BIOGEOGRAPHY

ECOSYSTEMS

- Ecosystems components and energy flows

Food Chain

- This shows a series of feeding relationship between organisms within an ecosystem

- It shows the feeding styles from producers to consumers

- A food chain can also be called a feeding series

- It shows a clear pathway of energy flow from the producers to the consumers with the decomposers acting on each
level

- Each level of feeding in a food chain is called trophic level

Food Web

- When a food chain becomes more interconnected due to the complexities in the feeding habits of organisms it is
called a food web

- In a food web organisms do not rely on one source of food but can eat several plants or other organisms while they
can be consumed also by other organisms

- Food webs give rise to a stable ecosystem that cannot be easily disrupted by the elimination of one organism
- In a food web an organism have more than one food source and the same organism can be a food source for more
than one organism

Trophic levels

- Energy is passed from one trophic level to another. Lower trophic levels provide energy for the needs of higher
trophic levels. This depends on the energy trapped by producers and then passed on to successive stages

- Energy decreases with increase in trophic level

- Loss of heat energy at each trophic level in the ecosystem ensures that the amount of potential energy decreases
through species network reducing the number of species in the upper trophic levels

Nutrient Cycle

- This explains the continuous movement and exchange of chemical elements between the biotic and abiotic
component of the earth

- These chemicals elements include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and phosphorus

- The movement is cyclic in nature meaning that the elements are not used up. Disruption of the cycle will disturb the
natural state of the equilibrium

Nitrogen Cycle

- Nitrogen constitutes about 79% of atmospheric gases

- Nitrogen is a very essential element in the constituency of protein

- Nitrogen content in molecules are found in nuclei acids, amino acids and vitamins which are essential in building
tissues or several organisms

- Can be derived from the use of fertilisers like ammonium nitrate

- In its gaseous state cannot be directly used by organisms

- Nitrogen has to combine with hydrogen and oxygen before it is absorbed/used by plants

- Main processes involved in the cycle are nitrogen fixation, ammonification, nitrification, leaching and dinitrification.
These processes are continuous and linked together. They do not work in isolation.
Nitrogen Fixation

- The main storage for nitrogen is the atmosphere

- The atmosphere storage is transferred to nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria. This bacteria transforms gas to
ammonium ions found in leguminous plants like groundnuts, clover and beans

- Some small amounts of the gas are also fixed through lightning

- Free living bacteria are essential to the cycling of nitrogen

Ammonification

- Involves decomposition of biological waste by specialised bacteria

- Decomposition results in the release of ammonium ions and ammonia into the atmosphere where there are either
altered to molecular nitrogen or dissolved in rain

- Ammonia can be emitted also as animal extraction and urinary waste

Nitrification

- This is a two stage process which involves the change of ammonia into nitrates which can be absorbed by plants

- The first stage involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitrites while the secondary stage involves oxidation nitrites to
nitrates

- Nitrates are soluble in water and can be absorbed by plants to form organic nitrogen necessary for plant life

- Nitrogen fixation is an aerobic process which requires the supply of oxygen

Dinitrification

- This is the reverse of nitrification

- Nitrates are reduced to molecular nitrogen and nitrous oxides

- This operates under the under the influence of dinitrification bacteria which operates under aerobic condition
process transforms and transfers nitrogen in gaseous form to the atmosphere

Carbon Cycle

- Carbon dioxide constitutes about 0.05% of the gases in the atmosphere but is very important in regulating
atmospheric temperature

- Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis which would be rechanneled back into the atmosphere through
respiration

- Carbon dioxide gases also released into the atmosphere in gaseous form through volcanic eruption and industrial
emission

- Carbon is also locked in carbon containing rocks like coal. The carbon is released during weathering or when burnt

- During tectonic movements calcareous rocks are crushed and in the process carbon dioxide escapes into the
atmosphere

VEGETATION

Factors affecting vegetation growth

- These can be divided into climatic, biotic, topographic, edaphic/soil and human factors

1. Climatic Factors

Precipitation
- Largely determines vegetation type e.g. forests, grasslands or desers

- Heavy rainfall throughout the year enables forests to grow e.g. tropical rainforests where plants need heavy and
constant supply of water

- Savanna grasses grow in tropical latitudes where rainfall is seasonal and insufficient for vegetation growth

- Coniferous forest where trees grow due to lower rates of evaporation and transpiration

- When rainfall is limited throughout the year either a desert biome develops where ephemerals (plants with very
short life cycles) are dominant or a tundra biome where precipitation falls as snow and low temperature combine to
discourage plant growth

Temperature

- Where minimum monthly temperature remain above 210C throughout the year and there is a constant supply of
moisture, broad leafed evergreen trees tend to dominate like the tropical rainforest

