PHILIPPINE LITERATURE HISTORY TIMELINE

PRE-COLONIAL (BC to 1564)

 Historical Events
Filipinos often lose sight of the fact that the first period of the
Philippine literary history is the longest. However, through the researches
and writings about Philippine history, much can be reliably inferred about
precolonial Philippine literature from an analysis of collected oral lore of
Filipinos whose ancestors were able to preserve their indigenous culture by
living beyond the reach of Spanish colonial administrators.
The oral literature of the precolonial Filipinos bore the marks of the
community. This is evident in the most common forms of oral literature like
the riddle, the proverbs and the song, which always seem to assume that the
audience is familiar with the situations, activities and objects mentioned in
the course of expressing a thought or emotion. The language of oral
literature, unless the piece was part of the cultural heritage of the
community like the epic, was the language of daily life. At this phase of
literary development, any member of the community was a potential poet,
singer or storyteller as long as he knew the language and had been attentive
to the conventions of the forms.
Almost all the important events in the life of the ancient peoples of this
country were connected with some religious observance and the rites and
ceremonies always some poetry recited, chanted, or sung. The lyrics of
religious songs may of course be classified as poetry also, although the
rhythm and the rhyme may not be the same. Filipinos had a culture that
linked them with the Malays in the Southeast Asia, a culture with traces of
Indian, Arabic, and, possibly Chinese influences. Their epics, songs, short
poems, tales, dances and rituals gave them a native Asian perspective which
served as a filtering device for the Western culture that the colonizers
brought over from Europe.

Literary Works
 1. Riddle- Made up of one or more measured lines with rhymes and may consist
of 4 to 12 syllables and it showcases the Filipino wit, literary talent, and keen
observation of the surroundings.

2. Epigrams/Proverbs (Salawikain & Sawikain)- Short poems that have been

customarily been used and served as laws or rules on good behavior by
ancestors. Usually the work imparts lessons for the young ones.

3. Chants (Bulong)- Used in witchcrafts and enchantments.

4. Myths - derived from Philippine folk literature, which is the traditional oral
literature of the Filipino people. This refers to a wide range of material due to
the ethnic mix of the Philippines.

5. Folk Songs- a form of folk lyric which expresses the people’s hopes,
aspirations, and lifestyles.

6. Epic- a series of heroic achievements, usually a hero, is dealt with at length.

Famous Authors

Literature was passed down through storytelling from one person to

another. The author of these works remains unknown until present time.

Literary Styles and Themes

Most of the content of the literature in the said era revolves around
the creation of the world, community, the Philippines and life.

Literary Samples

 Guman (Subanon); 
 Darangen (Maranao); 
 Hudhud (Ifugao);
  Lam-ang (Ilocano); 
 Hinilawod (Sulod); 
 Kudaman (Palawan); 
 Darangen (Maranao); 
 Ulahingan  (Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); 
 Mangovayt Buhong na Langit(The Maiden of the Buhong Sky from
Tuwaang-Manobo); 
 Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon); and 
 Tudbulol (T'boli).

COLONIAL PERIOD (Spanish)

 Historical Events
The Spanish colonial strategy was to undermine the native oral
tradition by substituting for it the story of the Passion of Christ. Although
Christ was by no means war-like or sexually attractive as many of the heroes
of the oral epic tradition, the appeal of the Jesus myth inhered in the
protagonist’s superior magic: by promising eternal life for everyone. It is to
be emphasized, however, that the native tradition survived and even
flourished in areas inaccessible to the colonial power. Moreover, the
tardiness and the lack of assiduity of the colonial administration in making a
public educational system work meant the survival of oral tradition, or what
was left of it, among the conquered tribes. The church authorities adopted a
policy of spreading the Church doctrines by communicating to the native
(pejoratively called Indio) in his own language. 

This development marked the beginning of Indio literacy and thus

spurred the creation of the first written literary native text by the native.
These writers, called ladinos because of their fluency in both Spanish and
Tagalog, published their work, mainly devotional poetry, in the first decade of
the 17th century. Ironically — and perhaps just because of its profound
influence on the popular imagination — as artifact it marks the beginning of
the end of the old mythological culture and a conversion to the new
paradigm introduced by the colonial power.
Literary Works

1. Christian Doctrine (Religious literature)- a prayer book written in Spanish

with an accompanying Tagalog translation. It was, however, for the exclusive
use of the missionaries who invariably read them aloud to the unlettered
Indio catechumens.

2. Senakulo (Religious literature)- a dramatization of the pasyon.

3. Pasyon (Religious literature)- long narrative poem about the passion and
death of Christ.

4. Awit- colorful tales of chivalry made for singing and chanting.

5. Komedya (moro-moro)- secular literature from Spain in the form of medieval

ballads inspired the native poetic-drama.

6. Prose Narratives- written to prescribe proper decorum.

Famous Authors

 Gaspar Aquino de Belen - was a Filipino poet and translator of the 17th
century, known for authoring a 1704 rendition of the Pasyon: a famous
poetic narrative of the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus, which has
circulated in many versions.
 Jose de la Cruz (1746 – 1829) - was the foremost exponent of
the komedya during his time. A poet of prodigious output and urbane style,
de la Cruz marks a turning point in that his elevated diction distinguishes his
work from folk idiom.

 Francisco Baltazar (1788 – 1862) - popularly called Balagtas, is the

acknowledged master of traditional Tagalog poetry.  But the crucial element
in Balagtas’ unique genius is that, being caught between two cultures (the
native and the colonial/classical), he could switch codes (or was perceived by
his compatriot audience to be switching codes), provide insight and
information to his oppressed compatriots in the very style and guise of a
tradition provided him by a foreign (and oppressive) culture. His narrative
 poem Florante at Laura written in sublime Tagalog, is about tyranny in
Albanya, but it is also perceived to be about tyranny in his Filipino homeland
(Lumbera).

 Jose Rizal (1861 – 1896)- He chose the realistic novel as his medium.
Choosing Spanish over Tagalog meant challenging the oppressors on the
latter’s own turf. By writing in prose, Rizal also cut his ties with the Balagtas
tradition of the figurative indirection which veiled the supposed
subversiveness of many writings at that time.

Literary Styles and Themes

The topics covered by the literary works include religion, specifically

Christianity, and European traditions. Grammar books in Tagalog were also
published at that time period. Some were sung, like The Passion while some
were prayers that believers chant in church.

Literary Examples

 Doctrina Christiana (1593);

 Mahal Na Pasion ni Jesu Christo by Gaspar Aquino de Belen;
 Ang mga Dalit kay Maria (Psalms for Mary);
 Ang Barlaan at Josaphat by Fray Antonio de Borja;
 Florante at Laura by Francisco Balagtas;
 Mi Ultimoadios by Jose Rizal.

REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
 Historical Events
It began in August 1896, when the Spanish authorities discovered
Katipunan, an anti-colonial secret organization. During a great revolution,
literature nearly disappears and there is silence for, swept up in the tide of
revolution, all turn from shouting to action and are so busy making revolution
that there is no time to talk of literature. However, Filipinos who aren’t into
making revolution in action revived the Philippine literature with their own
writings and inflaming Filipinos’ emotions with the said
content. Revolutionary period likewise saw various literary masterpieces
written as ammunition and shield in the ever-changing tide of war to
 independence. Periodicals and magazines were likewise continued to flourish
as both avenue for idea propagation and vehicle for literary initiatives.

