Topic 2: Chemical Bonds and Macromolecules

Focus: In this lecture we will review some

chemistry that is important for understanding
cellular biology and learn details of important
macromolecular that are essential for life.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Learning objectives
• Recall the different types of bonds and understand their role
in the cell
• Recall the properties of water that are important for biology
• Explain why carbon is the backbone of life
• Describe the basics of polymer synthesis and breakdown
• Describe the types, structures and functions of
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids found in
biological cells.
Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge
 Elements of Life
Table 2.1 Elements in the Human Body

DNA: CHONP

Protein: CHONS

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Water is the solvent of life
• Water is a polar molecule due to highly
electronegative oxygen atom
Figure 3.2 Hydrogen bonds between water
Atoms attraction for e-
molecules.
Polar> Unrqual distrobution of e- in bond

Dipole = Partial charge

Dipole- Dipole interaction = Hydrogen Bond

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Water is the solvent of life

• Polarity allows water molecules to form hydrogen Figure 3.2 Hydrogen bonds between water
bonds with each other molecules.
H20 Will Interact with a polar or charged Molecule
NON polar Molecules will not Interacts= Repelled by water

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Review of Chemical Bonds
Strong Bonds Covalent
• ____________ bonds is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by
two atoms. Molecules consist of 2+ atoms with covalent bonds

Ionic
• _________ bonds: e- is transferred between two atoms with opposite
electronegativities, atoms become charged and stay associated.

Hydrogen bOnds
• A ____________bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bound
Weak Bonds
to an electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative
atom

Vander Waals
• __________________interactions are attractions between molecules
that are close together as a result of these charges

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Carbon: The Backbone of Life
• Life is carbon based Organisims Are Carbon Based Organic MOlecules Are made of CArbon

• Carbon is able to form large, complex, and diverse

molecules
• Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates in living matter are all
composed of carbon compounds.
• Why? Figure 4.3 The shapes of three simple organic molecules.

1-Forms Bonds with other molecules

2-Makes Long Chains

-Forms double and triple bonds with itself

4-
 Overview: The Molecules of Life
• Macromolecules are large and complex molecules that are
composed of many covalently connected atoms
•

Figure 5.1 Why is the structure of a protein important for its

function?

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Macromolecules are Polymers,
Built from Monomers
• A _____________ is a long molecule consisting of many
similar building blocks
• The smaller, repeating molecules that serve as building
blocks are called _________________
• Three of life’s organic molecules are polymers:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
Figure 5.2a The synthesis and breakdown of polymers.
• Synthesis

• Breakdown Figure 5.2b The synthesis and breakdown of polymers.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Carbohydrates Serve as Fuel and
Building Material
• Carbohydrates include sugars and polymers of sugars
• Simple or single sugars-
• Carbohydrate macromolecules -

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Sugars
• Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually
multiples of CH2O

Figure 5.4 Linear and ring forms of glucose.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Sugars
• A disaccharide forms when a dehydration reaction joins
two monosaccharides
• Bond called GLycoside Linkage ( covalent bond )

Figure 5.5b Examples of disaccharide synthesis.

Isomers

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Storage Polysaccharides
• ___________a
Starch storage polysaccharide of plants, consists
entirely of glucose monomers
• Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts,
and other plastids

Figure 5.6a Polysaccharides of plants and animals. Simplest Starch

ALPHA- 1-4 Glycosidic

1-6 LInkage Creats branch Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Storage Polysaccharides
• _____________
Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals and fungi
• Mainly in liver and muscle cells
– Hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose when the demand for
energy increases

Figure 5.6b Polysaccharides of plants and animals.

Shorter and more branched

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose
• _____________ is a major component of plant cell walls
• Cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but its glycosidic linkages
Carbons differ from those of starch
Beta, 1-4 Glycosidic Linkage
Only Bacteria can Hydrolyze B 1-4

Figure 5.6c Polysaccharides of plants and animals.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Structural Polysaccharides
CHITIN
• _________ is found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal
cell walls
Tough and it creats shorter branches

Figure 5.8 Chitin, a structural polysaccharide.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Lipids: Hydrophobic Molecules
• Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that
does not form polymers
• Unifying feature:
• Lipids are hydrophobic:
Fats are non-polar and made of Hydrocarbons C-H

• Biologically important
– fats
– phospholipids
– steroids

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Fats
• Fats are constructed from glycerol and fatty acids
– Glycerol 3C Molecule EX, Alcohol- with OH at each C

– Fatty acids
Are Carboxyl Groups plus a long chain of CH, Hydrocarbons Chains

Figure 5.9a The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Fats Fats are linked by Ester Linkage

• triacylglycerol, or triglyceride

Figure 5.9b The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol.

