PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Subject: Electrical drive (EE-701) Semester: VII

Enrolment No.__________________ Date: ___________

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

Experiment No. 6
6.1 Objective:
The V/f speed control of three phase Induction motor using Variable frequency drive.

6.2 Equipment/Software Required:

Three phase delta connected induction motor (415V, 3.2Amp, 1.5KW, 1430 RPM), Drive Panel
(connecting leads, Ampere meter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter), VFD (Delta VFD-EL)
6.3 Precautions:
i. Use complete insulted leads.
ii. Use the drive panel in off condition when leads are to be connected
iii. Drive panel body to be earthed properly
iv. No tampering with wires or network cables.
6.4 Theory
A variable-frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three main sub-
systems: AC motor, main drive controller assembly, and drive/operator interface

Fig. 6.1 Power conversion in VFD

The VFD controller is a solid-state power electronics conversion system consisting of three distinct sub-
systems: a rectifier bridge converter, a direct current (DC) link, and an inverter. Voltage-source inverter
(VSI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below) are by far the most common type of drives. Most
drives are AC-AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output. However, in some
applications such as common DC bus or solar applications, drives are configured as DC-AC drives. The
most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a three-phase, six-pulse, full-wave diode
bridge. In a VSI drive, the DC link consists of a capacitor which smooths out the converter's DC
output ripple and provides a stiff input to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-
sinusoidal AC voltage output using the inverter's active switching elements. VSI drives provide
higher power factor and lower harmonic distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI) and
load-commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below). The drive controller
can also be configured as a phase converter having single-phase converter input and three-phase inverter
output.
In variable-torque applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC motor characteristics
require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output to the motor be adjusted to match the required
load torque in a linear V/Hz relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz motors, this linear V/Hz
relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-ranging applications, V/Hz control is sub-
optimal in high-performance applications involving low speed or demanding, dynamic speed regulation,
positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some V/Hz control drives can also operate in quadratic V/Hz
mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi-point V/Hz paths.
The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque control (DTC), adjust the motor
voltage magnitude, angle from reference, and frequency so as to precisely control the motor's magnetic flux
and mechanical torque.
Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be categorized as single-quadrant, two-
quadrant, or four-quadrant; the chart's four quadrants are defined as follows

 Quadrant I – Driving or motoring, forward accelerating quadrant with positive speed and torque
 Quadrant II – Generating or braking, forward braking-decelerating quadrant with positive speed and
negative torque
 Quadrant III – Driving or motoring, reverse accelerating quadrant with negative speed and torque
 Quadrant IV – Generating or braking, reverse braking-decelerating quadrant with negative speed and
positive torque.
Most applications involve single-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I, such as in variable-torque (e.g.
centrifugal pumps or fans) and certain constant-torque (e.g. extruders) loads.
Certain applications involve two-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II where the speed is positive
but the torque changes polarity as in case of a fan decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses. Some
sources define two-quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and torque is
same (positive or negative) polarity in both directions.
Certain high-performance applications involve four-quadrant loads (Quadrants I to IV) where the speed and
torque can be in any direction such as in hoists, elevators, and hilly conveyors. Regeneration can occur only
in the drive's DC link bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than the motor back-EMF and
inverter voltage and back-EMF are the same polarity.[30]
In starting a motor, a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage, thus avoiding high inrush current
associated with direct-on-line starting. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are
increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load. This starting method typically allows a
motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from
the mains in the low-speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from
standstill right up to full speed. However, motor cooling deteriorates and can result in overheating as speed
decreases such that prolonged low-speed operation with significant torque is not usually possible without
separately motorized fan ventilation.

Fig. 6.2 Four quadrant operation of drive

Fig. 6.3 Basic circuit of VFD

 With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage
applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor
is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it
would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be
obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy.
With a four-quadrant rectifier (active front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse
torque and injecting the energy back to the AC line.

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.4 (a) Voltage Frequency Curve (b) Speed-Torque curve at different V/f ratio
When the frequency is reduced to reduce the speed while voltage is constant, the flux must be increased in
order to keep the induced emf constant. Increase in flux causes saturation. In order to avoid saturation, the
flux need to be kept constant. This requires the voltage has to be reduced with the frequency. This V/f ratio
needs to be kept same for all frequencies to obtain a flux which produces maximum torque. When constant
voltage/frequency ratio is maintained, a wide range speed change can be reached except near zero speed.
This provides pull out torque and therefore the motor current remains to be constant. A high voltage value
greater than the specified V/f ratio may be applied to the motor to meet the voltage drop across the motor
winding as it has a big effect near zero speed.
6.5 Wiring Schedule
Sr. From To Sr. From To
Sr. From To
No. No. No.