Literary Works

1. Political Essays (Propaganda Literature) - satires, editorials and news

articles were written to attack and expose the evils of Spanish rule;
helped inflame the spirit of revolution

2. Political Novels (Propaganda Literature) - the content directly

criticizes an existing society or present an alternative, even fantastic,
reality.
3. Revolutionary Literature -
more propagandistic than literary as it is more violent in nature
and demanded complete independence for the country.

Famous Authors

 Jose Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena, and M. H. del Pilar - In a sense, Rizal’s
novels and patriotic poems were the inevitable conclusion to the campaign
for liberal reforms known as the Propaganda Movement, waged by Graciano
Lopez Jaena, and M.H. del Pilar. The two novels so vividly portrayed
corruption and oppression that despite the lack of any clear advocacy, they
served to instill the conviction that there could be no solution to the social ills
but a violent one.

 Emilio Jacinto - Jacinto wrote political essays expressed in the language of

the folk. Significantly, although either writer could have written in Spanish
(Bonifacio, for instance, wrote a Tagalog translation of Rizal’s Ultimo Adios),
both chose to communicate to their fellowmen in their own native language.

 Andres Bonifacio – was an admirer of Rizal, and like Rizal, he was a writer
and social critic profoundly influenced by the liberal ideas of the French
enlightenment, about human dignity. Bonifacio’s most important work are
his poems, the most well-known being Pag-Ibig Sa Tinubuang Lupa.
  Jose Palma - was a Filipino poet and soldier. He was on the staff of La
Independencia at the time he wrote Filipinas, a patriotic poem in Spanish. He
also wrote the Himno Nacional Filipino (The Philippine National Anthem)
composed by Julian Felipe which was originally entitled, Marcha Magdalo. He
joined the fight against the Americans together with Gen. del Pilar with his
works and as a soldier.

Literary Styles and Themes

During this period, Filipinos began to write novels and poems about
love for their country. The revolutionary literature journey marked a drastic
period of inflamed emotions and fiery rhetoric on the account of achieving
freedom from the shackles of tyranny.

Literary Examples

 Kalayaan edited by Emilio Jacinto;

 True Decalogue by Apolinario Mabini;
 Katapusang Hibik ng Pilipinas and Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa by
Andres Bonifacio;
 Liwanag at Dilim by Emilio Jacinto;
 Noli me Tangere and El Filibusterismo by Jose Rizal.

AMERICAN PERIOD
 Historical Events
Philippine literary production during the American Period in the
Philippines was spurred by two significant developments in education and
culture. One is the introduction of free public instruction for all children of
school age and two, the use of English as medium of instruction in all
levels of education in public schools. Free public education made
knowledge and information accessible to a greater number of Filipinos.
Those who availed of this education through college were able to improve
their social status and joined a good number of educated masses who
became part of the country’s middle class. The use of English as medium
of instruction introduced Filipinos to Anglo-American modes of thought,
culture and life ways that would be embedded not only in the literature
 produced but also in the psyche of the country’s educated class. It was
this educated class that would be the wellspring of a vibrant Philippine
Literature in English. Philippine literature in English, as a direct result of
American colonization of the country, could not escape being imitative of
American models of writing especially during its period of apprenticeship.
The poetry written by early poets manifested studied attempts at
versification as in the following poem which is proof of the poet’s rather
elementary exercise in the English language.
The separate, yet parallel developments of Philippine literature in
English and those in Tagalog and other languages of the archipelago
during the American period only prove that literature and writing in
whatever language and in whatever climate are able to survive mainly
through the active imagination of writers. Apparently, what was lacking
during the period was for the writers in the various languages to come
together, share experiences and come to a conclusion on the elements
that constitute good writing in the Philippines.

Literary Works

1. Poetry – Noteworthy names in this field, they wrote in free verse, in

odes and sonnets and in any other types. Poetry was original,
spontaneous, competently written and later, incorporated social
consciousness.

2. Short Story – 1925 to 1941, poetry and short story flourished during
these times.

3. Publications – The Philippine Free Press provided the first

incentives to Filipino writers in English by offering prizes to Filipino
writers in English by offering prizes to worthwhile contribution.
Other publication followed suit.

4. Drama – 1925 to 1941, drama during this period did not reach the
heights attained by the novel or the short story.

Famous Authors
  Fernando Ma. Guerero – he collected the best of his poem in a
book called Crisalidas, and one of the poems written in this book
was “Inovacion A Rizal”

 Manuel Bernabe – is a lyric poet, he was more attractive to the

public in a debate with Jesus Balmori because of the melodious he
used.

 Lope K. Santos – “Father of the National Language Grammar”, he

was also called “apo” of the tagalog writers. “Banaag at Sikat” was
his masterpiece.

 Jose Corazon de Jesus – known as Huseng Batute, he was also

called the poet of love in his time.

 Inigo Ed Regalado – a popular story teller, novelist, and newspaper

man. He reached the peak of his success by the “sumpong” of his
pen.

Literary Styles and Themes

By this time, Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of English

writing. They now confidently and competently wrote on a lot of subjects
although the old-time favorites of love and youth persisted. They went
into all forms of writing like the novel and the drama.

Literary Examples

 “A Rizal” by Cecilio Apostol;

 “Ante El Martir” by Claro M. Recto;
 “Ang Panday” by Armando V. Hernandez.

POST-WAR PERIOD (JAPANESE OCCUPATION)

 Historical Events
Philippine Literature was interrupted in its development when the
Philippines was again conquered by another foreign country, Japan.
 Philippine literature in English can to a halt. Except for the TRIBUNE and the
PHILIPPINE REVIEW, almost all newspapers in English were stopped by the
Japanese.
The weekly Liwayway was placed under strict surveillance until it was
managed by a Japanese named Ishiwara. This had an advantageous effect of
Filipino Literature, which experienced renewed attention because writers in
English turned to writing in Filipino.
Juan Laya who used to write in English turned to Filipino because of
the strict prohibitions of the Philippines of the Japanese regarding any
writing in English.
In other words, Filipino literature was given a break during this period.
Many wrote plays, poems, short stories, etc. Topics and themes were often
about life in the provinces.

Literary Works

1. Haiku – A poem of free verse that the Japanese liked. It was made up of 17
syllables divided into three lines. The first line had 5 syllables, the second had
7 syllables, and the third had 5. It is allegorical in meaning. It is short and
covers a wide scope in meaning.

2. Tanaga - It is like the Haiku since it is short but it had measure and rhyme.
Each line had 17 syllables and is also allegorical in meaning.

3. Filipino Drama - The drama experienced a lull during the Japanese period

because movie houses showing American films were closed. The big movie
houses were just made to show stage shows. Many of the plays were
reproductions of English plays to Tagalog.