- High temperature and underground water explains why the Zambezi, Save and Limpopo valleys have dense
vegetation

- Desert areas are hot but too dry to supply plant life

- The lower the temperature the fewer the number of soil organisms and the breakdown of humus and recycling of
nutrients needed for plant growth is slow

Light Intensity

- This affect the process of photosynthesis

- Tropical ecosystems receive most incoming radiation, have higher energy inputs compared to ecosystems nearer to
the poles

Wind

- Wind increases the rate of evaporation and transpiration

- Trees are liable to bend if exposed to very strong winds

Altitude

- As altitude increase, few species, trees grow less tall

- Relief may provide protection against heavy rainfall (rain shadow) and wind)

Slope Angle

- This influence soil depth, soil pH and drainage

- Steeper slopes have thinner soils, less water logged and less acidic than gentler slopes

Aspect

- The direction in which the slope faces affects sunlight and temperature

- Southern facing slopes in the northern hemisphere are more favourable to plant growth than those facing north
because they are brighter, warmer and drier

3. Edaphic/Soil factors

- Shallow, stony or rocky soils e.g. deserts lack nutrients and depth to support plant life

- Too hot and water logged soils are not suitable for plant life e.g. vlei soils. Too much water drowns the roots and
the roots rots. Soil nutrients are leached beyond the reach of roots, this explains the absence of trees in vleis
- Well drained and permeable soils like the Kalahari sands in North West Matabeleland support forests of indigenous
hardwoods despite low rainfall in the area due to underground water

- Soils of high fertility where humus accumulates in large quantities support dense vegetation e.g. undisturbed
tropical rainforest

4. Human Interference Factors

- Humans cut trees and grass to establish settlements, industries, clear land for farming and settlement etc. these
factors reduce plant cover

PLANT SUCCESSION/COMMUNITY

- Plant succession can be described as the sequentic change in a plant community as it moves towards a serial climax

- This means a repeated replacement of one kind of plant species by another until the environment is in balance with
the final plant community. This stage is known as a climax vegetation community and is the final stage in plant
succession

- The orderly succession of plant communities is made up of stages which mark the transition from the lower stage
to another higher stage

- The stages are known as seres or seral stages

- The existence of a bare rock surface will naturally attract colonisation by first plant community and succession will
take place until the plant seral stage is reached/attained

- Succession can be divided into two groups: primary and secondary succession

Primary succession

- Also referred to as prisere

- It involves the development of plant communities on a newly created surface which has never been previously
occupied by another plant community. These newly created surfaces may be a result of recent volcanic eruption,
sand pit, beaches, dunes, alluvial deposits or newly created environments

Stages in Primary Succession

- The initial stage involves the colonisation by early succession plants species called pioneer/fugitive species

- These initial species are simple and undemanding. They cling to rocks surfaces helping to corrode and weather
them

- The pioneer species will create suitable conditions for the invasion by more developed communities which will
eliminate the preceding species

- Pioneer species occur in the form of blue-green algae bacteria and single celled photo synthesisers

a. Lithosere (Rock)

- This is a form of primary succession which takes place on bare rock surface which could have been a result of volcanic
eruption

b. Psammosere (Sand)

- This is whereby plant succession on places like beaches and sand dunes

- First colonisers are sea couch, hyme grass and other sand tolerant fugitive species

- Once these first seral stages have been established, conditions for the succeeding seral communities are availed until
climax stage
- Most preceding plant communities are suicidal since they create conditions which will lead to their elimination

c. Halosere (salt water)

- Succession takes place in saline water and salty marshes

- First colonisers are usually green algae which can survive under submerged and saline conditions

d. Hydrosome (Fresh water)

- Occurs in fresh water

- Pioneer communities are usually algae and moss whose spores could have been transferred to water surfaces by
wind

- These first seral communities will make room for species like water reeds and bulrush which are water loving

Secondary Succession

- can also be termed subsere

- It involves succession which occurs on areas formerly inhabited by plant communities which have since been
destroyed by either natural disasters or by action of man

- the major hallmark of any plant succession involves the progressive development of soil with increasing depth,
increasing organic content and finally the establishment of edaphic conditions which will be in equilibrium with the
climax vegetation

CASE STUDY

Krakatau (Lithosere succession)

- In 1883, there was a severe eruption on the volcanic island of Krakatau, Indonesia which virtually destroyed most
of the biotic components of the island

- The Island remained uncolonised by plant species for about a year. Some blue-green algae and moss invaded and
colonised the area

- The bare rock surfaces were then modified to pave way for other successive complex seral communities

- The fugitive species could have been brought to the island by wind and oceanic currents. Presently the island is
covered with a forest which seems to be the final seral stage

