation.
• Chemicals commonly used as coagulants in water treatment are
aluminum and ferric salts which are present as the ions Al3+ and
Fe3+.
• →Aluminum sulfate(Al2(SO4)3.14H2O orAl2(SO4)3.18H2O)
• →Iron salts (e.g. ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride)
• These positively charged multivalent ions neutralise the naturally
occurring negatively charged particles, thus allowing the particles to
aggregate.

At high concentrations of aluminium or ferric salts, and in the presence

of sufficient alkalinity, insoluble hydroxides of aluminium or iron are
formed (see below).
Feeding of Alum in Water Treatment Plants:
• →Alum is dissolved in water at concentration of 3-7% (5% most common)
• Then fed to the raw water by chemical feeders(e.g, dosage pumps)

Reason of diluting coagulant before injection into raw water :

• large volumes are easier and quicker to disperse into a large body of raw water than
smaller volumes
Coagulant Aids
• Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken
to use the proper amount of these chemicals. In many cases,
coagulant aids are not required during the normal operation of the
treatment plant, but are used during emergency treatment of water
which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation and
sedimentation basin. A couple of coagulant aids will be considered
below.

• Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the

water. The increase in alkalinity results in an increase in ions
(electrically charged particles) in the water, some of which are
positively charged. These positively charged particles attract the
colloidal particles in the water, forming floc.

• Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high

in color and low in turbidity and mineral content. This type of water
usually would not form floc large enough to settle out of the
water. The bentonite joins with the small floc, making the floc
heavier and thus making it settle more quickly.
•
Coagulation-Flocculation-Sedimentation
 Review

• Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color,

and some bacteria from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals
are added to the water and mixed violently for less than a minute.
• These coagulants consist of primary coagulants and/or coagulant
aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is gently stirred for
30 to 45 minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote
floc formation. The floc then settles out in the sedimentation basin.
• Coagulation removes colloids and suspended solids from the
water. These particles have a negative charge, so the positively
charged coagulant chemicals neutralize them during coagulation.
• Then, during flocculation, the particles are drawn together by van
der Waal's forces, forming floc. The coagulation/flocculation
process is affected by pH, salts, alkalinity, turbidity, temperature,
mixing, and coagulant chemicals.
Flocculation Process
Flocculation is generally affected by slowly rotating large-diameter mixers.
Older treatment plants may contain separate flocculation basins such as
those in figures below in which large paddle wheel mixers are mounted
horizontal or vertically. Newer plants are more likely to incorporate
dispersion of the coagulant (flash mixing), flocculation and sedimentation in
a single unit called contact clarifier
 Rapid Mixing
• The rapid mixing is intended to mix the water to permit agglomeration of turbidity
settled particles into larger flocs which would have a mean velocity gradient ranging
20 to 70 /s for a contact time of 20 to 30 min taking place in the flocculation basin
• Retention time from 10 - 30 sec.
• Mechanical mixing using vertical-shaft impeller in tank with baffles
 Rapid Mixing
• The conduits between the rapid mix tank and the flocculation basin should maintain G values
of 100 – 150/s before entering the basin
• For baffled basin, G value is ;
Where;
G =mean velocity gradient s-1
Q = flow rate m3/s
γ = Specific weight of water kg/m3
H = Head loss due to friction, m
µ = Absolute viscosity kg/s.m2
V = Volume of flocculator m3
t = Detention time,s
EXAMPLE
• In a baffled basin with detention time of 25 min. Estimate head loss if G is 30 per second, µ =
1.1152 x10-4 kg.s/m2 at T = 60°F

• Note , V/Q =t

SOLUTION
H = G2µt/γ = (302 x 1.1152 x10-4 x 25 x 60/(9810)
H = 0.0153 m [ headloss]
 Example :Flocculation
• A 20 MLD (megalitre per day, Q) water treatment plant has two mechanical
flocculating tanks each having a retention time of 35 minutes. Length: Width
Ratio = 4:1 Depth of water in tank = 3.0 m Hydraulic gradient = 50 s-1
Dynamic viscosity = 0.798 x 10-3 kg/ms Velocity of paddle = 0.4 m/s
Coefficient of drag = 1.8
Data Given
• Length: Width Ratio = 4:1
• Depth of water in tank = 3.0 m
• Hydraulic gradient = 50 s-1
• Dynamic viscosity = 0.798 x 10-3 kg/ms
• Velocity of paddle = 0.4 m/s
• Coefficient of drag = 1.8

Based on the information above, answers the following questions:

i. Determine the length and width of the flocculating tank
ii. Calculate the power required for each tank
iii. Find the area of each plate if the flocculator has 3 paddles and every paddle
has 3 plates.
 Exercise 1
• A 60 MLD (megalitre per day, Q) water treatment plant has three
mechanical flocculating tanks each having a retention time of 45 minutes.
Length: Width Ratio = 5:1 Depth of water in tank = 3.2 m Hydraulic
gradient = 50 s-1 Dynamic viscosity = 0.798 x 10-3 kg/ms . Velocity of
paddle = 0.5 m/s Coefficient of drag = 1.8