Famous Authors

 Macario Pineda – a writer who was known with this short story, “Suyuan sa
Tubigan”.
 Narciso Reyes - was a Filipino diplomat and author. He wrote “Lupang
Tinubuan”.
 Liwayway Arceo - was a multi-awarded Tagalog fictionist, journalist, radio
scriptwriter and editor from the Philippines. Arceo authored a number of
well-received novels, such as Canal de la Reina and Titser.
Literary Styles and Themes

The common theme of most poems during the Japanese occupation

was nationalism, country, love, life in the barrios, faith, religion, and the arts.

Literary Examples

 Lupang Tinubuan by Narciso Reyes;

 Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa by Liwayway Arceo;
 Lunsod Nayon at Dagat-dagatan by NVM Gonzales.

CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE LATE 20TH CENTURY (MARTIAL LAW)

 Historical Events
With the declaration of Presidential Decree 1081 on September 21,
1972, many publications and mass media outfits were shut down, Filipino
writers started to use their writings to explore socio-political realities. The
tradition of protest has always been a potent force in the production of
socially committed writings, as a number of critics such as Bienvenido
Lumbera, and Epifanio San Juan Jr. have argued. The 1970s, for example,
witnessed the proliferation of poems, short stories, and novels which
grappled with the burning issues of the times. In a large number of
magazines and journals, writers in both English and Pilipino faced the
problems of exploitation and injustice, and appropriated these realities as the
only relevant materials for their fiction. In effect, writers such as Ricardo Lee,
Virgilio Almario, Efren Abueg, Ave Perez Jacob, and Dominador Mirasol
produced a large number of texts that were profoundly disturbing, even as
these works zeroed in on the various forms of repression and violence.
In the underground press, writers used pen names. Illegal
organizations or groups published the works, which they had to distribute
under the radar. Those caught with such publications could be held in
detention or imprisoned, tortured, and even killed.

Literary Works

1. Protest Literature – referred as revolutionary literature. Mainly all about

engagement, combat, committed, resistance, socially conscious literature.
 2. Proletarian Literature - works under this literature was too strong to ignore.
It was deemed for unimaginable, for the committed writer doing political
work, to still think f poetry as “beauty recollected in tranquility”.

3. Prison Literature – Journalists and prominent political opposition figures

were the first to be ensnared in the dragnet cast by the Marcos intelligence
and police apparatus, followed by militant activists, including academics who
were also noted for their critical literary writings.

4. Circumvention Literature – it was in the precious little space afforded,

wittingly or not, by certain publications and institutions sanctioned by the
Martial Law Administration, that the so-called “Literature o Circumvention
began to appear”.

Famous Authors

 Ponciano Pineda -  is an American writer, teacher, linguist, lawyer and

activist during Martial Law. Ponciano Pineda is considered as the "Father of
the Commission on Filipino Language".
 Anicento Silvestre – an activist, he won Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for
Poetry in Filipino because of his works.
 Bienvenido Ramos – a Filipino poet who contributed to Liwayway, Ilang-
ilang, and other magazines with his revolutionary poems.
 Jose Y. Dalisay Jr. - is a Filipino writer. He has won numerous awards and
prizes for fiction, poetry, drama, non-fiction and screenwriting, including 16
Palanca Awards. He used the pen name “Butch Dalisay”.

Literary Styles and Themes

Themes of most poems dealt with patience, regard for native culture,
customs and the beauties of nature and surrounding. And Filipinos faced the
problems of exploitation and injustice, and appropriated these realities as the
only relevant materials for their fiction.

Literary Examples

 “Prometheus Unbound” appeared in Focus;

 “If a Poem Was A Just” (Prison Literature);
  “Days of Disquiet” by Jose F. Lacaba;
 “An Underground Tale” by Benjamin Pimentel, Jr.

21st CENTURY LITERATURE

 Historical Events
Bilingual education which was initiated by the Board of National
Education as early as 1958 and continued up to present resulted in the
deterioration of English in the different levels of education. The focus of
education and culture was on problems of national identity, on re-
orientation, renewed vigor and a firm resolve to carry out plans and
programs. The forms of literature that led during this period were the essays,
debates and poetry. The short stories, like the novels and plays were no
different in style from those written before the onset of activism.
Comparing present-day conditions to life 40 years ago, nothing has changed
much; the situation is even a lot worse than before for many Filipinos. The
world is more cruel now for the majority of Filipinos because of the
promotion of material things (mall culture, high tech gadgets, condo living)
and the pressure to acquire things. Life was a lot simpler then. However, the
Philippine literature may have changed but Filipinos writers continue to show
dynamism and innovation.

Literary Works

1. Poetry – Filipinos continued this work, although the topics might change and
usually uses the free-form.

2. Fiction works - It can also be a literary work based on imagination rather than

on fact, like a novel or short story.

3. Theses- this work has more than one important sense to it. It is the most
important or foundational idea of an argument, presentation, or piece of
writing—often used in education.
4. Games- it is a form of literary art in which can be virtually and in reality. The
participants, termed players, make decisions in order to manage resources
through game tokens in the pursuit of a goal.
 5. Comic - it is a medium used to express ideas by images, often combined with
text or other visual information. Cartooning and similar forms of illustration
are the most common image.

Famous Authors

 Carlo J. Caparas - is a comic strip creator, writer, director and producer who
became sensational known for his created local superheroes and comic book
characters that are still popular to Filipinos until now.

 Mars Ravelo -  is also a comic strip creator and writer who became
phenomenal in the Philippines for his created superheroes such as “Darna” (a
Filipino version of Wonder Woman), Dyesebel (name of the Filipino
mermaid/heroine), and many others.

 Gilda Olvidado - is a popular Filipino novelist and writer, known for her
extraordinary love stories.

 Bob Ong - is the pseudonym of an anonymous Filipino contemporary author

known for using conversational Filipino to create humorous and reflective
depictions of life as a Filipino.

Literary Styles and Themes

Contemporary writers often consciously draw inspiration and ideas

from the writers who have come before them. As a result, many works of
21st literature grapple with the events, movements and literature of the past
in order to make sense of the present. Additionally, the technological
advancements of the 21st century have led other writers to hypothetically
write about the future, usually to comment on the present and evoke
introspection.

Literary Examples

 “Sinasamba Kita” and “Babangon Ako’t Dudurugin Kita” by Gilda

Olvidado;
 “Panday” by Carlo J. Caparas;
 “ABNKKBSNPLAko?!” by Bob Ong;
  “Lumbay ng Dila” by Genevive L. Asenjo.

Introduction to Philippine Literature in Ancient Times

Ancient poetry sprang from sources close to the religious and political
organizations of the ancient Filipinos. It also arose from personal relationships and
social institutions.

There were metrical accounts of native Filipino gods and their deeds. Songs
and verses filled early religious practices; to express devotion, to ask for
forgiveness, to minister to the sick and bury the dead. Verses were composed also
to pray for abundance and happiness, in the home, on the farm, on the sea and
elsewhere.