Concept of Climax Vegetation

- This is a mature stage in plant succession when plant species are in a state of dynamic equilibrium with the
environment

- A balance between the biotic and abiotic components would have been attained

- No major changes will take place other than the death of senile plants and their sudden replacement by the next
generation of the same community

- It shows the predominant role of climate in determining the nature of plant communities. However it has been
criticised as it neglects the influence of other factors such as soil in plant development

- The arresting factors such as fire, human influence and natural disasters may prevent progression

Plagio-climax vegetation

- refers to a state where plant communities are permanently affected by man such that they will be prevented from
attaining natural climax state. Reasons include agricultural activities, lumbering etc.
- Can also result from physical climatic changes

TROPICAL ECOSYSTEMS (BIOMES)

- A biome is a natural climax community of plants and animals covering a large geographical area.

- include tropical rainforests, tropical savanna and tropical deserts

Tropical Rainforests

- Are mainly concentrated along the equator/ 100C North and South of the equator

- They are dominated by a dense blanket of forest

a. Physical Features

- The area is characterised by high temperature averaging 260C – 300C throughout the year

- High rainfall of more than 2000mm/year

- There are no distinct seasons

- There is an abundance of soil moisture due to incessant rains

- The hot humid conditions promote intense chemical weathering which may result in the formation of deep soil
regolith which might exceed 150m

b. Soil Characteristics

- Soils are usually latosoils which are heavily leached

- Soils have well developed profiles but lack bases due to leaching

- Most nutrients are locked up in the Biomass

Biotic Features

Plant and Animal

- Tropical rainforest has the most diverse forms of vegetation and animal species

- More than 100 different plant species and several animals can be found in a single hectare

- Animals are mainly found within the canopy since the forest floor is in deep shade

- There is very little or no undergrowth since the floor is not exposed to sunlight

Top Layer

- There is the upper layer which consists of the top of most trees known as the crown, the height of which is between
32 and 62 metres. A few trees can be in excess of 62 metres and these are regarded as the emergent as they rise above
the general height of the forest

Middle Layer

- Ranges between 19 and 34 metres

- This layer consists of climbers and epiphytes which grows on other plants in order to reach sunlight

- This layer assumes a continuous canopy which renders the forest very dense

- Plants such as orchids hang precariously in this layer creating the dense nature of the tropical rainforest

Bottom Layer

- Comprises of plants whose height is less than 15 metres

- An understorey is found at the bottom some few metres from the ground floor. This layer comprises of plants and
animals which thrive on very humid and dark conditions where the sunlight cannot penetrate

- The tropical rainforest is home to a diverse range of animals stretching from micro-organisms such as protozoa to
micro ones such as leopards

- Climbing animals usually inhabit the upper layers of the forest

- These include snakes, chameleons and many others

Adaptation

- The trees are evergreen and broad leaved in order to facilitate the loss of water through transpiration

- The trees have slender trunks which are anchored to the soil by buttress roots

- Lianas and epiphytes grow on tree trunks and branches for them to gain positional advantage to sunlight

Man`s Interference in the Tropical Rainforest

- It is estimated that 14% of the earth was covered with the tropical rainforest

- Presently the forest only constitute 7% and it is being destroyed every year

- The indigenous people have evolved the means and ways of sustaining the rainforest through farming methods which
would guarantee regrowth of the forest. Slash and burn and shifting cultivation were used and pieces of land were not
overused such that they maintained the vigour to grow again

- The construction of the Trans-Amazon Highway has opened up the forest in the Amazon region to the flooding
settlers who have little knowledge on how to sustain the forest

- Commercial logging and agriculture continue to take center stage in exacerbating the destruction of the tropical
rainforest

- The forest lie within regions where people are still poor. The forest has provided hope for economic growth and
development

Sustainable Management of the Forests

- The panacea towards the destruction of the forests lies in the attitude change and reducing poverty amongst the
inhabitants

- Developed countries who happen to be the most beneficiaries of the rainforest should stop illegal logging

- Transfer of wealth from the rich to the poor inhabitants of the rainforest do not entirely depend upon the forest as
the only source of livelihood

- This has caused havoc to the sustainable use of the tropical rainforests impacting negatively on global ecological
balance

- At the center of the destruction of these forests is poverty and lack of political commitment

Case Study

Gola Forest in Sierra Leone

- The government of Sierra Leone has roped in some non-governmental organisations to help minimise the over
exploitation of the Gola forest

- In 1995 the government together with the Royal Society for the protection of Birds entered into an agreement to
establish a 750km2 rainforest reserve for wildlife in the Gola forest. The Gola forest is a hub of biotic life such as
migrant birds, several species of monkey and west European breeding birds