6 EMT-33(4) EMT-2(2) 11 EMT-3(5) AC Motor (U)

1 EMT-16A(7) EMT-20F(7)
7 EMT-33(5) EMT-2(3) 12 EMT-3(6) AC Motor (V)
2 EMT-16A(8) EMT-20F(8)
8 EMT-2(5) EMT-3(1) 13 EMT-3(7) AC Motor (W)
3 EMT-20F(9) EMT-33(1)
9 EMT-2(6) EMT-3(2) 14 EMT-20F(11) AC Motor (Earth)
4 EMT-20F(10) EMT-33(2)
10 EMT-2(7) EMT-3(3)
5 EMT-33(3) EMT-2(1)
6.6 Torque Calculations
Calculate the torque using following formula
Torque, T = force x distance
= force in kg x 0.07 meter x 9.8 m/sec2
Therefore, T = F kg x 0.686 N-m
Where 0.686 is constant
If the motor is supplied with spring balance loading arrangement, the torque can be calculated using
following formulae
Torque T = F kg x 0.686 N-m
Where F = T1(in Kg) – T2(in Kg)
Here radius of pulley is = 60.5 mm / 2
= 30.25 mm = 0.03025 meter
6.7 Result Analysis
Table 6.1 Reading Table for Torque speed curve
Sr. No. Frequency in Hz S. N. Ve Ie Force F Torque T Motor Speed
(observe vvvf Drive) (Volt) (Amp) in Kg in Nm Current
1 10 1
2
3
2 25 1
2
3
3 50 1
2
3
4 75 1
2
3
5 100 1
2
3
6.8 Viva Questions
Q1. What are different methods of speed control in VFD?
Q2. What is quassi saturation?
Q3. What is difference between amplitude modulation index & frequency modulation index?
Q4. Draw the wave form for 120o mode of conduction & 180o mode of conduction?
Q5. Elaborate the difference between Space Vector controls, Direct-Torque Control & V/f control?
Q6. What is clark to park transformation & park to clark transformation in vector control ?
 PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Subject: Electrical drive (EE-701) Semester: VII

Enrolment No.__________________ Date: ___________

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

Experiment No. 7
7.1 Objective:
To Study variable frequency Control of Synchronous motor drive.

7.2 Equipment/Software Required:

MatLab 2015 or above version, Computer System with minimum 4 GB Ram, I5 Processor
7.3 Precautions:
i. switch off the computers in case of voltage fluctuations
ii. Keep back up of important files
iii. Use a virus scanner on your PC
iv. No tampering with wires or network cables.
7.4 Theory
A drive operating in true Variable Frequency Control of Multiple Synchronous Motors is shown in Fig. 7.1.

Fig 7.1 Variable frequency control of synchronous motor

 Frequency command f* is applied to a voltage source inverter through a delay circuit so that rotor speed is
able to track the changes in frequency. A flux control block changes stator voltage with frequency to
maintain a constant flux below rated speed and a constant terminal voltage above rated speed. This scheme
is commonly used for the control of multiple synchronous reluctance or permanent magnet motors in fiber
spinning, textile and paper mills where accurate speed tracking between the motors is required.

Synchronous motors are constant speed motors. They run at the synchronous speed of the supply. They are
generally used for constant speed operation under no load conditions such as to improve the power factor.
Synchronous motors have fewer losses than induction motors at a given rating.
The speed of a synchronous motor is given by

120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑃
Where, f = supply frequency and p = number of poles.

As you can see, the synchronous speed depends on the frequency of the supply and the number of poles of
the rotor. Changing the number of poles is not easy, so we do not use that method. However, with the
invention of solid-state devices, the frequency of the current fed to the synchronous motor can be varied.
We can control the speed of the synchronous motor by changing the frequency of the supply to the motor.
We can use a combination of rectifiers and inverters to control the speed of synchronous motors. They can
be used in two ways:

(1) Inverter Fed Open Loop Synchronous Motor Drive

(2) Self-Synchronous (Closed – Loop) Operation

Inverter Fed Open Loop Synchronous Motor Drive

In this method, the synchronous motor is supplied by variable frequency inverter in an open loop. By open
loop, we mean that there is no feedback given to the supply. The inverter has no information about the
current position of the rotor. This method is preferable when highly accurate speed control is not required.
Supply from the mains is fed into the rectifier inverter set where desired frequency can be attained.
Depending on the frequency, the synchronous speed of the motor can be varied.
In above figure, you can see the block diagram of the speed control drive. The three-phase supply from the
mains is converted to dc by using rectifiers. Then the rippled dc is smoothened by using LC filters. The DC
is fed to the inverters. These inverters can be either voltage source inverters or current source inverter. The
frequency of the supply fed to the motor can be varied and accordingly speed control of synchronous
motor can be done. Open loop operation is useful when a number of motors need to be run at exactly the
same speed. This method has a disadvantage though. This method causes spontaneous oscillation or hunting.

Self Synchronous (Closed – Loop) Operation

We use self-synchronous (closed-loop) operation when highly accurate speed control is required. In this
method, the inverter output frequency is determined by the speed of the rotor. The speed of the rotor is fed
back to the differentiator. The difference between the preset speed and the actual speed is fed to the rectifier.
Accordingly, the inverter changes the frequency and adjusts the speed of the motor. We get more accurate
control over the motor speed with the closed loop operation. For example, if speed gets reduced (due to
increase in load), the stator supply frequency gets reduced so that the rotor stays in synchronism with the
stator magnetic field. No spontaneous oscillation or hunting occurs in this method.

7.5 Matlab Simulation Circuit & Result Analysis

Add Matlab Simulation Circuit
7.6 Viva Question
Q1. Explain the true synchronous mode & Self Synchronous mode?
Q2. What are the difference between Sinusoidal PMAC & Trapezoidal PMAC?
Q3. Write the torque equations for cylindrical rotor & salient pole rotor?
Q4. Draw the phasor diagram for cylindrical rotor synchronous motor & salient pole rotor synchronous
motor?
Q5. Why back emf in synchronous reluctance motor is zero?
Q6. What are the feedbacks in close loop operation of synchronous motor?
Q7. Do we require damper winding both in true synchronous mode and self-synchronous mode? If required
then why?
 PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Subject: Electrical drive (EE-701) Semester: VII

Enrolment No.__________________ Date: ___________

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

Experiment No. 8
8.1 Objective:
To study the control & performance Characteristics of Switched Reluctance motor.