 Traditional Pasyon
 Fertility Dance in Obando, Bulacan
 Moriones Festival
 Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon
 Feast of Quiapo
 Ati-Atihan Festival

In the same manner, verses aired love for and loyalty to the barangay and its rulers.
These were supplemented by accounts of battle (kudamag), songs of victory
(tagumpay, talindad), and songs expressive of manliness.
According to the writings of Diego Lopez Povedano in 1578, he referred to the
people of Negros tell about the lives of their warriors and ancestors, recount the
life of their great voyages. These are called “hibais or iboyis”

Timeline of Ancient Filipino Poetry

Pre-Colonial Period – Early Times 1564

Long time before the Spaniards and other foreigners landed on Philippine shores,
our ancestors already had their own literature. These are the following

Bugtong is a battle of wits among participants. In Cebu, it is called Tigmo, Paktakon

in Ilonggo and in Bicol, it is called Patotdon.

Salawikain is a wise sayings that contain a metaphor used to teach as a food for
thought

Tanaga is a one stanza poems consisted usually of four lines with seven syllables
and all lines are rhyming.

Folk Songs is one of the oldest forms of Philippine literature that emerged in the
Pre-Spanish period.

1. Hele or Oyayi

2. Ambahan (Mangyan)

3. Kalusan (Ivatan)

4. Tagay (Cebuano and Waray)

5. Kanogan (Cebuano)

Folk Tales Myths explain how the world was created, how certain animals possess
certain characteristics, why some places have waterfalls, volcanoes, mountains and
the flora and fauna.

Legends explain the origin of things

Fables used animal characters and allegory

Fantasy Stories
Epics are narratives of sustained length based on oral tradition revolving around
supernatural events or heroic deeds.

Folk Tales are made up stories about life, adventure, love, horror and humor where
one can derive lessons about life

Next Lesson: Rizal’s Exile

Symbolic items: Oil Lamp Burner, Scroll and Quill and Ink

This chapter has shown Rizal returning to the Philippines believing that he
needed to be there to effect change. Before being exiled in Dapitan, he founded the
La Liga Filipina. Despite the fact that Rizal founded the Liga Filipino, a reform society
that supported non-violent action, he was still exiled to Dapitan on the island of
Mindanao. He established a school, repaired the waterworks and composed music
while he was in Dapitan. He also won the heart of Josephine Bracken, an Irish
woman who had accomplished her foster father to his eye surgery.

He was arrested for his role in Andres Bonifacio’s revolution and he was
charged with sedition, rebellion and conspiracy. Following a brief trial, he was
sentenced to death by a firing squad. He also wrote the poem “Mi Ultimo Adios,”
which he hid in an alcohol burner. When his family visited him, he begged his
mother’s forgiveness and spoke to each of his sisters as they entered his cell one by
one. In his final letter to Paciano Rizal, he begged hi brother to be forgiveness from
their father for all the pain he had caused him. On December 30, 1896, he walked
to death in Bagumbayan, a field near Manila Bay that was later renamed Luneta.
Because he was not a traitor, Rizal objected to being shot in the back.

A timeline of Rizal’s exile

On July 7, 1892, Rizal was arrested by orders of Governor-General Eulogio

Despujol. Rizal was deported to Dapitan. Governor Despujol’s reasons for deporting
him were:

1. Rizal wrote books and articles which were against Spain.

2. A bundle of leaflets entitled “Pobres Frailes” was discovered in Lucia’s

pillowcase and
 3. Rizal dedicated hi El Filibusterismo to GomBurZA who were garroted on
February 17, 1872 on Bagumbayan Field, Manila Bay, falsely charged of
complicity in the mutiny at the Cavite Arsenal in 1872

After midnight of July 14, 1892, Rizal was taken to the inter-island steamer Cebu
and sailed Rizal to Mindanao. It reached Dapitan on the night of July 17.
Immediately, Rizal was handed over to Ricardo Carnicero, a Spanish military
commandant of Dapitan.

Rizal-Pastells Debate on Religion

During his exile in Dapitan, Rizal had a long and scholarly debate with Father
Sanchez on religion which revealed Rizal’s anti-Catholic ideas acquired in Europe
and the embitterment at his persecution by bad friars. It is understandable why he
was bitter against the friars who committed certain abuses under the cloak of
religion. As he wrote to Ferdinand Blumentritt from Paris on January 20, 1890: “I
want to hit the friars, but only friars who utilized religion only as a shield, but also
as a weapon castle, fortress, armor, etc. I was forced to attack their false and
superstitious religion in order to fight the enemy who hid himself behind it.

Father Pastells tried his best to win back Rizal to the fold of Catholicism.
Divine faith he told Rizal, replace everything including reason, self-esteem, and
individual judgement. No matter how wise a man is, he argued, his intelligence is
limited, hence he needs the guidance of God. He refuted Rizal’s attacks on Catholic
ideology as misconceptions of rationalism and naturalism, errors of misguided
souls.

This interesting debate between two brilliant polemicists ended

inconclusively. Rizal could not be convinced by Pastells arguments so that he lived
in Dapitan beyond the pale of his Mother Church but inspire of their religious
differences. Rizal and Pastells remained good friends.

Although Rizal did not subscribe to Pastells’ religious interpretation of

Catholic ideologies, he continued to become Catholic

Rizal and Father Sanchez

Father Pastells assigned two Jesuits in Mindanao to bring back Rizal within
the Catholic fold. He also assigned Father Francisco de Paula Sanchez, Rizal’s
favorite teacher at the Ateneo Municipal to Dapitan. Father Sanchez was the only
priest to defend Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere in public.

Upon Father Sanchez’ arrival, he lost no time in meeting his former favorite
student. Of all the Jesuits, he was the most beloved and esteemed by Rizal. They
argued theologically in a friendly manner but all the efforts of Sanchez were in vain.

Despite his failures to persuade Rizal to discard his unconventional views on

the Catholic religion, Fr. Sanchez enjoyed Rizal’s company and he even assisted him
in beautifying the town plaza. On Fr. Sanchez’ birthday, Rizal gave him a precious
birthday gift – a manuscript entitle “Estudios sobre la lengua tagala” or in English,
“Studies on the Tagalog Language.”

Idyllic Life in Dapitan

Since August, 1893, family members took turns in visiting him in order to
ease his loneliness in the isolated outpost of the Spanish power in the Moroland.
Among them were his mother, Sisters Trinidad, Maria, Narcisa and nephews
Teodosio, Estanislap, Mauricio and Prudencio. He built his house by the seashore of
Talisay surrounded by fruit trees and another house for his school boys and a
hospital for his patients. Describing his life in Dapitan, Rizal wrote to Blumentritt on
December 19, 1893

Rizal practiced medicine in Dapitan. He had many patients, but most of them
were poor so that he even gave them free medicine.

Since Rizal obtained the title expert surveyor from the Ateneo, he
supplemented his training as a surveyor by his reading of engineering books, so that
he came to know about engineering. In Dapitan, he applied his knowledge of
engineering by constructing a system of waterworks in order to furnish clean water
system in Dapitan.

Community Projects for Dapitan

Rizal conducted his school at his home where he had his farm and hospital.
His favorite rendezvous or meeting with his boys was under a talisay tree, after
which the place was named. In honor of Talisay, Rizal wrote a poem entitled
“Himmo A Talisay” for his pupils to sing

“My Retreat”
 In February, 1895, Rizal’s mother with eyesight fully restored, returned to
Manila. During her long stay in Dapitan, she saw how busy her talented son was
regretted that he had neglected the Muses. She requested him to write poetry
again.