Tropical Savanna
- Savanna is a term which is applied to the tropical vegetation which predominantly consists of grasses with some
spurts of some short shrubs and short plants

- Tropical savanna constitute about 10% of the world`s land surface

- Can also be described as transitional zones between tropical rainforests at one extreme and tropical deserts at the
other

Physical Features

- The tropical savanna is characterised by hot, wet summer and cold, and dry winter

- In summer the average diurnal temperature is about 300C whilst in winter it is below 190C

- Rainfall ranges between ranges between 500 – 2000mm per annum and much of it is received in summer

Soil Characteristics

- Soil forming is active in the summer period and less active in winter

- Soil forming processes are also influenced by topography

- The predominant type of soils are femuginous brown earth of a lateritic origin

- Most of these soils are not heavily leached since much of the savanna nutrients are locked up in the soil as well within
the grasses

Biotic Factors

- Grasslands are the most dominant features of biodiversity in the savanna

- The grass can grow up to 3 metres in height

- Trees are very short averaging 6 – 12 metres and they appear in units of the same type species

- Main forms of plants are acacia, teak and grasses such as elephant grass

- They are both drought and fire resistant (xerophytic and pyrophytic)

- It supports a lot of species such as grazers and browsers

- Carnivores which feed on the herbivores are also prevalent

- Seasonal birds also form part of the biodiversity

- The large species inhabit the open spaces in tall grass or even mountains

Adaptations

- Most plants in the tropical savanna are deciduous meaning that they shed their leaves during the dry season as a
strategy to cut down on water loss through transpiration

- Some plants have thorns to reduce the surface area for transpiration

- Thick trunks and gnarled barks are used as storage reservoirs for food and water as well as for protection against veld
fires

- Some plants have developed underground stems to avoid exposure to the possibility of veld fires

- Most trees have umbrella-like canopies to minimise direct solar radiation to the roots

- Some like the baobab have swollen stems to store food and water

- Some have long tap roots so as to reach the water table deep underground

Man`s interference in Savanna

Human Activities

- Agriculture – clearing most grasslands and exposing their vigours of land degradation

- Veld fires – destroys a lot of biota and they have engulfed large tracts of land depriving them both of natural cover
as well as vegetation and animals

- Poaching – the rhino for its horn and the continued threat on elephants is emanating from a booming trade in ivory
trade despite the efforts being made at global level to minimise this trade

- Tourism – trophy hunting and fishing has robbed the savanna of its resources at a faster rate which spells doom for
its sustenance

Sustaining the Tropical Savanna

- Several programmes have been lined up so as to maintain biodiversity. Some of the most important areas for wildlife,
vegetation and grassland in Africa and India have been designated as national parks thereby acting as nature reserves.

- In the African savanna, we have the Serengeti Plains of Tanzania, Kruger Park in South Africa and Hwange National
Park in Zimbabwe

- These are large national parks whose contributions to national economies is quite phenomenal but at the same time
maintaining the natural balance of ecosystem.

- Communities are being empowered so that they can sustain their environments like the CAMPFIRE project which has
gone the long way to conscientise communities on the need to manage natural resources for posterity. The
government has also implemented stringent anti-poaching programmes and laws have been enacted through
parliaments to stop illegal hunting

Tropical Deserts

- Deserts are areas which are generally moisture stressed and hence they lack in biodiversity

- Tropical deserts are found in Africa, Central Asia and in Australia.

- They are found around 300 North and 300 and along Western margins such as the Sahara and Australian deserts

- Deserts constitute 20% of the land surface

Physical Features

- Receives exceedingly low rainfall not exceeding 400mm per year

- Atmospheric conditions are stable giving rise to insignificant levels of precipitation

- Summers are very hot during the day with maximum temperature in shade at times exceeding 500C

- During the night, temperature drastically fall due to excessive terrestrial radiation

- Temperature fall below 00C during the cold clear nights

- Rainfall in deserts is usually sporadic often culminating into flash floods of very short duration

- Most of these desert soils are called arid soils and they are generally structureless without a fully developed
weathering profile. Soils are alkaline and saline

Biotic Features

- Biomass is very low due to moisture deficit

- Vegetation in the deserts is very scant meaning that biomass is very low

- Moisture which is a critical factor in plant growth is inadequate, impacting negatively on plant development

- Most of the plants are cacti and other plants which can withstand the aridity of deserts.
- Plants are very short and are mainly ephemeral (they sprout during the short period of rain)

- The plants are also phrophytic, xerophytic as well as halophytic so as to conform to the prevailing dry and saline
conditions.