8.2 Equipment/Software Required:

MatLab 2015 or above version, Computer System with minimum 4 GB Ram, I5 Processor
8.3 Precautions:
i. switch off the computers in case of voltage fluctuations
ii. Keep back up of important files
iii. Use a virus scanner on your PC
iv. No tampering with wires or network cables.
8.4 Theory
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an electric motor that runs by reluctance torque. Unlike
common brushed DC motor types, power is delivered to windings in the stator (case) rather than the rotor.
This greatly simplifies mechanical design as power does not have to be delivered to a moving part which
eliminates the need for a commutator, but it complicates the electrical design as some sort of switching
system needs to be used to deliver power to the different windings. Electronic devices can precisely time
the switching of currents, facilitating SRM configurations. Its main drawback is torque ripple. Controller
technology that limits torque ripple at low speeds has been demonstrated Sources disagree on whether it is
a type of stepper motor. The same electromechanical design can be used in a generator. The load is switched
to the coils in sequence to synchronize the current flow with the rotation. Such generators can be run at
much higher speeds than conventional types as the armature can be made as one piece of magnetisable
material, as a slotted cylinder. In this case the abbreviation SRM is extended to mean Switched Reluctance
Machine, (along with SRG, Switched Reluctance Generator). A topology that is both motor and generator
is useful for starting the prime mover, as it saves a dedicated starter motor.
The SRM has wound field coils as in a DC motor for the stator windings. The rotor however has no magnets
or coils attached. It is a solid salient-pole rotor (having projecting magnetic poles) made of soft magnetic
material (often laminated steel). When power is applied to the stator windings, the rotor's magnetic
reluctance creates a force that attempts to align the rotor pole with the nearest stator pole. In order to
maintain rotation, an electronic control system switches on the windings of successive stator poles in
sequence so that the magnetic field of the stator "leads" the rotor pole, pulling it forward. Rather than using
a mechanical commutator to switch the winding current as in traditional motors, the switched-reluctance
motor uses an electronic position sensor to determine the angle of the rotor shaft and solid state electronics
to switch the stator windings, which enables dynamic control of pulse timing and shaping.

Fig. 8.1 SRM Basic configuration & constructional figure.

This differs from the apparently similar induction motor that also energizes windings in a rotating phased
sequence. In an SRM the rotor magnetization is static (a salient 'North' pole remains so as the motor rotates)
while an induction motor has slip (rotates at slightly less than synchronous speed). SRM's absence of slip
makes it possible to know the rotor position exactly, allowing the motor to be stepped arbitrarily slowly.
If the poles A0 and A1 are energised then the rotor will align itself with these poles. Once this has occurred
it is possible for the stator poles to be de-energised before the stator poles of B0 and B1 are energized. The
rotor is now positioned at the stator poles b. This sequence continues through c before arriving back at the
start. This sequence can also be reversed to achieve motion in the opposite direction. High loads and/or high
de/acceleration can destabilize this sequence, causing a step to be missed, such that the rotor jumps to wrong
angle, perhaps going back one step instead of forward three.

Fig 8.2 Simple Switching Cycle

A much more stable system can be found by using a "quadrature" sequence in which two coils are energised
at any time. First, stator poles A0 and A1 are energized. Then stator poles B0 and B1 are energized which,
pulls the rotor so that it is aligned in between A and B. Following this A's stator poles are de-energized and
the rotor continues on to be aligned with B. The sequence continues through BC, C and CA to complete a
full rotation. This sequence can be reversed to achieve motion in the opposite direction. More steps between
positions with identical magnetisation, so the onset of missed steps occurs at higher speeds or loads.
 Fig. 8.3 Quadrature Sequence

The most common approach to powering an SRM is to use an asymmetric bridge converter. The switching
frequency can be 10 times lower than for AC motors
The phases in an asymmetric bridge converter correspond to the motor phases. If both of the power switches
on either side of the phase are turned on, then that corresponding phase is actuated. Once the current has
risen above the set value, the switch turns off. The energy now stored within the winding maintains the
current in the same direction, the so-called back EMF (BEMF). This BEMF is fed back through the diodes
to the capacitor for re-use, thus improving efficiency.

Fig. 8.4 Asymmetric Bridge converter

This basic circuitry may be altered so that fewer components are required although the circuit performs the
same action. This efficient circuit is known as the (n+1) switch and diode configuration. A capacitor, in
either configuration, is used for storing BEMF for re-use and to suppress electrical and acoustic noise by
limiting fluctuations in the supply voltage.
If a phase is disconnected, an SR motor may continue to operate at lower torque, unlike an AC induction
motor which turns off
 Fig. 8.5 n+1 switch & diode configuration
Types of Switched Reluctance Motor

The categorization of switched reluctance motor can be done based on the construction like linear SRM as
well as rotary SRM.
Linear SRM
The linear SRM or linear switched reluctance motors are known as servos in the market. It includes a single-
step stator as well as the rotor.
Rotary SRM
The rotary SRM or rotary switched reluctance motors are available in two types like radial field as well as
the axial field. Axial field SRMs are classified into two types like single stack and multi-stack. This rotary
SRM includes more than one rotor and stator.
Switched Reluctance Motor Characteristics

The characteristics of the switched reluctance motor include the following.