In response to her request, Rizal wrote a beautiful poem about his peaceful
life as an exile in Dapitan and sent it to her on October 22, 1895. The poem is
entitled “Mi Retiro”, which is acclaimed by literary critics as one of the best ever
penned by Rizal

Adios Dapitan

On July 31, 1896, Rizal’s four-year exile in Dapitan came to an end. At

midnight of that date, he embarked in board the steamer España. He was
accompanied by Josephine, Narcisa, Angelica (Narcisa’s daughter), his three
nephews and six pupils. Almost all Dapitan people, young and old, were at the
shore to bid him goodbye. Many wept as the steamer sailed away especially pupils
who were too poor to accompany their beloved teacher to Manila. As farewell
music, the town brass band strangely played the dolorous Funeral March of Chopin.

Next lesson: Rizal’s Trial

The Trial’s Timeline

On the 6th of October, 3:00 AM.

On the 4th day of being held in his cabin at the MV Isla de Panay docked at
Barcelona, Spain on his way to Cuba, Rizal was awakened to be brought to
Montjuich Prison in Barcelona, Spain

On the 6th of October, 2:00 PM.

Jose Rizal was interviewed by General Eulogio Despujol

On the 6th of October, 8:00 PM.

Aboard the Colon, Rizal left Barcelona for Manila.

November 3
He was brought to Fort Santiago, where other patriots, including Paciano, were
being tortured to implicate. Paciano refused to sign anything despite being his body
broken and his left hand crushed

November 20

Preliminary investigation began with Rizal appearing before the Judge Advocate
Colonel Franciso Olive.

November 26

The records of the case were handed over to Governor General Ramon Blanco who
then appointed Captain Rafael Dominguez as special Judge Advocate

The investigation lasted for five days

December 8

From a list submitted to him by the authorities, he chose the brother of his friend,
Lt. Luis Taviel de Andrade to become his trial lawyer.  He was only made to choose
among army officers and not a civilian lawyer.

Lt. Luis Taviel de Andrade

December 11

In his prison cell, Rizal was read the charges against him: “Principal organizer and
the living soul of the Filipino insurrection, the founder of societies, periodicals and
books dedicated to fomenting and propagating the ideas of rebellion.”

December 13

Ramon Blanco was replaced by Camilo de Polavieja, more ruthless character as

Governor General of the Philippines. Dominguez submitted the papers of the Rizal
case to Malacañan Palace.

Governor General Camilo G. de Polavieja

December 15

Rizal issued his manifesto to certain Filipinos calling to end the “absurd” rebellion
and to fight for liberties with education as a prerequisite. The authorities
suppressed the manifesto.
 December 25

Rizal’s saddest Christmas, away from family and friends.

Rizal’s prison cell from November 3, 1896 until his last day on December 29, 1896

December 26 at 8;00 AM

The trial of Rizal began at the Cuartel de España. On the same day, the court-
martial secretly and unanimously voted for a guilty verdict with the penalty of
death before a firing squad

Cuartel de España in the past which is now the present site of the Pamantasan ng
Lungsod ng Maynila

December 29 at 7:00 AM

Rizal was transferred to the chapel cell adorned by religious images to convince him
to back to the Catholic fold. His first visitors were Jesuit priests Fathers Miguel
Saderra Mata and Luis Viza

December 29 at 7:15 AM

After Father Saderra left, Rizal asked Father Viza for the Sacred Heart statuette
which he carved when he was an Ateneo student, from his pocket the statuette
appears

December 29 at 8:00 AM

Father Viza was relieved by Father Antonio Rosell who joined Rizal for breakfast. Lt.
Luis Taviel de Andrade joins them.

December 29 at 9:00 AM

Father Federico Faura, who one said that Rizal would lose his head for writing the
Noli Me Tangere, arrived. Rizal told him, “Father, you are indeed a prophet.”

December 29 at 10:00 AM
Father Jose Vilaclara and Estanislao March visited Rizal, followed by a Spanish
journalist, Santiago Mataix of El Heraldo de Madrid for an interview.

December 29 at 12:00 – 3:00 PM

Rizal’s time alone in his cell. He had lunch, wrote letters and probably wrote his last
poem of 14 stanzas which he wrote in his flowing handwriting in a very small piece
of paper. He hid it inside his alcohol stove. The untitled poem was later known as
Mi Ultimo Adios.

December 29 at 3:00 PM

According to an account of the agent of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia guarding Rizal’s

cell, Rizal signed what seems to be the document retracting his anti-Catholic
writings and his membership in masonry. This even is a contentious issue among
Rizal experts

Rizal writing his farewell letter

Rizal’s alcohol burner which was a gift from the Pardo de Taveras

December 29 at 4:00 PM

Doña Teodora visited Rizal then his sister Ttinidad entered to get her mother and
Rizal whispered to her in English referring to the alcohol store, “There is something
inside.” They were also accompanied by Narcisa, Lucia, Josefa, Maria and son
Mauricio Cruz

December 29 at 4:00 PM

Leoncio Lopez Rizal, Narcisa’s eleven-year-old son was not allowed to enter the cell.
While leaving for their carriages, an official handed over the alcohol stove to
Narcisa. After their visit, Fathers Vilaclara and Estanislao March returned to the cell
followed by Father Rosell.

December 29 at 6:00 PM

Rizal was visited by the Dean of the Manila Cathedral, Don Silvino Lopez Tuñon.
Father March left Father Vilaclara to be with the two.

December 29 at 8:00 PM
Rizal’s last supper where he informed Captain Dominguez that he already forgave
those who condemned him

December 29 at 9:30 PM

Rizal’s was visited by the fiscal of the Royal Audiencia of Manila, Don Gaspar
Cestaño with whom Rizal offered the best chair of the cell. According to accounts,
the fiscal left with “a good impression of Rizal intelligence and noble character.:

Next Lesson: Rizal’s Execution

December 30, 1896 at 5:00 AM

Teary-eyed Josephine Bracken and Josefa Rizal came. According to the testimony of
the agent of the Cuerpo de Vigilancia, Josephine and Rizal were married. They
embraced for the last time

Josephine Bracken

December 30, 1896 at 5:30 AM

Rizal took his last meal. According to stories told to Narcisa by Lt. Luis Taviel de
Andrade, Rizal threw some eggs in the corner of a cell for the “poor rats.” Rizal also
wrote to his family and to his brother.

December 30, 1896 at 6:00 AM

Rizal wrote his father, Francisco Mercado,

“My beloved Father, pardon me for the pain with which I repay you for sorrows and
sacrifices for my education.  I did not want nor did I prefer it.  Goodbye, Father,
goodbye… Jose Rizal.” 

Rizal wrote his mother, Doña Teodora Alonso,

“To my very dear Mother, Sra. Dña Teodora Alonso 6 o’clock in the morning,
December 30, 1896.  Jose Rizal.”

