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School of Engineering

E .COMPLEX NUMBERS

E.1.OBJECTIVES
[1] Define a complex number.
[2] Represent a complex number in rectangular, trigonometric, and polar form.
[3] Perform algebraic operations on complex numbers.
[4] Write a complex number in exponential form.
[5] Define complex conjugate.
[6] Draw a complex number as a vector and add complex numbers graphically.

Contents Page Number

E . Complex Numbers ............................................................................................................ E-1

E.1. Objectives.................................................................................................................... E-1
E.2. Introduction ................................................................................................................. E-2
E.3. The J Operator ............................................................................................................. E-2
E.3.1. Powers of j ........................................................................................................... E-2
E.4. Complex Numbers ...................................................................................................... E-2
E.4.1. Equality of Complex numbers ............................................................................. E-3
E.4.2. Complex Conjugates ............................................................................................ E-3
E.4.3. Addition and subtraction of complex numbers .................................................... E-3
E.4.4. Multiplication of Complex numbers .................................................................... E-3
E.5. Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers ........................................................ E-3
E.5.1. The Argand Diagram ........................................................................................... E-4
E.6. Graphical addition and subtraction of Complex Numbers.......................................... E-5
E.6.1. Multiplication and division of complex numbers using Polar Forms .................. E-6
E.7. Rationalising the Denominator ................................................................................... E-6
E.7.1. DeMoivre’s Theorem ........................................................................................... E-6
E.7.2. Roots of a complex number ................................................................................. E-7
E.8. Phasors and Vectors .................................................................................................... E-7
E.9. End of chapter exercises ............................................................................................. E-9
E.9.1................................................................................................................................ E-9
E.9.2................................................................................................................................ E-9
E.9.3................................................................................................................................ E-9
E.9.4.............................................................................................................................. E-10
E.9.5.............................................................................................................................. E-10
E.9.6.............................................................................................................................. E-10
E.9.7.............................................................................................................................. E-10
E.9.8.............................................................................................................................. E-10

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E.2.INTRODUCTION
Complex numbers play a pivotal role in engineering and science. They are used in modelling
various variables such voltages and currents and vectors. In this chapter we shall learn about
complex numbers and how to manipulate them.
Consider the solution of quadratic equations of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 using the
−b  b 2 − 4ac
quadratic formula x = . When the discriminant i.e. the quantity b2 − 4ac is
2a
negative then the square root of the discriminant is not a real number. For example, in solving
the quadratic 2 x 2 + 6 x + 5 = 0 , we have
−b  b 2 − 4ac −6  36 − 4(2)(5) −6  −4
x= =x= = .
2a 2(2) 4
−3 −4 −3 −4
That is the solution is x1 = + and x2 = − . The problem here is the square root
2 4 2 4
of the negative number i.e., what is the square root of −4 ? Clearly it is neither +2 nor -2
because these are the square root of +4. So how do we determine the square root of -4?

E.3.THE J OPERATOR
Since ab = a b , the square root of a negative number such as -4 may therefore be written
as −4 = −1 +4 . If we now define the square of negative unity as, say, j that is j = −1 ,
then −4 = −1 +4 =  j 2 . So although we cannot evaluate the −1 we can denote it by the
letter j . The solution to the above quadratic may now be written as:
−3 −1 4 −3 −1 4
x1 = + and x2 = − and hence
2 4 2 4
−3 1 −3 1
x1 = + j and x2 = −j
2 2 2 2
−3 1
A number such x1 = + j is a complex number and consists of two parts; the real part
2 2
−3 1 1
here it is and the imaginary part here it is (not j ) .
2 2 2
E.3.1. POWERS OF J
j = −1 → j 2 = −1 x −1 = −1
Since j = jj = j (−1) = − j
3 2

j 4 = j 2 j 2 = −1x − 1 = +1
Note that since j 4 = 1 , then any time a factor of j 4 occurs, we can replace it by a 1.
Similarly, a factor of j 2 can be replaced by -1 whilst a factor of j 3 can be replaced by –j. For
example, j 5 = j 4 j = 1 j = j and j 7 = j 4 j 3 = 1(− j ) = − j .