- Deserts plants are mainly ephemeral, they sprout during the short periods of rain and disappear when the moisture
has diminished

- Animal species are few, save for the existence of drought resistant ectothermic such as owls and hawks

- Mammals such as Kangaroos, rats and the jerboa are quite comfortable with desert conditions since they developed
adaptive mechanisms to thrive in arid regions

- Plants like salt cedar are found in saline conditions

Adaptations

- Tropical deserts are characterised by trees which have long tap roots so that they can draw water from the deep
underground water storage

- Most of the plants have tended to be xerophytic and halophytic to suit the dry and saline conditions of the desert

- Most have sunken stomata which open and close at convenient times so as not to allow excessive shallow roots
which can easily take up moisture from the surface during the brief periods of rains

- Some have flesh stems which can store water.

- Desert plants are also characterised by leaves which have thick cuticles and waterproof epidermal layers to reduce
water loss through transpiration

- Most of these leaves are also waxy and thorny as moisture conserving mechanism

- In order to minimise predation some plants have developed spines and serrated leaves which are not palatable to
animals. Some produce smells which repels animals, whilst thorns can also prevent animals from feasting upon the
plants

- Animals in the deserts have also adapted in several ways to suit the arid conditions. Most of these animals are
nocturnal such as insects, rodents, owls and snakes which only become active at night when conditions would be cool.
Animals such as the camel can eat dry food and can drink up abundant volumes of water at once to enable them to
last several days

GERSCHMEL COMPARTMENT MODEL

- The three compartment model was proposed by Gerschmel in 1976.

- It is meant to illustrate the transfer of nutrients between the biomass store, litter store and the soil store

- Gerschmel used circles and arrows to show the transfer from the stores. The size of the circles corresponds with the
quantity of nutrient store, such that the bigger the circle, the bigger the quantity. Arrow thickness shows the amount
being transferred to and from the nutrient store

Tropical Rainforest

- Nutrients are mainly stored in the biomass compartment.

- Rapid decomposition makes litter store to be very small

- Transfers between litter store and soil is rapid hence represented by a thickened arrow which implied rapid
decomposition of litter

- The soil store is also small since nutrients are either quickly taken by the plants or leached
- The transfer to the biomass from the soil is quite rapid as nutrients are quickly taken by the dense vegetation and
loss from the soil to deep sub surface areas highlighting intense leaching

Tropical Savanna

- Biomass is greatly reduced since tropical savanna does not have a larger vegetation cover

- The soil store is relatively large since the rate of leaching is slow.

- Arrows are generally of varying thickness with the smallest and thinnest on the leaching and weathering processes

Tropical Deserts

- The biomass store is also very small, however the soil store is relatively large since most of the nutrients are not
severely depleted due to less vegetation and absence of leaching

- A small biomass will give rise to a relatively small litter store and the thinning arrows between the compartment
stores shows that nutrients cycling is slow
SOILS

- Joffer (1949) defined soil as a natural body of animals, minerals and organic constituents differentiated into
horizons of varying depths which differ from the material below in morphology physical make up, chemical
composition and biological properties

- Whittaker (1976) regarded it as a three dimensional dynamic piece of landscape demonstrating the blend of
organic matter and non-organic matter

- Botkin and Keller (1995) alluded that soil is earth material modified over time by physical, chemical and biological
processes such that in addition to supporting rooted plant life, it is altered from the original parent material into a
series of horizons that are sub-parallel to the surface

Soil System

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS

Water from the atmosphere Weathering Bases by erosion and creep
Gases from the atmosphere Translocation Nutrient losses through leaching
Organic matter from decomposition decomposition Nutrients taken by plants and evaporation
Excretions from plants and animals Erosion Gases from respiratory and decay
Chemicals from weathered parent decomposition Heat from decaying and photogenic activities
material

Components of Soil

- Is made up of several components and these are in several quantities

a. Solids

- Comprise the organic and inorganic constituents of the soil

- The decomposed organic matter leads to the formation of humus and the inorganic matter comes from the parent
material and this is the skeletal part of the soil

b. Water

- occupies pore spaces within the soil

c. Air

- The soil traps air between particles within the pore spaces
d. Organisms

- The soil contains both micro-organisms and macro-organisms, some of these helps in processes like decomposition

- Plant roots also inhabit the soil

Soil Characteristics

- texture

- structure

- colour

- pH

Soil Texture

- Concerns the sizes of particles making up a particular soil. The sizes range between clay, silt, sand and gravel

- Texture determines aeration, water retention capacity, permeability and porosity

Soil Structure

- is the arrangement of particles within the soil

- Soil units are usually arranged into units called pads and these are blocky, platy, prism and granular

Soil colour

- Abundance of humus in the soil is shown by a dark colour

- Water logged soils have a greyish colour due to podsolisation

Soil pH

- is an expression of hydrogen ion concentrations within a given medium of soil measured on a scale from 1 – 14.