December 30, 1896 at 6:30 AM

Death march from Fort Santiago to Bagumbayan begins. 4 soldiers with bayoneted
firles lead the procession followed by Rizal, Taviel de Andrade, Fathers Vilaclara and
March and other soldiers. They passed by the Intramuros plaza, then turned right
to the Postigo gate then left at Malecon, the bayside road now known as Bonifacio
Drive

Rizal’s arrival at the Luneta

December 30, 1896 at 7:00 AM

Rizal, after arriving on the execution site at the Luneta de Bagumbayan, was
checked with his pulse by Dr. Felipe Ruiz Castillo. It was perfectly normal. Rizal once
wrote “I wish to show those who deny us patriotism that we know how to die for
our duty and our convictions.”

“Preparen” “Apunten” Rizal shouted, ‘Consummatum est.” It is done.

December 30, 1896 at 7:03 AM

“With the captain shouting “Fuego!” Shouts rang out from the guns of eight indio
soldiers. Rizal being a convicted criminal was not facing the firing squad. As he was
hit, he resists and turns himself to face his executors. He falls down and dies facing
the sky

FUEGO!!! “Viva España! Muerte a los traidores!”

December 30, 1896, afternoon

Narcisa after a long search, discovered where her brother’s body was secretly
buried at the old unused Paco Cemetery. She asked the guards to place a marble
plaque designed by Doroteo Ongjungco containing Rizal’s initials in reverse – “RPJ”

August 17, 1898

Four days after the Mocl Battle of Manila when the Americans took over the city,
the remains of Rizal dig out, they were brought to Narcisa’s house, washed and
cleansed and were placed in an ivory urn designed by Teodoro de Jesus. The urn
stayed there until 1912

December 29, 1912

From Estraude Street in Binondo, Manila, the urn was transferred in a procession
headed by the masons and the Knights of Rizal to the marble hall of the
Ayuntamiento de Manila, where it stayed overnight with the Knights on guard.

Knights of Rizal guarding the urn at the Marble Hall

December 30, 1912, morning

In a solemn procession, the urn began its last journey to Rizal’s final resting place
the base of the soon-to-rise national monument to Jose Rizal

December 30, 1913

The Rizal National Monument at the Luneta was inaugurated.  Its original design
name was “Motto Stella” (Guiding Star) and was made by Swiss Sculptor Dr. Richard
Kissling who earlier also made the National Monument to William Tell, the National
Hero of Switzerland.

December 30, 2012

The transfer of the remains of Rizal from Binondo to the site of the Rizal Monument
was recreated one hundred years later by the Order of the Knights of Rizal and the
National Historical Commission of the Philippines in commemoration of Rizal’s
116th Martyrdom Anniversary
History & Development of Volleyball

William G. Morgan invented volleyball in 1895, initially calling the sport "Mintonette." Within a
few years it have become a popular activity at YMCAs. Within a few decades volleyball had
spread internationally and become a college sport in the United States. Over time, the rules
were refined to limit teams to six aside on the court and hits to three per possession. Volleyball
became an Olympic sport in 1964 and beach volleyball became an Olympic sport in 1996.

Invention of the Sport

Morgan developed volleyball in 1895, four years after a mentor, James Naismith, invented
basketball. As director of physical education at the Holyoke (Massachusetts) YMCA, Morgan
sought a sport less vigorous than basketball. "In search of an appropriate game, tennis
occurred to me, but this required rackets, balls, a net and other equipment, so it was
eliminated, but the idea of a net seemed a good one," Morgan explained. He raised the net
higher than the height of the average person and experimented with various balls. Morgan
asked A.G. Spalding & Bros. to develop a ball that could be batted back and forth. Morgan then
began promoting his game.

Competition Begins

Morgan showcased his new sport to YMCA directors in 1896. At the suggestion of Professor
Alfred T. Halstead, its name was changed to "volley ball" to match the action of the sport. It was
played on a smaller court (25 feet by 50 feet) with an unlimited number of players hitting the
ball an unlimited number of times. The sport's rules were published in the July 1896 edition of
"Physical Education" and were included the first official handbook of the North American YMCA
Athletic League in 1897.

Evolution of the Sport

Volleyball spread to Canada and then around the world. A version of the sport featuring 16
players aside was played at the first Far-Eastern Games in 1913. In 1918 the number of
players on the court was limited to six per team. Another major rule change came in 1922
when the maximum number of hits per side was set at three.

Volleyball Gets Big

The sport became a serious international competition in 1947 with the formation in Paris of the
Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball. The first World Championship was held two years
later. With more than 50 million people now playing the sport in more than 60 countries by
1951, volleyball became part of the Pan-American Games in 1955 and the Olympics in 1964. By
the late 1960s, the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics and National Collegiate
Athletic Association had embraced the sport.
Beach Volleyball

The outdoor version of volleyball -- a two-on-two competition played on sand -- was born as a
tournament sport in 1948. It grew in popularity after its introduction at the 1996 Summer
Olympics in Atlanta. It has been a vibrant professional sports for decades and has become one
of the fastest-growing sports at the collegiate level.

How Did Volleyball Get Started?

Creation

The sport of volleyball was started in the United States in 1895 by an instructor from the YMCA,
William G. Morgan, director of physical education at the YMCA of Holyoke, Massachusetts. His
desire was to blend elements from other sports such as basketball, handball and baseball into a
less physical game that could be enjoyed by area businessmen and older gentlemen. The game
was first called "mintonette" and was originally designed to be played solely indoors on a hard
floor.

Original Game Rules

The first rules of the game were written by Morgan, who repurposed a tennis net to be raised 6
feet, 6 inches from the floor on a 25-by-50-foot court. There were no limits on the amount of
volleys a team could have before sending the ball back over the net to the other team. Today,
the limit is usually three. Each team was allowed three serves per inning, and there were nine
innings per game. Most games were played with a typical overhand pass until the 1940s, when
the forearm pass was also used.

Evolution of Volleyball

The new game of mintonette was quickly changed to volley ball, written as two words, when an
observer noted that this may be a better way to describe the game. The first game was played
on July 7, 1896, at Springfield College. A ball designed specifically for volleyball was created in
1900. The set-and-spike style was observed in the Philippines in 1916. In that same year, the
YMCA asked the National Collegiate Athletic Association NCAA to assist in improving the rules
and promoting the sport within schools and colleges. In 1917, final game points were changed
from 21 to 15. The USA Volleyball organization was created in 1928 and was originally called
the United States Volleyball Association.

Volleyball Spreads to Other Countries

After 1900, the YMCA introduced volleyball to many different countries, including Canada,
Cuba and Uruguay. During World War I, thousands of volleyballs were sent overseas to
troops, which helped encourage awareness of the game to other lands outside of the United
States.
Sports enthusiasts in Paris, France, founded the Federation Internationale De Volley Ball in
the late 1940s. In the 1950s, the first volleyball game was played during the Pan American
Games.
The International Olympic Committee granted volleyball status as a team sport in 1957. The
United States won gold for men and silver for women in 1984 during the Los Angeles Olympic
Games.

The History of Volleyball in the Philippines

The Philippines had more influence over the style of modern volleyball than you might think. In
fact, Philippine volleyball players invented the set and spike. More than 800 million people in
the world play volleyball at least once a week, according to information from the Westlake
High School physical education department. This competitive sport burns 364 calories per hour
for a 200-pound person.