 This kind of reluctance motor is a 1-phase or 3-phase

 Speed control of this motor is simple.
 The triggering circuit can be changed to get high speed
 It operates with a DC supply once used with an inverter.
 Once the firing angle of any switching device can be changed then different speeds can be achieved.
 Control of one phase is independent of the other two phases.
 The unutilized energy fed to the motor can be retrieved by using the feedback diodes. This improves
efficiency.

Advantages

The advantages of a switched reluctance motor include the following.

 These motors are very simple & the rotors in this motor are extremely strong
 These motors are applicable for high-speed applications.
 The VFDs (variable frequency drives) of this motor are somewhat simpler as compared with
conventional VFDs.
 This motor doesn’t use any additional ventilation system when the stator, as well as rotor slots, is
projected. So the airflow can be maintained among the slots.
 These are less expensive because of the nonexistence of permanent magnets.
 Fault tolerance is high
 This motor works with a simple two-phase or three-phase pulse generator.
 Phase losses do not change the operation of the motor.
 Once the phase sequence is changed then the motor direction will be changed.
 Inertia Ratio or High Torque
 Self-starting without using additional arrangements

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of a switched reluctance motor include the following.

 Switched reluctance motors have less torque capacity & normally these motors are noisy.
 While operating this motor at high speed, it creates a torque ripple.
 High noise level
 It uses an external rotor position sensor
 These are applicable for medium to high speed, low-cost applications wherever controllability & shaft
or noise torque ripple are not dangerous.
 This motor generates harmonics when it operates at high speed, so to reduce this, large size capacitors
need to install.
 Since the nonexistence of a permanent magnet, the SRM has to carry a high i/p current to increase the
necessity of converter KVA.

Applications

The applications of switched reluctance motors include the following.

 These types of motors are used as an alternative for induction motors in different applications wherever
the operating conditions of this motor do not suit them.
 In textile machinery like towel looms, rapier looms, etc
 Used in electric vehicles
 Oilfield machinery like beam pumps, vertical pumps, well testing machinery, etc.
 Mining machinery like conveyors, shearers, winches, ball mills, boring machines, coal crushers, etc.
 Used in all kinds of mechanical presses like screw presses.

These motors are used in miscellaneous applications which include the following.
 Machine tools like vertical lathes, planers, drilling machines, etc.
 Coil winding as well as unwinding equipment
 General machinery like pumps, fans, compressors, etc.
 Equipment used in paper mills
 Machinery used for food mixing
 Rolling mill for metals
 Lifting machines such as winches, lifts, conveyors, etc
 Manufacturing of plastic-like extrusion, injection molding devices
 Power generation device like load control using wind turbine rotor blade
 Used in domestic appliances like vacuum cleaners, washing machines, fans, etc.

8.5 Matlab Simulation Circuit & Result Analysis

Add Matlab Simulation Circuit
8.6 Viva Question
Q1. What are the difference between switched reluctance motor & synchronous reluctance motor?
Q2. What are the difference between switched reluctance motor & stepper motor?
Q3. What do you mean by 8/6 & 6/4 configuration in switched reluctance motor?
Q4. Write the torque & speed relation of switched reluctance motor?
Q5. What are the bridge converter & split rail converter?
Q6. What are advantages & disadvantages of switched reluctance motor?
Q7. Explain the close loop speed control of switched reluctance motor with block diagrams?
 PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Subject: Electrical drive (EE-701) Semester: VII

Enrolment No.__________________ Date: ___________

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

Experiment No. 9
9.1 Objective:
To study the performance & control of a Stepper motor.

9.2 Equipment/Software Required:

Arduino Board, stepper motor, U2004 Darlington Array (if using a unipolar stepper), SN754410ne H-
Bridge (if using a bipolar stepper), power supply appropriate for your particular stepper, hook-up wire,
breadboard

9.3 Precautions:
i. switch off the computers in case of voltage fluctuations
ii. Keep back up of important files
iii. Use a virus scanner on your PC
iv. No tampering with wires or network cables.
9.4 Theory
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical power into mechanical power. Also, it
is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into an expansive number of steps.
The motor’s position can be controlled accurately without any feedback mechanism, as long as the motor is
carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors. The stepper
motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft turn a precise distance when a pulse
of electricity is provided. The stator has eight poles, and the rotor has six poles. The rotor will require 24
pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one complete revolution. Another way to say this is that
the rotor will move precisely 15° for each pulse of electricity that the motor receives.
The construction of a stepper motor is fairly related to a DC motor. It includes a permanent magnet like
Rotor which is in the middle & it will turn once force acts on it. This rotor is enclosed through a no. of the
stator which is wound through a magnetic coil all over it. The stator is arranged near to rotor so that magnetic
fields within the stators can control the movement of the rotor.
The stepper motor can be controlled by energizing every stator one by one. So the stator will magnetize &
works like an electromagnetic pole which uses repulsive energy on the rotor to move forward. The stator’s
alternative magnetizing as well as demagnetizing will shift the rotor gradually &allows it to turn through
great control. The stepper motor working principle is Electro-Magnetism. It includes a rotor which is
made with a permanent magnet whereas a stator is with electromagnets. Once the supply is provided to the
winding of the stator then the magnetic field will be developed within the stator. Now rotor in the motor
will start to move with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. So this is the fundamental working principle
of this motor. In this motor, there is a soft iron that is enclosed through the electromagnetic stators. The
poles of the stator as well as the rotor don’t depend on the kind of stepper. Once the stators of this motor are
energized then the rotor will rotate to line up itself with the stator otherwise turns to have the least gap
through the stator. In this way, the stators are activated in a series to revolve the stepper motor.