- Higher than 7 – alkalinity, lower than 7 – acidic and 7 indicates neutral

Soil Forming Factors

- These factors operate on a mutual basis to give rise to soils of different types

a. Climate

- Determines the rate at which physical and chemical weathering occur

- Also influence other soil forming processes such as leaching

- Micro-biological activities in the soil are also influenced by specific climatic conditions

b. Topography/Relief

- Also has an influence on climate since as the height of the land increases, rainfall also increase impacting soil
forming processes

- Slope angle affect drainage and weathering which influences soil forming processes

- Topographic influence on soil formation can be seen through a soil catena which shows the depth of the soil and
nature with altitude. Gentle slopes have mature soils and steep slopes have thin immature soils

c. Organisms

- They open up the soil to infiltration

- Aeration of the soil is facilitated by burrowing organisms which also aid decomposition of organic matter
d. Plant material

- Supply of inorganic minerals of the soil is from the parent rock

- Weathering of the parent rock result in the formation of the skeletal grains of the soil

- Soil colour is also influenced by the parent rock

e. Time

- If a soil is given enough time to develop it will result in mature soil with fully developed horizons

- If time is less, immature soils are likely to develop without distinctive horizons

SOIL PROPERTIES

- Four major components of the soil are water, mineral, air and organic matter. These are interlinked to produce a
series or soil properties e.g. mineral, texture, structure, air etc.

a. Mineral (inorganic matter)

- Nutrients essential for plant growth are released through weathering

i. Primary minerals – minerals present in the original parent rock and which remain unaltered from their original
state. These minerals are present throughout the soil forming processes because they are insoluble e.g. quartz

ii. Secondary minerals – these are produced by weathering reactions (chemical) and are produced within the soil
which include oxides and hydroxides of primary minerals e.g. iron which results from the exposure to air and water

b. Soil texture

- Refers to the degree of coarseness or fineness of the mineral matter in the soil

- It is determined by the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles

- Soil texture can be determined by feel, sieving or sedimentation

Importance of texture

- Controls size and spacing of spores, soil water content and aeration

- Clay soils hold more water, less well drained and aerated compared to sandy soils

- Controls the availability of nutrients and retention of nutrients within the soil. Nutrients stick to clay particles are
less easily leached by infiltration and throughflow than in sandy soils

- Plant root can easily penetrate coarser soils than finer soils

How texture affect farming

- Sandy soils are easy to cultivate, well drained and aerated. Root crops can easily penetrate e.g carrots. However
they easily affected by drought. Large particles lack micropause to retain moisture, contain limited organic matter
and are often easily leached

- Clay soils contain high levels of organic and nutrient matter but difficult to plough after heavy rains. Small pore
spaces retain moisture but prone to water logging and plant roots find it difficult to penetrate

- Ideal soils for farming are loam soils, they hold moisture, retain nutrients, has sufficient sand to prevent water
logging and are well aerated.

c. Soil structure

- It is the aggregation of individual particles. In individual soils these aggregates form different shapes known as peds
- The shape and alignment of peds with particle size determines the number of pore spaces through which water,
air, roots and soil organisms can pass

- Soils with a good crumb structure are best for crop farming. They resist erosion.

- Some soils are structureless e.g. sand

d. Organic matter

- This is derived from decaying plants and animals or secretions of living and non-living organisms

- Small organisms like bacteria and fungi breakdown the organic matter depending on the nature of the soil forming
process. This at times results in the development of three distinct layers at the surface of the soil profile

- L – leaf layer – plants remains still visible

- F – fermentation (decomposition layer) – decay is most rapid although some plant remains are still visible

- H – humus layer – the process of decay has been completed and no plants are visible

- Humus gives the soil a dark brown colour

e. Soil moisture

- It affects the upward and downward of water and nutrients

- It also helps in the development of horizons

- It supplies water for living plants and organisms

- It provides a solvent for plant nutrient

- Affects soil temperature

- Presence of moisture does not mean it is available for plant use. Water is available if the soil is wet. Following a
heavy storm, the soil maybe saturated, when infiltration ceases, soil with a low surface tension water drains away
under the force of gravity. Once this water has drained away, the remaining water that the soil can hold is it`s field
capacity

- Moisture and field capacity can be hygroscopic or capillary water. Hygroscopic water is always present unless when
the soil is completely dry but it is unavailable for plants. It is found as a thin fume around soil particles to which it
sticks due to the strength of its surface tension

f. Air

- Air fills the pore spaces not filled with moisture. This is for plant growth and living organisms

g. Soil organisms (Biota)