E.4.COMPLEX NUMBERS
A complex number Z has the general form
Z = x + jy (1.1)

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where x and y are real numbers. The number x is known as the real part of the complex
number Z whilst y is its imaginary part. The number j is an imaginary number and is defined
as j = −1 as we have seen above. The above form of a complex number is known as the
rectangular form.
E.4.1. EQUALITY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Two complex numbers Z1 = a + jb , and Z 2 = c + jd are equal if and only if a = c and b = d .
E.4.2. COMPLEX CONJUGATES
Given a complex number such as Z = a + jb , we define the complex conjugate of Z as
Z * = a − jb . In the same way the complex number a + jb is also the conjugate of a − jb . In
other words, when two complex numbers are only different in the middle sign then they are
complex conjugates.
E.4.3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Given two, or more, complex numbers, e.g. Z1 = a + jb , and Z 2 = c + jd , then:
Z1 + Z 2 = (a + c) + j (b + d ) (1.2)
Z1 − Z 2 = (a − c) + j (b − d ) (1.3)
For example, Z1 = (3 + j 4) and Z 2 = (2 + j 5) , then
Z1 + Z 2 = (3 + j 4) + (2 + j5) = (3 + 2) + j (4 + 5) = 5 + j9
And
Z1 − Z 2 = (3 + j 4) − (2 + j5) = (3 − 2) + j (4 − 5) = 1 − j1
E.4.4. MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Given two complex numbers, e.g. Z1 = a + jb , and Z 2 = c + jd , then:
Z1Z 2 = (a + jb)(c + jd )
= ac + jad + jbc + j 2bd
= ac + j (ad + bc) − bd
For example
Z1Z 2 = (3 + j 4)(2 + j5) = 6 + j15 + j8 + j 2 20
= 6 + j 23 − 20
= −14 + j 23
We obtain an important result when we multiply complex conjugates. For example,
Z1Z 2 = (a + jb)(a − jb)
= a 2 − jab + jab − j 2b 2
= a 2 + b2
That is the product of two conjugate complex numbers is always entirely real.

E.5. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Real numbers can be represented on the number line as shown in Figure 2 with line segments.
Each line segment has a length that represents the number and an arrowhead to show the
direction. Such line segments which has size (or magnitude) and direction (the arrowhead) are
called vectors.

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− +
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1: representing positive and negative real numbers on the number line.

Note that the length of the vector representing the number 2 is twice the length of the vector
representing the number 1. The vector that represents the negative of a number, for example
the vector representing the number -2, is obtained by rotating the vector representing +2 by 80
degrees in the anticlockwise direction. In other words, when we multiply a number by -1, we
effectively rotate the vector representing the number by 180 degrees anticlockwise. Hence,
−1 x − 1 = +1 and + 1 x − 1 = −1 . The question is now how do we represent an imaginary
number such as 2j? This cannot be represented on the number line which only caters for real
numbers. However, we think of 2j as 2 multiplied by −1 and since multiplying a number by
-1 rotates its vector by 180 degrees counter clockwise, then multiplying it by −1 is
equivalent to rotating its vector by 90 degrees anticlockwise. Therefore, to represent a
complex number such as Z = a + jb we use a set of two perpendicular axes, Figure 2. The
horizontal axis represents the real part of the complex number whilst the vertical axis
represents the imaginary part.

E.5.1. THE ARGAND DIAGRAM

A complex number Z can be represented by a point on a rectangular system of coordinates, as
shown in Figure 2, where the vertical and horizontal axes represent the imaginary and real
parts respectively. The form Z = x + jy of a complex number is called the rectangular form,
other forms also exist. Note that a complex number such as Z = a + jb is a vector quantity
and can be drawn as a vector as shown in Figure 3.
The modulus, or the magnitude, of the number Z = a + jb is written as Z or as r , where:
r = a 2 + b2 (1.4)
And
a = r cos , and b = r sin  (1.5)
Hence, we can write Z in trigonometric form as:
Z = r (cos  + j sin  ) (1.6)
This is also written in a short form, the Polar form, as:
Z = r o (1.7)

Using the Euler’s formula, we have another form of a complex number, the exponential
form:
re j = r (cos  + j sin  ) (1.8)
Also
re− j = r (cos − j sin  ) = r −  o (1.8)

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j
Z1 (4 + j3)
Z3 (−3 + j3) Z2 (4 + j3)

Z2 (4 − j3)

Figure 2: Representation of complex numbers on the Argand diagram. Note

that one side of each square represents one unit vertically and horizontally.

j
Z = a + jb

r
b


x
a

Figure 3

E.6.GRAPHICAL ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

To add the two complex numbers, say Z1 = 2 + j3 and Z2 = 3 + j 4 we draw these to scale,
Figure 4, and then add them vectorially. For example, we may complete the parallelogram as
shown in Figure 4.
Subtraction is performed in the same way noting that subtracting Z is the same as adding the
negative of Z. That is Z1 − Z2 = Z1 + (−Z2 ) , hence to subtract Z 2 from Z1 , we draw −Z 2 and
then add it to Z1 .