Triacylglcerol.
Hydrogen Tails

• Fats separate from water because water molecules hydrogen-

bond to each other, but exclude the non-polar fats
 Fats
Figure 5.10a Saturated and Figure 5.10b Saturated and
unsaturated fats and fatty unsaturated fats and fatty
acids. Trans acids. Cis
oils
No double bonds Has double bonds
or triple C=C,
Saturated with
H

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Text
Phospholipids
Figure 5.11a and b The structure of a
phospholipid.

– The two fatty acid tails

are hydrophobic
– The phosphate head
group is hydrophilic Text

Amphipathich ( both
hydrophobic and Hydrophilic )

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Phospholipids
• Phospholipids are the major component of cell membranes
• When phospholipids are added to water, they
spontaneously self-assemble into a bilayer

Figure 5.11c and d The structure of a phospholipid.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Steroids
• Steroids: Forms from Carbons and Hydrogen Sceleton with 4 fuesd rings
• Functions:
EX; Hormones, Estrogen and steroides
Plays and important fucntion with plasma membrance Stability

only found in animals

Figure 5.12 Cholesterol, a steroid.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Proteins
• Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most
cells
• Protein functions include
– Speeding up (catalyzing) chemical reactions
– structural support
– storage
– transport
– cellular communications
– movement
– defense against foreign substances
Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge
 Proteins are Polymers of Amino Acids
20 amino acids
• amino acids - Monomers
• polypeptides polymers of amino acids

• protein Biologically functional polypeptide

Can be made of more than one or more polypeptide in a protien

Each amino acid

Genetic structure will have a
of an amino acid diffreny R group
( a different
chemical )

Reactive group

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 The 20 Amino Acids of Proteins
NON-polar, Hydrocarbons
Figure 5.14 The 20 amino acids of proteins. Has charges on them

POlar-A strongely
electronegative atom
at the end of each
molecule
Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge
 Polypeptides (Amino Acid Polymers)
peptide bond> Covalent Dehydration
• reaction
Amino acids are linked by ____________________
• A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
Figure 5.15 Making a polypeptide chain.

start end
Carboxy Terminus
Amino Terminus

N>C
Seq= MYC
Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge
 Protein Structure and Function
• Primary structure Figure 5.18a Exploring Levels
is the sequence of amino acid of Protein Structure.

• Primary structure is
determined by inherited
genetic information
All other levels are
determined by the
primary structure

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Protein Structure and Function
• Secondary structure Figure 5.18b Exploring Levels
Dependant on the H-Bonds =
of Protein Structure.
The back bone of the
polypeptide chain

• Typical secondary
structures include:
20 amino acids, made
of two main
structures

Alpha- helix
Beta- Sheet

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Protein Structure and Function
• Tertiary structure is the overall shape of a polypeptide, and
is determined by interactions between R groups, not by
interactions between backbone constituents
Figure 5.18 Exploring Levels of Protein Structure.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Protein Structure and Function:

Figure 5.18 Exploring Levels of Protein Structure.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Quaternary Structure
• Quaternary structure results when two or more
polypeptide chains form one macromolecule

Figure 5.18 Exploring Levels of Protein Structure.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 What Determines Protein Structure?
• In addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions
can affect structure
– pH
– salt concentration,
– temperature, or
– other environmental
Figure 5.20 Denaturation and renaturation of a protein.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Nucleic Acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids
– Deoxyribonucleic acid (_______)
– Ribonucleic acid (_______)
• DNA provides directions for its own replication
• DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and,
through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
– Process referred to as gene expression
• Protein synthesis occurs on ribosomes

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 DNA → RNA → Protein
Figure 5.22 DNA ® RNA ® protein.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 The Components of Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are polymers called
• monomers is called

Figure 5.23ab Components of nucleic acids.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 The Components of Nucleic Acids
• ________________ = nitrogenous base + sugar
• _________________= nucleoside + phosphate group
Figure 5.23c1 Components of nucleic acids.

• There are two types of

nitrogenous bases:
•

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 The Components of Nucleic Acids

Figure 5.23c2 Components of nucleic acids.

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 Nucleotide Polymers
• Directionality

• Backbone

• Phosphodiester

• charged

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

 The Structures of DNA and RNA
Molecules
• DNA molecules have two polynucleotides Figure 5.24a The structures of DNA
spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming and tRNA molecules.
a ______________
• Two backbones run in opposite:
______________

• One DNA molecule includes many genes

• Complementary base pairing

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge

Biol 107 Dr. Kate St.Onge