Fig.9.1 Stepper Motor Construction

Driving Techniques

Stepper motor driving techniques can be possible with some special circuits due to their complex design.
There are several methods to drive this motor, some of them are discussed below by taking an example of a
four-phase stepper motor.
Single Excitation Mode

The basic method of driving a stepper motor is a single excitation mode. It is an old method and not used
much at present but one has to know about this technique. In this technique every phase otherwise stator
next to each other will be triggered one by one alternatively with a special circuit. This will magnetize &
demagnetize the stator to move the rotor forward.

Full Step Drive

In this technique, two stators are activated at a time instead of one in a very less time period. This technique
results in high torque & allows the motor to drive the high load.

Half Step Drive

This technique is fairly related to the Full step drive because the two stators will be arranged next to each
other so that it will be activated first whereas the third one will be activated after that. This kind of cycle for
switching two stators first &after that third stator will drive the motor. This technique will result in improved
resolution of the stepper motor while decreasing the torque.
Micro Stepping

This technique is most frequently used due to its accuracy. The variable step current will supply by
the stepper motor driver circuit toward stator coils within the form of a sinusoidal waveform. The accuracy
of every step can be enhanced by this small step current. This technique is extensively used because it
provides high accuracy as well as decreases operating noise to a large extent.
Stepper Motor Circuit & Its Operation

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to their
terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple toothed electromagnets arranged
around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit,
for example, a microcontroller.

Fig. 9.2 Stepper Motor Circuit

To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear’s teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet’s teeth. At the point when the gear’s teeth are thus aligned to
the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet
is turned ON and the first is turned OFF, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one and from there
the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a step, with an integer number of steps making
a full rotation.

In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise. Stepper motor doesn’t rotate continuously, they rotate in
steps. There are 4 coils with a 90o angle between each other fixed on the stator. The stepper motor
connections are determined by the way the coils are interconnected. In a stepper motor, the coils are not
connected. The motor has a 90o rotation step with the coils being energized in a cyclic order, determining
the shaft rotation direction.
The working of this motor is shown by operating the switch. The coils are activated in series in 1-sec
intervals. The shaft rotates 90o each time the next coil is activated. Its low-speed torque will vary directly
with current.
Types of Stepper Motor
There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:

 Permanent magnet stepper

 Hybrid synchronous stepper
 Variable reluctance stepper
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or
repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets.

This is the most common type of stepper motor as compared with different types of stepper motors
available in the market. This motor includes permanent magnets in the construction of the motor. This
kind of motor is also known as tin-can/can-stack motor. The main benefit of this stepper motor is less
manufacturing cost. For every revolution, it has 48-24 steps.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum
reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.

The stepper motor like variable reluctance is the basic type of motor and it is used for the past many years.
As the name suggests, the rotor’s angular position mainly depends on the magnetic circuit’s reluctance
that can be formed among the teeth of the stator as well as a rotor.

Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor

Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination of permanent magnet (PM) and variable
reluctance (VR) techniques to achieve maximum power in small package sizes.

The most popular type of motor is the hybrid stepper motor because it gives a good performance as
compared with a permanent magnet rotor in terms of speed, step resolution, and holding torque. But, this
type of stepper motor is expensive as compared with permanent magnet stepper motors. This motor
combines the features of both the permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepper motors. These motors
are used where less stepping angle is required like 1.5, 1.8 & 2.5 degrees.
How to Select a Stepper Motor?

Before selecting a stepper motor for your requirement, it is very significant to examine the torque-speed
curve of the motor. So this information is available from the designer of the motor, and it is a graphical
symbol of the torque of the motor at a specified speed. The motor’s torque-speed curve should match
closely the necessities of the application; or else, the expected system performance cannot be obtained.

Types of Wiring

The stepper motors are generally two-phase motors like unipolar otherwise bipolar. For each phase in a
unipolar motor, there are two windings. Here, center-tapped is a common one lead in between two
windings toward a pole. The unipolar motor has 5 to 8 leads.
In the construction, where the common of two poles are divided however center-tapped, this stepper motor
includes six leads. If the two-pole center taps are short inside, then this motor includes five leads. Unipolar
with 8 leads will facilitate both series & parallel connection while the motor with five lead or six lead has
stator coil’s series connection. The operation of the unipolar motor can be simplified because while
operating them, there is no requirement of reversing the flow of current within the driving circuit which
are known as bifilar motors.

In a bipolar stepper motor, for each pole, there is a single winding. The direction of supply needs to
change through the driving circuit so that it will become complex so these motors are called unifilar
motors.

Stepper Motor Control by Varying Clock Pulses

Stepper motor control circuit is a simple and low-cost circuit, mainly used in low power applications. The
circuit is shown in the figure, which consists of 555 timers IC as a stable multi-vibrator. The frequency is
calculated by using the given relationship.
Frequency = 1/T = 1.45/(RA + 2RB)C Where RA = RB = R2 = R3 = 4.7 kilo-ohm and C = C2 = 100 µF.

Difference between Stepper Motor and Servo Motor

Servo motors are suitable for high torque & speed applications whereas the stepper motor is less
expensive so they are used where the high holding torque, acceleration with low-to-medium, the open
otherwise closed-loop operation flexibility is required. The difference between the stepper motor and
servo motor includes the following.

Stepper Motor Servo Motor

The motor which moves in discrete steps is A servo motor is one kind of closed-loop motor that
known as the stepper motor. is connected to an encoder to provide speed feedback
& position.