- These include bacteria, fungi, and earthworms. These are active in warm and well drained soils

i. decomposition – detrivores – bacteria, ants, termites, mites, woodlice. These release faeces upon which bacteria
and fungi acts. Fungi and bacteria releases enzymes which break down organic compounds (litter). This releases
nutrients ions essential for plant growth

ii. fixation – bacteria transforms nitrogen in the air into nitrates which are essential nutrients for plant growth

iii. development of structure – fungi help bind the soil particles together to give a crump structure while burrowing
animals create passages that helps in aeration and plant root penetration

h. Soil nutrient

- These are chemical elements found in the soil essential for plant growth and for soil utility
- Nutrients can be divided into: a) micronutrients that are needed in very small quantities e.g. sodium, zinc,
manganese

b) macronutrients also needed in small quantities e.g. magnesium, calcium, sulphur

- Nitrogen is needed in large quantities

i. Acidity

- Too acidic soils releases acids and aluminium which become toxic and poisonous for plant and organisms. This
discourages the breakdown of plant litter

j. Soil temperature

- Warm moist soils have greater biota activity hence rapid breakdown of organic matter, more chemical weathering
and more soil nutrient than cold and dry soil

Processes of Soil formation/ Pedogenic Processes

Q. Describe the principle of pedogenic (soil forming) processes in the tropical areas? [12]

i. Weathering

- Releases primary and secondary minerals in the soil

- It determines the release of nutrients from the parent rock, soil depth, texture and drainage

ii. Humification and Cheluviation

- This process depends on the activity of micro-organism like bacteria which operate under climatic conditions

- Is greatest in warm tropical areas than in cold and dry climates

- Chelating agents attack clays and other minerals releasing iron and aluminium to form organic minerals called
chelates. Chelates are soluble and are easily transported down through the soil profile through a process called
cheluviation

iii. Organic soting – these processes involves reorganising mineral and organic matter into horizons and usually
results in the formation of peds

iv. Translocation

- Q. Explain any three translocation processes?

- Translocation is the movement of soil components in any form (solution, suspension or by animals) or direction
(downwards or upwards) and is influenced by climate

- humufication

- Transformation – involves the change in the physical and chemical properties of the soil and is influenced by climate

a. Leaching – a process whereby soluble materials are removed in solution from the top layer of the soil to the
subsurface layers which may be out of reach for plant growth

- Common in areas where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, soil drainage is good and rain water containing
oxygen, carbonic and organic acids collected as it passes through the soil and vegetation. This causes chemical
weathering and dissolving of bases like salts. Calcium and magnesium are elluviated from their horizon making it
increasingly acidic

- Leaching involves elluviation and illuviation

- Elluviation refers to the removal of material from the upper layers of the soil horizons or washing away of organic
and mineral matter from the A – horizon. The movement is downwards
- Illuviation is the subsequent deposition of elluviated material in the subsurface layers of the horizon

v. Lateritasation - common in areas with high temperatures and humidity. There is a high level of bacterial action
which feed on the humus content produced by the luxuriant vegetation

- Heavy rainfall leach soil colodes and bases as well as silica leaving sesquioxides of iron and aluminium and this is a
reverse process of podzolisation. The soil assumes a reddish colour and is infertile since bases and colodes are
removed

vi. Podsolization – can be likened to an intense form of leaching and is common in areas where precipitation exceeds
evapotranspiration

- It favours very cold conditions and is common in mid and high altitude

- Results in the removal of iron and aluminium which give rise to acidic conditions

vii. Gleying/Gleization – common in wet and cold regions where water logging and permafrost are common e.g.
Tundra regions

- Bacteria action is low due to minimal temperature and inadequate oxygen caused by water logging

- Also common in gentle slopes, depressions or where the water table is high enough to enter the soil profile (river
floodplain) or areas with heavy rainfall or poor drainage

- The pore spaces fill with water which become deoxygenised. There is a reduction of iron compounds from ferric
(Fe3+) to ferrous (Fe2+) form. The resultant soil has a grey – blue colour. In Zimbabwe this type of soil is common in
vleis and dambos

viii. Calcification – takes place where evapotranspiration far exceeds precipitation e.g. in the hot dry regions of
Zimbabwe

- There are low levels of leaching, coloides and bases remain in the airy horizon where they are easily accessible to
plants

- Extreme evapotranspiration means upward movement of water from the sub – surface (capillary action).