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j
Z1 (4 + j3)

Z1 Z1 + Z 2
Z1 − Z 2
Z2 x
−Z 2

Figure 4: Graphical addition of two complex numbers.

E.6.1. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS USING POLAR FORMS

Write the numbers in exponential form then multiply, e.g. given that Z1 = r1e j , and 1

Z 2 = r 2e j2 , then:
Z1Z 2 = r1r 2e j ( + ) = r1r 2(1 +  2 )
1 2
(1.9)
Hence,
If Z1 = r11 and Z 2 = r22 , then
Z1Z 2 = r1r 2(1 + 2 ) (1.10)
Similarly
Z1 r1 j (1 − 2 ) r1
= e = (1 −  2 ) (1.11)
Z 2 r2 r2

E.7.RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR

In a similar way to what we did with surds, whenever we have a fraction whose denominator
is a complex number we must rationalise it by multiplying the fraction and dividing it by the
5
conjugate of the denominator. For example, the complex number is rationalised as
3 − j4
5 3 + j 4 15 + j 20 15 + j 20 15 j 20 3 j 4 1
x = = = + = + = (3 + j 4)
3 − j 4 3 + j 4 32 + 44 25 25 25 5 5 5
E.7.1. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM
Let
Z1 = r1 (cos 1 + j sin 1 ), Z2 = r2 (cos 2 + j sin 2 ), and Z3 = r3 (cos 3 + j sin 3 )
Z1Z 2 = r1 (cos 1 + j sin 1 )r2 (cos  2 + j sin  2 )
= r1r2 cos 1 cos  2 + jr1r2 cos 1 sin  2 + jr1r2 sin 1 cos  2 ) + jr1r2 sin 1 sin  2
= r1r2 (cos 1 cos  2 − sin 1 sin  2 ) + jr1r2 (cos 1 sin  2 + sin 1 cos  2 )
= r1r2 cos(1 +  2 ) + jr1r2 sin(1 +  2 )

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Similarly
Z1Z2 Z3 = r1r2 r3 cos(1 + 2 + 3 ) + jr1r2 sin(1 + 2 + 3 ) .
That is when we multiply complex numbers, we multiply magnitudes and add angles (i.e.,
arguments).
If Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = r cos  + j sin  , then
Z 3 = r 3 (cos(3 ) + j sin(3 )) . In general
Z n =  r cos( ) + jr sin( ) = r n [cos(n ) + j sin(n )]
n
(1.11)
This important result is known as DeMoivre’s theorem.

E.7.2. ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Consider the complex number Z = 860o . This is exactly the same as the number
Z = 8(60 + 360o ) , or indeed the number Z = 8(60 − 360o ) because the vector represented
by any of these is the same.
o
In fact, any complex number Z = re j can be written as Z = re j ( +n360 ) where n = 0, 1, 2,....
In the same way Z = r may be written as Z = r( + 360n) . Hence, a number such as
Z = 860o may be written as:
Z = 8(60o ) or 8(420o ) or 8(780o ) or 8(1140o ), etc
1
To find, say the cubic roots, of this number, i.e. 3
Z = Z 3 , we apply DeMoivre’s theorem

1 1 o 1 o o 1 o
60 420 780 1140
Z = 8 ( ) or 8 ( ) or 8( ) or 8 (
3 3 3
3
), etc
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1

Z = 8 (20 ) or 8 (140 ) or 8(260 ) or 8 (380o ) etc

3 o 3 o o 3
3

Exercise-1
Show on an Argand diagram the first 5 roots of the complex number Z = 860o .

If we represent each of these roots on an Argand diagram, we see that the first three are
distinct vectors, the fourth is a repetition of the first and so on. That is any subsequent
calculation simply repeats these roots.
Now we can generalise:
The k th root of a complex number Z = re j is:
k
Z = k re j = k r e j ( +2 n)/ k = k r ( + 360n) / k (1.12)
To find the k distinct roots we substitute values of n = 0,1, 2....k − 1.