Origins

The history of volleyball in the Philippines dates back to 1910. The Physical Director of the
YMCA, Elwood S. Brown, first introduced volleyball to the Philippines that year. Philippine
people began to play volleyball as a backyard sport and games of beach volleyball soon
followed, according to information from the Philippine Volleyball Federation, or PVF. Players
hung the net between two trees. They made up their own rules regarding how many players
on each side and how many times you could hit the ball before sending it over the net.

Three-Hit Limit

The Philippine style of volleyball inspired the Americans to create the three-hit limit, according
to information on the PVF website. Before the rule, Philippine volleyball teams would
sometimes let every player hit the ball before sending it over to the opposing side. This took
too much time and snuffed out the challenge and competitive nature of the game.

Set and Spike

With the new three-hit rule in place, Philippine players experimented with new volleyball
techniques and came up with the set and spike, a.k.a. the “Filipino Bomb.” In this offensive
passing style, one player hits the volleyball and sends it high in the air to set it up for another
player on her team. A second player then strikes the ball sending it over the net at a
downward angle. This is called spiking the ball.

Philippine Amateur Volleyball Association

The date July 4, 1961 marks the birth of the Philippine Amateur Volleyball Association. The
director for the Playground and Recreation Bureau, members of the business community and
others gathered to create an organized volleyball association in the Philippines. The Philippine
Amateur Volleyball Association was later named the Philippine Amateur Volleyball Association
and is currently called the Philippine Volleyball Federation. It is affiliated with and accredited by
the Philippine Olympic Committee, Asian Volleyball Confederation and the Federation
International de Volleyball.
A volleyball equipment and materials list

Here is a list of the volleyball material and equipment that you may need to play.

 Volleyball balls
 Volleyball shorts
 Volleyball t-shirts
 Volleyball shoes
 Volleyball braces, sleeves and pads
 Volleyball court
 Volleyball net and poles
 Volleyball penalty cards

Volleyball balls
Volleyballs differ greatly depending on whether they will be used indoors or outdoors.

While indoor volleyballs are moulded together, outdoor volleyballs are stitched. Typically,
indoor volleyballs are made from leather, whereas outdoor balls will usually be made from
a composite material that is resistant to water.

Volleyball shorts
Volleyball shorts need to be supremely comfortable and allow you to move freely and
without restriction.

Spandex is a super-stretchable material that is perfect for your shorts and you may also wish
to look for shorts that have moisture-wicking material to keep you dry throughout the game.

Volleyball t-shirt
Depending on whether you are playing indoor or outdoor, and what the weather is like when
you play, you can opt for the classic sleeveless athletic t-shirt or choose a long sleeve sport
shirt.

Whether sleeved or sleeveless, volleyball t-shirts usually have a number on both the front
and back and may carry your team’s name and logo too.

Volleyball shoes
Volleyball shoes have a gum rubber sole and are designed for the lateral movement that the
sport requires. The middle of the sole is usually made of foam, while the back is more likely to
be made from mesh or nylon.

For those playing recreationally, a normal tennis trainer may well be sufficient, but if you
are playing more seriously you will certainly benefit from wearing specially-designed
volleyball shoes for men and women.

Volleyball braces, sleeves and pads

Knee pads are the most important protection for volleyball players. With many low balls
being hit, you will need to kneel to reach them. Bruising and floor burns can be common.

While elbow pads aren't as important a consideration as knee pads, many players will still
use them for extra padding when making a dive to keep a volleyball in play. Arm sleeves are
also sometimes worn for the same reason.

The stress and strain that volleyball can place on your body can be particularly concentrated
at the ankles. Ankle injuries are among the most common of all injuries that occur when
playing volleyball, which is why many players decide to wear ankle braces for additional
support.

Volleyball court
A volleyball court is 60 feet by 30 feet and is divided by a net that is placed over the centre line.

At the back of each side of the court is the service line. In front of this, ten feet from the net
on either side is the attack line.

The court can be outdoors or indoors and playing surfaces include wood, rubber tile, grass
or sand.

Volleyball net and poles

An official volleyball net will measure 32 feet long by 39 inches tall. For men's volleyball, it will
be suspended eight feet off the ground, while for women it will be seven feet and four inches.

The net is held up by poles. Typical volleyball net poles will measure between 10.5 feet and
16 feet in height. Made from steel or aluminium, they are designed to withstand any strains
and tension throughout the course of the match.

Volleyball penalty cards

Volleyball uses yellow and red cards.

Yellow cards are issued to warn players of bad conduct without a penalty being enforced.
Continual misconduct will lead to a red card and a sanction being applied. This may be for
their team to lose the point or to lose service if they have possession.

If the referee holds up both the red and yellow card, then this is a dismissal and the player
must leave the court for the rest of the set.
Monetary System

Is defined as a set of policies, frameworks and institutions by which the government creates money in an
economy. Such institution includes the mint, the central bank, treasury and other financial institutions.

Three common types of Monetary Systems

 Commodity money is money whose value comes from a commodity of which it is made. Commodity
money consists of objects having value or use in themselves as well as their value in buying goods.
 Commodity-Based Money This type of monetary system can also be addressed as representative
money. This type of currencies is mostly like physical bank-notes with no financial value but can be
exchanged with precious metals like gold and silver. This is closely related to the term gold standard.
  Fiat Money. This type of money is also termed as legal tender as notified by the Central Government
and Central Bank. This is unlike the commodity money; it might not have an intrinsic value. Paper
currencies and metal coins are examples of fiat money

International Monetary System

The International Monetary system provides the institutional framework for determining the rules and
procedures for international payments, determination of exchange rates, and movement of capital.

Characteristics of International Monetary System

• Adjustment describes the mechanisms that nations choose to adjust to external imbalances.

• Liquidity is the degree to which reserves are available to intervene in the foreign exchange market.

• Confidence describes the faith that nations have in the international monetary system, including
the fairness of the adjustment mechanism, and their willingness to hold adequate reserves to finance
imbalances.

Evolution of International Monetary System

1. The Gold Standard (1880–1914) is a monetary system where a country's currency or paper money
has a value directly linked to gold.

2. Gold-exchange standard, (1925–1933) Is a monetary system under which a nation’s currency may

be converted into bills of exchange drawn on a country whose currency is convertible into gold at
a stable rate of exchange

3. The Bretton Woods System(1944–1971) It required a currency peg to the U.S. dollar which was in
turn pegged to the price of gold.

4. The Jamaica system, also known as the floating exchange rate system (1976–present) Is a regime
where the currency price of a nation is set by the forex market based on supply and demand
relative to other currencies. 
Manage current system

Managed Currency Is one whose price and exchange rate are influence by some intervention from a
central bank. Currency is a generally accepted form of money, including coins and paper notes, which is
issued by a government and circulated within an economy

A central bank o monetary authority is the manager of money and often a nationalized institution that is
given free control over the production and distribution of money and credit for a country.

It may also intervene in currency markets to manage a currency’s exchange rate in the market. Most
currencies today are free-floating on the market versus one another, and so a central bank may step in to
support or weaken a currency if the market price fails or rises too much in relation to other currencies

How it works?

Example:

• Let’s say Country X’s currency is called Widget. The Country X central bank does a lot of trade with
Country Y, which is uses the Gidget as its currency. The Country X central bank decides to manage
its currency by setting the exchanged rate at 5 Gidget per widget.