Stepper motor is used where control, as well Servo motor is used where the speed is the main
as precision, are main priorities priority

The overall pole count of the stepper motor The overall pole count of servo motor ranges from
ranges from 50 to 100 4to 12
In a closed-loop system, these motors move These motors need an encoder to change pulses to
with a consistent pulse control the position.

Torque is high in less speed Torque is low in high speed

Positioning time is faster throughout short Positioning time is faster throughout long strokes
strokes
High-tolerance movement of inertia Low-tolerance movement of inertia
 This motor is suitable for low rigidity Not suitable for less-rigidity mechanism
mechanisms like pulley and belt
Responsiveness is high Responsiveness is low
These are used for fluctuating loads These are not used for fluctuating loads
The adjustment of gain/tuning is not The adjustment of gain/tuning is required
required
Parameters of Stepper Motor

The stepper motor parameters mainly include step angle, steps for each revolution, steps for each second,
and RPM.

Step Angle
The step angle of the stepper motor can be defined as the angle at which the motor’s rotor turns once a
single pulse is given to the stator’s input. The resolution of the motor can be defined as the number of
steps of the motor and the number of revolutions of the rotor.

Resolution = Number of Steps/Number of Revolution of the Rotor

The motor’s arrangement can be decided through the step-angle & it is expressed within degrees. The
resolution of a motor (the step number) is the no. of steps which make within a single revolution of the
rotor. When the step-angle of the motor is small then the resolution is high for the arrangement of this
motor.

The exactness of the arrangements of the objects through this motor mainly depends on the resolution.
Once the resolution is high then the accuracy will be low.

Some accuracy motors can create 1000 steps within a single revolution including 0.36 degrees of step-
angle. A typical motor includes 1.8 degrees of step angle with 200 steps for each revolution. The different
step angles such as 15 degrees, 45 degrees, and 90 degrees are very common in normal motors. The
number of angles can change from two to six and a small step angle can be attained through slotted pole
parts.

Steps for Each Revolution

The steps for each resolution can be defined as the number of step angles necessary for a total revolution.
The formula for this is 360°/Step Angle.

Steps for Each Second

This kind of parameter is mainly used for measuring the number of steps covered within each second.

Revolution per Minute

The RPM is the revolution per minute. It is used to measure the frequency of revolution. So by using this
parameter, we can calculate the number of revolutions in a single minute. The main relation between the
parameters of the stepper motor is like the following.
9.5 System Description

Fig. 9.3 Unipolar Stepper Circuit and schematic

Fig. 9.4Bipolar Stepper Circuit and Schematic
9.6 Result Analysis & Observation
Table 9.1 Observation Table at No load
Sr. No. Set Point PWM Speed (RPM)
T OFF (µs) T ON (µs)
1 20%
2 40%
3 50%
4 60%
5 70%
6 80%
7 100%

9.7 Viva Question

Q1. What are the difference between switched reluctance motor & stepper motor?
Q2. What are important features of Stepper Motors?
Q3. Write the advantages & disadvantage of Stepper Motor?
Q4. Explain the drive circuit for stepper motor?
Q5. Explain the Torque vs stepping rate characteristics?
Q6. Explain the Unipolar Drive for Variable reluctance motor?
Q7. Explain the Bipolar Drive for Permanent Magnet & Hybrid Motors
Q8. How to control the speed of stepper motor with potentiometer using at arduino
 PRESTIGE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH INDORE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Subject: Electrical drive (EE-701) Semester: VII

Enrolment No.__________________ Date: ___________

Remarks if any, Signature of Professor

Experiment No. 10
10.1 Objective:
To Study the Performance of a permanent magnet Brushless dc motor drive.

10.2 Equipment/Software Required:

XPO-BLDC-36f-2 drive, BLDC motor (200W, 24VDC, 2500RPM), Connecting leads
10.3 Precautions:
i. switch off the computers in case of voltage fluctuations
ii. Keep back up of important files
iii. Use a virus scanner on your PC
iv. No tampering with wires or network cables.
10.4 Theory
The BLDC motor is an AC synchronous motor with permanent magnets on the rotor (moving part) and
windings on the stator (fixed part). Permanent magnets create the rotor flux and the energized stator
windings create electromagnet poles. The rotor (equivalent to a bar magnet) is attracted by the energized
stator phase. By using the appropriate sequence to supply the stator phases, a rotating field on the stator is
created and maintained. This action of the rotor - chasing after the electromagnet poles on the stator - is the
fundamental action used in synchronous permanent magnet motors. The lead between the rotor and the
rotating field must be controlled to produce torque and this synchronization implies knowledge of the rotor
position. Permanent magnet synchronous motors can be classified in many ways, one of these that is of
particular interest to us is that depending on back-emf profiles: Brushless Direct Current Motor (BLDC)
and Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM). This terminology defines the shape of the back-emf
of the synchronous motor. Both BLDC and PMSM motors have permanent magnets on the rotor but differ
in the flux distributions and back-emf profiles. To get the best performance out of the synchronous motor,
it is important to identify the type of motor in order to apply the most appropriate type of control as described
in the next chapters.