- Soils associated with calcification are rich in bases and coloides so they are fertile

Salinisation

- Refers to the accumulation of calcium and sodium salts on the upper layers of the soil in arid and semi – arid areas
where evapotranspiration far exceeds precipitation

- Salts are moved upward by capillary action and then deposited on the surface

- In Zimbabwe it occurs in the hot dry regions where irrigation is practised e.g. Lowveld

- Soils associated with salinization are alkaline and cannot fully support dry crop cultivations

SOIL TYPES

a. Ferralitic soils (latosols)

- They result from high annual temperature and rainfall which cause rapid decomposition of a bedrock. Continuous
fall of litter gives a thick layer of humus

- These soils have dense roots in the top 20cm – 30cm of the air horizon. These roots intercept and absorb about
99% of nutrient released by decomposition of organic matter. These roots help in the cycling of nutrients

- Where there is no canopy heavy rainfall causes the release of iron giving the soil its characteristic red colour (and
aluminium toxicity from the parent rock)

- Leaching results in the removal of silica

- Continued leaching and abundance of mixing agents inhibit the formation of horizons

- The lower part of the profile has a yellowish with red colour due to extreme hydration of aluminium and iron oxides

- These soils are not agriculturally productive and can be easily eroded by heavy rainfall

b. Ferruginous soils – are soft but when exposed to the surface they can be hardened to form a crust known as
laterites

- Common in Savanna areas where grass die during the dry season and provide organic matter which is readily
broken down to give a thin dark brown layer of humus

- During summer, leaching removes silica from upper layers leaving behind oxides of iron and aluminium

- These soils contain few nutrients and thus turn to be acidic and lack bases

c. Grey Desert Soils

- The climate is too dry and vegetation is sparse for any significant chemical weathering for any bedrock or
accumulation of organic matter

- Any moisture in the soil is likely to be drawn upwards by capillary action causing soils to be alkaline due to a high
concentration of magnesium, sodium and calcium

- Grey colour results from the lack of moisture and they are not fertile

- Areas under irrigation are capable of being productive

d. Podsols/Podzols – Podzol is a Russian word for ash. Develops in cool climates

- These are type of soils which develops where coniferous forests/ heathland provides vegetation cover and where
soils are sandy. Pine needles with their clean particles provide only a thin leaf litter and prevents the formation of
humus. Any humus formed is very acidic and provides chelation agents with humic acids which help to make the iron
and aluminium minerals

- The percolation of water especially from snow melt causes the leaching of bases, the translocation of clays and
organic matter. This leaves a narrow, ash grey bleached horizon composed mainly of quartz, sand and silica.

- Iron and aluminium are deposited as a rust coloured hard pan. This hard pan act as an impermeable layer which
restrict downward movement of moisture and penetration of plant growth. Creates water logging in the horizon E
e. Chernozems/ Black Earth

- The thick grass cover provide plentiful surplus of mull humus which forms a black crumpy top soil

- Abundance of biota especially earthworms causes rapid decay of organic matter

f. Brown Earth

g. Tundra Soils

SOIL PROFILE

- This is a vertical section through the soil showing its layers. These layers are called horizons and are approximately
parallel to the surface. The lowest layer is the least altered and shows the original parent rock

A – Horizon – is the upper layer

- Most soluble materials are leached and elluviated (washing out of material)

B – Horizon – zone of accumulation through alluviation

- Clays and other materials are removed from the A – horizon are redeposited

C – Horizon – consists of recently weathered parent material resting on the bed rock

SOIL CATENA

- Was derived from the Latin word catena – chain

- Can be regarded as the characteristic grouping of soil profiles as influenced by slopes

- Milne 1936 discovered that soils are greatly influenced by slopes. Upper slopes have skeletal shallow soils whilst
the lowlands have deep mature soils. Depth of soil increases with a decrease in topography

- Upper slopes are characterised by azonal types of soils which have been recently weathered from the parent
material whilst low slopes have been given ample time for the soils to fully develop into mature distinct profiles

- Soils in the upper slopes have high drainage whilst lower downslope have a low drainage which might lead to water
logging

- Soil catena emphasises on topography influence whilst ignoring other soil forming factors like climate

- Soil fertility – the capacity of the soil to sustain plant life and is influenced by organic, inorganic minerals, water and
air in their appropriate quantities

- Soils which are rich in humus are well aerated. They also absorb temperature which sustains and promotes

microbial activities which further enrich the soil. Also regulates the pH of the soil

SOIL EROSION

- is the removal of surface material by the influence of wind, water, ice, sea waves and tides from the soil mass and
their subsequent transportation

- Human impact has greatly increased this rate in certain areas.

Factors influencing Soil erosion

i. Rainfall

ii. Vegetation

iii. Soil shear strength

iv. Slope angle, shape and length

v. Human land use – overgrazing, urbanisation, mining etc.

Soil Conservation

Biological measures

- Proper management of livestock

- Afforestation and reforestation programmes

- Good farming methods

- Use of manure and artificial fertilisers

- Wind breaks

- Mulching

- Awareness campaigns

Mechanical Measures

- Building storm drains

- Terracing

- Gully reclamation

- Most of these are physical and financial demanding