E.8.PHASORS AND VECTORS

Consider the complex number V = Vm  shown in Figure 5. This is a stationary vector of

length (or magnitude Vm ) and angle theta (  ). The projection of this vector on the real axis is
its horizontal component, i.e.

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a=Vm cos (1.13)

Vm
b=Vm sin


a=Vm cos

Similarly, the projection of this vector on the imaginary axis is the vertical component of the
vector, i.e.
b=Vm sin (1.14)
In other words
V = Vm cos + j Vm sin (1.15)

Note that we can also write the vector in the exponential form as:
V = Ve j (1.16)

Now let us multiply the above vector by the exponential function e jt where  is a constant
which has the units of radians per second (rad/s) and t is the time in seconds (s). Thus, we
now have the new vector:
V = Vm e j e jwt (1.17)

This can be written as:

V = Vm e j (t + ) (1.18)
As before, we can write this vector in rectangular form as:
Vm e j (t + ) = Vm cos(t +  ) + jVm sin(t +  )(1.19)
This is a rotating vector that is rotating anticlockwise with angular velocity  (rad/s) . You
easily see this by considering increasing values of the t . For example, when t = 0 , the
vector makes an angle  with the real axis. This is called the phase angle of the phasor. When
t =  / 4 , the phasor is at an angle of ( / 4 +  ) and so on. At any instance of time the
projection of the real axis is the component Vm cos(t +  ) and the projection on the imaginary
axis is Vm sin(t +  ) .

Now consider the vector A = Am e jt . This is again a phasor rotating anticlockwise with angular
speed  (rad/s). At t = 0 , the projection on the real axis is simply the line Am while the
projection on the vertical (imaginary) axis is zero.
That is

Ame jt = Am cost + jAm sint (1.20)

These can be readily seen in Figure 6.

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Figure 6. The sine and cosine components of a rotating vector.

E.9.END OF CHAPTER EXERCISES

E.9.1.
Given that Z1 = 2 + j3 and Z2 = 3 + j 4 . Work out, in rectangular forms, and simplify to the
form Z = a + jb :
[a] Z1 xZ 2 [b] Z1 + Z2 [c] Z1 − Z2
E.9.2.
Given that Z1 = −2 + j5 and Z2 = 3 − j 2 . Work out, in rectangular forms, and simplify to the
form Z = a + jb :
[a] Z1 xZ 2 [b] Z1 + Z2 [c] Z1 − Z2

E.9.3.
Given that Z1 = 2 + j3 and Z2 = 3 + j 4 . Obtain the polar forms of each complex number and
then using these forms obtain:
[a] Z1 xZ 2 [b] Z1 / Z2

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E.9.4.
[a] Obtain the trigonometric and exponential forms each of these complex numbers:
Z1 = 2 + j3 , Z2 = 3 + j 4 and Z3 = 5 − j 6 .
Show each number on an argand diagram.
[b] Obtain graphically and algebraically the complex number Z = Z1 + Z 3 .
E.9.5.
Simplify the following and write your final answer in polar form.
5 2 + j3 3 1 + j3 1 3 + j5
[a] [b] [c] + [d] x
3 + j2 4 − j3 5 − j 2 4 + j3 2 − j6 4
1 1 1
[e] + +
2 − j3 3 + j5 2 − j 7

E.9.6.
Find the distinct cubic roots of the complex the number Z = 27(cos120o + j sin120o ) .

Find the distinct square roots of the complex the number Z = 25(cos100o + j sin100o ) .
E.9.7.
Consider the phasor V = 10e jt and do the following:
[a] Sketch the phasor at ωt=0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 150, 180, 210, 270, 300, 330, 360,390, 420 degrees
[b] Let a(t ) and b(t ) be the vertical and horizontal projections of this phasor respectively.
Evaluate and plot the magnitudes of these projections at each of these values of t .
E.9.8.
Consider the phasor V = 10e j (t +30 ) and do the following:
o

[a] Sketch the phasor at ωt=0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 150, 180 degrees
[b] Let a(t ) and b(t ) be the vertical and horizontal projections of this phasor respectively.
Evaluate the magnitudes of these projections at each of these values of t .

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