Comparison of BLDC and PMSM motors

BLDC PMSM
 Synchronous machine
Fed with direct currents
Trapezoidal Bemf
Stator Flux position commutation each 60 degrees
Only two phases ON at the same time
Torque ripple at commutations
Low order current harmonics in the audible range
Higher core losses due to harmonic content
Less switching losses
Control algorithms are relatively simple
Synchronous machine
Fed with sinusoidal currents
Sinusoidal Bemf
Continuous stator flux position variation
Possible to have three phases ON at the same time
No torque ripple at commutations
Less harmonics due to sinusoidal excitation
Lower core loss
Higher switching losses at the same switching freq
Control algorithms are mathematically intensive

• Both motor types are synchronous machines. The only difference between them is the shape of the induced
voltage, resulting from two different manners of wiring the stator coils. The back-emf is trapezoidal in the
BLDC motor case, and sinusoidal in the PMSM motor case.
• BLDC machines could be driven with sinusoidal currents and PMSM with direct currents, but for better
performance, PMSM motors should be excited by sinusoidal currents and BLDC machines by direct
currents.
• The control structure (hardware and software) of a sinusoidal motor required several current sensors and
sinusoidal phase currents were hard to achieve with analog techniques. Therefore many motors (sinusoidal
like trapezoidal) were driven with direct current for cost and simplicity reasons (low resolution position
sensors and single low cost current sensor), compromising efficiency and dynamic behavior.

BLDC Motor Control

The key to effective torque and speed control of a BLDC motor is based on relatively simple torque and
Back EMF equations, which are similar to those of the DC motor. The Back EMF magnitude can be written
as:
𝐸 = 2𝑁𝑙𝑟𝐵𝑤
and the torque term as:
1 𝑑𝐿 1 𝑑𝑅 4𝑁
𝑇 = ( 𝑖 2 ) − ( 𝐵2 ) + 𝐵𝑟𝑙𝜋𝑖
2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 𝜋
where N is the number of winding turns per phase, l is the length of the rotor, r is the internal radius of the
rotor, B is the rotor magnet flux density, w is the motor’s angular velocity, i is the phase current, L is the
phase inductance, θ is the rotor position, R is the phase resistance.
The first two terms in the torque expression are parasitic reluctance torque components. The third term
produces mutual torque, which is the torque production mechanism used in the case of BLDC motors. To
sum up, the Back EMF is directly proportional to the motor speed and the torque production is almost
directly proportional to the phase current. These factors lead to the following BLDC motor speed control
scheme:
The BLDC motor is characterized by a two phase ON operation to control the inverter. In this control
scheme, torque production follows the principle that current should flow in only two of the three phases at
a time and that there should be no torque production in the region of Back EMF zero crossings.
The following figure describes the electrical wave forms in the BLDC motor in the two phases ON
operation. This control structure has several advantages:
• Only one current at a time needs to be controlled.
• Only one current sensor is necessary (or none for speed loop only, as detailed in the next sections)
. • The positioning of the current sensor allows the use of low cost sensors as a shunt.

Fig. 10.1 Speed & Current control loop configuration

We have seen that the principle of the BLDC motor is, at all times, to energize the phase pair which can
produce the highest torque. To optimize this effect the Back EMF shape is trapezoidal. The combination of
a DC current with a trapezoidal Back EMF makes it theoretically possible to produce a constant torque. In
practice, the current cannot be established instantaneously in a motor phase; as a consequence the torque
ripple is present at each 60 degree phase commutation.
If the motor used has a sinusoidal Back EMF shape, this control can be applied but the produced torque is:
• Firstly, not constant but made up from portions of a sine wave. This is due to its being the combination of
a trapezoidal current control strategy and of a sinusoidal Back EMF. Bear in mind that a sinusoidal Back
EMF shape motor controlled with a sine wave strategy (three phase ON) produces a constant torque.
• Secondly, the torque value produced is weaker.

Fig 10.2 Electrical Waveforms in the Two Phase ON Operation and Torque Ripple

Fig. 10.3 Torque Ripple in a Sinusoidal Motor Controlled as a BLDC

System Topology
Three Phase Inverter
The BLDC motor control consists of generating DC currents in the motor phases. This control is subdivided
into two independent operations: stator and rotor flux synchronization and control of the current value. Both
operations are realized through the three phase inverter depicted in the following scheme.
The flux synchronization is derived from the position information coming from sensors, or from senseless
techniques. From the position, the controller determines the appropriate pair of transistors (Q1 to Q6) which
must be driven. The regulation of the current to a fixed 60 degrees reference can be realized in either of the
two different modes:
1. The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Mode The supply voltage is chopped at a fixed frequency with a
duty cycle depending on the current error. Therefore both the current and the rate of change of current
can be controlled. The two phase supply duration is limited by the two phase commutation angles. The
main advantage of the PWM strategy is that the chopping frequency is a fixed parameter; hence, acoustic
and electromagnetic noises are relatively easy to filter. There are also two ways of handling the drive
current switching: hard chopping and soft chopping.In the hard chopping technique both phase
transistors are driven by the same pulsed signal: the two transistors are switched-on and switched-off at
the same time. The power electronics board is then easier to design and is also cheaper as it handles only
three pulsed signals. A disadvantage of the hard chopping operation is that it increases the current ripple
by a large factor in comparison with the soft chopping approach. The soft chopping approach allows not
only a control of the current and of the rate of change of the current but a minimization of the current
ripple as well. In this soft chopping mode the low side transistor is left ON during the phase supply and
the high side transistor switches according to the pulsed signal. In this case, the power electronics board
has to handle six PWM signals.