Based on the information above, answers the following questions:

i. Determine the length and width of the flocculating tank
ii. Calculate the power required for each tank
iii. Find the area of each plate if the flocculator has 3 paddles and every
paddle has 3 plates.
 Sedimentation
• Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the water is lowered
below the suspension velocity and the suspended particles settle out of the water due
to gravity. The process is also known as settling or clarification.
• The most common form of sedimentation follows coagulation and flocculation and
precedes filtration. This type of sedimentation requires chemical addition (in the
coagulation/flocculation step) and removes the resulting floc from the water.
• Sedimentation at this stage in the treatment process should remove 90% of the
suspended particles from the water, including bacteria. The purpose of
sedimentation here is to decrease the concentration of suspended particles in the
water, reducing the load on the filters.
• Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pretreatment
process, where it is known as presedimentation.
• Presedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation
because the process depends merely on gravity and includes no
coagulation and flocculation.
• Without coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can remove
only coarse suspended matter (such as grit) which will settle
rapidly out of the water without the addition of chemicals.
• This type of sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir, grit
basin, debris dam, or sand trap at the beginning of the treatment
process.
 Types of Basins
• Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:
(i) Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to
flow horizontally through a long tank. This type of basin is usually
found in large-scale water treatment plants.
• Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages - predictability,
cost-effectiveness, and low maintenance. In addition, rectangular
basins are the least likely to short-circuit, especially if the length is at
least twice the width.
• A disadvantage of rectangular basins is the large amount of land
area required.

Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in which water bypasses the

normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet in less than the
normal detention time
 • Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two rectangular
sedimentation basins stacked one atop the other.
• This type of basin conserves land area, but has higher operation
and maintenance costs than a one-level rectangular basin.

Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are often known as
clarifiers. This type of basin is likely to have short-circuiting problems.
 Sedimentation Zones

• All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the
settling zone, the sludge zone, and the outlet zone.
• Each zone should provide a smooth transition between the zone
before and the zone after. In addition, each zone has its own unique
purpose.
Inlet Zone
• The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin
are to distribute the water and to control the water's velocity as it enters
the basin.

• The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed

across the width of the basin to prevent short-circuiting and control the
velocity of the incoming flow

• If the water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in the water will
break up due to agitation of the water.

• Breakup of floc in the sedimentation basin will make settling much less
efficient.
Settling Zone
• After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where
water velocity is greatly reduced.
• This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up the
largest volume of the sedimentation basin.
• The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some
cases, tube settlers and lamella plates, such as those shown below, are
included in the settling zone.

Outlet Zone
• The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin -
both the amount of water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from
which the outflowing water is drawn.
• Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting of
water in the basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only well-settled
water leaves the basin and enters the filter. The outlet can also be used to
control the water level in the basin.
•
Outlets are designed to ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation
basin has the minimum amount of floc suspended in it. The best quality water
is usually found at the very top of the sedimentation basin, so outlets are
usually designed to skim this water off the sedimentation basin.
Sludge Zone
• The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where
the sludge collects temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to
prevent resuspension of sludge.

• A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from
the tank. The tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate
sludge removal.

• In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated

equipment. In other plants, sludge must be removed manually.
• If removed manually, the basin should be cleaned at least twice per year, or
more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. Many plants have at least two
sedimentation basins so that water can continue to be treated while one basin
is being cleaned, maintained, and inspected.

• If sludge is not removed from the sedimentation basin often enough, the
effective (useable) volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the efficiency of
sedimentation. In addition, the sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may
become septic, meaning that it has begun to decay anaerobically.

• Septic sludge may result in taste and odor problems or may float to the top of
the water and become scum. Sludge may also become resuspended in the
water and be carried over to the filters.
 Question

• By using detailed diagram discuss the

function(s) of four zones of
sedimentation basin
 Settling Operations
• Particles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity:

1) Vertical component: vt=(ρp-ρ)gd2

18µ
2) Horizontal component: vh=Q/A

where:
ρp = density of particles
ρ = density of water
d = diameter of particles
µ = dynamic viscosity

• path of the particle is given by the vector sum of horizontal velocity

vh and vertical settling velocity vt.
• All particles with vt>v0 will be removed from suspension at some
point along the settling zone
• The time t corresponds to the retention time in
the settling zone. t= V = LZ0W
Q Q
• Overflow rate or surface loading rate is
calculated by dividing the average daily
flow by the total area of the sedimentation
basin as follows; µ= Q/A = Q/lw
where = overflow rate, m3/m2.d
 Problem:1
• A water treatment plant has four clarifiers
treating 0.175 m3/s of water. Each clarifier
is 4.88 m wide, 24.4 m long and 4.57 m
deep. Determine
a) the detention time
b)Overflow rate
c)Horizontal velocity and
d)Weir loading rate assuming the weir length
is 2.5 times the basin (µ = Q/2.5w)
 Solution 2

Note Q/4 = 0.04375 m3/s

a) t= V/Q = lwd/(0.175/4) = 3.45 h
b) u = Q/lw x 3600 x 24 = 31.75 m3/m2.d
c) V =Q/wd = 11.8 cm/min
d) Uw =Q/2.5w x 3600 x 24 = 310 m2/m.d
 Problem:2
• A water treatment plant has three clarifiers
treating 0.200 m3/s of water. Each clarifier
is 5.2 wide, 26 m long and 5 m deep.
Determine
a) the detention time
b)Overflow rate
c)Horizontal velocity and
d)Weir loading rate assuming the weir length
is 2.5 times the basin (µ = Q/2.5w)
 HOMEWORK
Criteria for the selection of the site for water treatment plant