Fig. 10.4 Three Phase Inverter

2. The Hysteresis Mode In the hysteresis-type current regulator, the power transistors are switched off and
on according to whether the current is greater or less than a reference current. The error is used directly
to control the states of the power transistors. The hysteresis controller is used to limit the phase current
within a preset hysteresis band. As the supply voltage is fixed, the result is that the switching frequency
varies as the current error varies. The current chopping operation is thus not a fixed chopping frequency
PWM technique. This method is more commonly implemented in drives where motor speed and load
do not vary too much, so that the variation in switching frequency is small. Here again, both hard and
soft chopping schemes are possible. Since the width of the tolerance band is a design parameter, this
 mode allows current control to be as precise as desired, but acoustic and electromagnetic noise are
difficult to filter because of the varying switching frequency.
3. Shaft Position Sensors The position information is used to generate precise firing commands for the
power converter, ensuring drive stability and fast dynamic response. In servo applications position
feedback is also used in the position feedback loop. Velocity feedback can be derived from the position
data, thus eliminating a separate velocity transducer for the speed control loop. Three common types of
position sensors are used: the incremental sensors, the three Hall Effect sensor and resolver.
• The incremental sensors use optically coded disks with either single track or quadrature resolution to
produce a series of square wave pulses. The position is determined by counting the number of pulses
from a known reference position. Quadrature encoders are direction sensitive and so do not produce
false data due to any vibration when the shaft begins rotation. The Quadrature Encoder Pulse unit of the
F280x handles encoders’ output lines and can provide 1, 2 or 4 times the encoder resolution. Speed
information is available by counting the number of pulses within a fix time period.
• The three Hall Effect sensors provide three overlapping signals giving a 60° wide position range. The
three signals can be wired to the F280x Input Capture/GPIO pins, thus speed information is available
by measuring the time interval between two Input Captures. The time interval is automatically stored by
the 280x into a specific register at each Input Capture. From speed information it is numerically possible
to get the precise position information needed for sharp firing commands.
• The resolver is made up of three windings (different from the motor’s windings): one linked to the
rotor and supplied with a sinusoidal source and two other orthogonal coils linked to the stator. A Back
EMF is induced by the rotating coil in each of the two stator resolver windings. By decoding these two
signals it is possible to get cos(q) and sin(q) where q is the rotor position. The resolver resolution depends
only on the AD conversion.
Current Sensing
A characteristic of the BLDC control is to have only one current at a time in the motor (two phases ON).
Consequently, it is not necessary to put a current sensor on each phase of the motor; one sensor placed in
the line inverter input makes it possible to control the current of each phase. Moreover, using this sensor
on the ground line, insulated systems are not necessary, and a low cost resistor can be used. Its value is set
such that it activates the integrated over-current protection when the maximum current permitted by the
power board has been reached. Each current measurement leads to a new PWM duty cycle loaded at the
beginning of a PWM cycle. Note that, during Turn OFF, the shunt resistor does not have this current to
sense, regardless of whether the inverter is driven in hard chopping or in soft chopping mode. The figure
below depicts the shunt current in soft chopping mode and shows that in the Turn OFF operation the
decreasing current flows through the M2 free wheeling diode and through the maintained closed M4 (so
there is no current observable in the shunt in this chopping mode during Turn OFF). This implies that it is
necessary to start a current conversion in the middle of the PWM duty cycle.
In the hard chopping mode during the Turn OFF neither M1 nor M4 drive current, so that the decreasing
phase current flows from ground through the shunt resistor via M2 and M3 free wheeling diodes and back
to ground via the capacitor. In this chopping mode it is possible to see the exponentially decreasing phase
current across the shunt as a negative shunt voltage drop appears. Assuming that neither the power board
nor the control board support negative voltages, this necessitates that the current be sensed in the middle
of the Turn ON.
Position and Speed Sensing
The motor in this application is equipped with three Hall Effect sensors. These sensors are fed by the power
electronics board. The sensor outputs are directly wired to the GPIO pins. The Hall Effect sensors give
three 120° overlapping signals, thus providing the six mandatory commutation points: The rising and
falling edges of the sensor output are detected, the corresponding flags are generated. The system first
determines which edge has been detected, then computes the time elapsed since the last detected edge and
commutates the supplied phases. The speed feedback is derived from the position sensor output signals.
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, there are six commutation signals per electrical revolution. In
other words, between two commutation signals there are 60° electrical degrees. As the speed can be written
as:
∆𝑇
∆𝜃
Where θ is the electrical angle it is possible to get the speed from the computed elapsed time between two
captures. Between two commutation signals the angle variation is constant as the Hall Effect sensors are
fixed relative to the motor, so speed sensing is reduced to a simple division.

Fig. 10.5 Shunt Resistor Voltage Drop according to PWM Duty Cycles (Soft Chopping)
10.5 Wiring Schedule
From To From To
BLDC1(1) EMT6B(1) BLDC1(2) EMT6B(3)
EMT6B(2) EMT6B(5) EMT6B(6) BLDC2(1)
EMT6B(4) BLDC2(2) BLDC3(9) Motor I/P (Red)
BLDC3(10) Motor I/P (Yellow) BLDC3(11) Motor I/P(Blue)

10.6 Result Analysis

Table 9.1 Observation Table at No load
Sr. No. Set Point PWM Speed (RPM)
T OFF (µs) T ON (µs)
1 20%
2 40%
3 50%
4 60%
5 70%
6 80%
7 100%

Table 9.2 Observation Table for Speed-Torque Characteristic at Load

Sr. No. DC Volt DC AMP RPM T1 (Kg) T2(Kg) Torque= [T2-T1] x 9.81
(V) (A) x 0.0125N (Radius of
Pulley = 12.5 mm)
1
2
3
4
5