• Country Y does not manage its currency. Accordingly, in Country Y, the number of Gidgets required
to buy a Widget varies according to how much demand there is for Widgets and Gidgets.

Central banks manage a nation’s currency through the use of monetary policies which range widely
depending on their country. These economic policies usually fall into four general categories.

1. Issuing currency and setting interest rates on loans and bonds to control growth, employment,
consumer spending and the inflation.

2. Regulate member banks through capital or reserve requirements and provide loans and services
for a nation’s banks and its government.

3. Behave as an emergency lender to distress commercial banks and sometimes even the
government by purchasing government by purchasing government debt obligations.

4. Operates in the open market to buy and sell securities, including other currencies.

Why use managed currency?

• Genuine Floating currency exchanged can experience a certain amount of volatility and uncertainly

• For Example, External forces beyond government control, such as the price of commodities like oil,
can influenced currency prices. A government will intervene to exert control over their monetary
policies, stabilized their markets, and limit some it uncertainly.

• A country may control its currency by allowing it to fluctuate between a set of upper and lower
bounds. When the price of the money moves outside of these limits, the country’s central bank
may purchase or sell currency.
 • In some cases, the central bank of one government may step in to help manage the currency of a
foreign power.

• For example, In 1995, the U.S government bought large quantities of Mexican pesos to help boost
that currency and avert an economic crisis when the Mexican pesos began rapidly to lose value.

Philippine Monetary Policy Part 1

Monetary policy is a central bank's actions and communications that manage the money supply. Central
banks use monetary policy to prevent inflation, reduce unemployment, and promote moderate long-term
interest rates.

THREE OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY

1. INFLATION

measures how much more expensive a set of goods and services has become over a certain period, usually
a year. It may be one of the most familiar words in economics.

The Two Main Causes of Inflation

• Demand – pull Inflation – is the upward pressure on prices that follows a shortage in supply where too
much money is chasing too few goods.

• Cost – push Inflation – also known as higher costs of production can decrease the aggregate supply (the
amount of total production) in the economy

2. UNEMPLOYMENT

Monetary policies can influence the level of unemployment in the economy. For example, an expansionary
monetary policy generally decreases unemployment because the higher money supply stimulates business
activities that lead to the expansion of the job market.

4 Types of Unemployment

• Frictional - happens when a person is voluntarily job searching or searching for a new career.

• Structural – can be caused by massive changes within an industry, such as the manufacturing industry
moving jobs overseas.

• Cyclical – is the component of overall unemployment that results directly from cycles of economic
upturn and downturn.

• Sessional - refers to a temporary window of time where the number of available employment
opportunities decreases.
 3. CURRENCY EXCHANGE RATES

Using its fiscal authority, a central bank can regulate the exchange rates between domestic and foreign
currencies. For example, the central bank may increase the money supply by issuing more currency. In
such a case, the domestic currency becomes cheaper relative to its foreign counterparts.

TOOLS OF MONETARY POLICY

Interest rate adjustment

A central bank can influence interest rates by changing the discount rate. The discount rate (base rate) is
an interest rate charged by a central bank to banks for short-term loans.

Change reserve requirements

Central banks usually set up the minimum amount of reserves that must be held by a commercial bank. By
changing the required amount, the central bank can influence the money supply in the economy. If
monetary authorities increase the required reserve amount, commercial banks find less money available
to lend to their clients and thus, money supply decreases.

Open market operations

The central bank can either purchase or sell securities’ issued by the government to affect the money
supply. For example, central banks can purchase government bonds. As a result, banks will obtain more
money to increase the lending and money supply in the economy.

Advantages and Limitations.

PHILIPPINE MONETARY POLICY (PART 2)

Monetary policy is the control of the quantity of money available in an economy and the channels by
which new money is supplied.

OBJECTIVES OF MONETARY POLICY

1. INFLATION
2. UNEMPLOYMENT
3. CURRENCY EXCHANGE RATES

TOOLS OF MONETARY POLICY

1. INTEREST RATE ADJUSTMENT

2. CHANGE RESERVE REQUIREMENTS
3. OPEN MARKET OPERATIONS

TYPES OF MONETARY POLICY

1. CONTRACTIONARY MONETARY POLICY A contractionary monetary policy is a type of monetary policy

that is intended to reduce the rate of monetary expansion to fight inflation.

2. EXPANSIONARY MONETARY POLICY an expansionary monetary policy is a type of macroeconomics

monetary policy that aims increase the rate monetary expansion to stimulate the growth of a domestic
economy.  The economic growth must have supported by additional money supply.

THINK OF THIS!

We can think monetary policy as the faucet, bangko central ng Pilipinas (Bsp) as the person who controls
the faucet and water as the supply of the money in the economy.

CONTRACTIONARY

When there is “too much money” in the economy supporting overall demand for goods and services
which, in turn increases inflationary pressures, the BSP “tightens” the faucet to reduce money supply. This
action dampens demand which could lead to lower inflation.

Effect: Higher interest rate, less borrowing, more savings and less spending

EXPANSIONARY

Expansionary When there is "too little money" in the economy which dampens overall demand for goods
and the BSP "loosens" the faucet to expand money supply, services.

Effect: lower interest rates, more lending borrowing, less savings, and more spending
Central banking development and growth part I

A Brief History of Central Banks

The story of central banking goes back at least to the seventeenth century, to the founding of the first
institution recognized as a central bank, the Swedish Riksbank. Established in 1668 as a joint stock bank, it
was chartered to lend the government funds and to act as a clearing house for commerce. A few decades
later (1694), the most famous central bank of the era, the Bank of England, was founded also as a joint
stock company to purchase government debt.

Transition

The Federal Reserve System belongs to a later wave of central banks, which emerged at the turn of the
twentieth century. These banks were created primarily to consolidate the various instruments that people
were using for currency and to provide financial stability. Many also were created to manage the gold
standard, to which most countries adhered.

The Genesis of Modern Central Banking Goals

Before 1914, central banks didn’t attach great weight to the goal of maintaining the domestic economy’s
stability. This changed after World War I, when they began to be concerned about employment, real
activity, and the price level. The shift reflected a change in the political economy of many countries—
suffrage was expanding, labor movements were rising, and restrictions on migration were being set. In the
1920s, the Fed began focusing on both external stability (which meant keeping an eye on gold reserves,
because the U.S. was still on the gold standard) and internal stability (which meant keeping an eye on
prices, output, and employment). But as long as the gold standard prevailed, external goals dominated.

There are three key goals of modern monetary policy. 

 Price stability does not imply that prices do not change; it means that prices grow at a moderate
pace.

 Maximum employment the highest level of employment the economy can sustain without
generating unwelcome inflation.

 Moderate long-term interest rates to government bonds maturing in ten years

 HOW CENTRAL BANK WORKS?

 Central banks control and manipulate the national money supply: issuing currency and setting
interest rates on loans and bonds.

 They regulate member banks through capital requirements, reserve requirements (which dictate
how much banks can lead to customers, and how much cash they must keep on hand) and deposit
guarantees, among other tools.

All central banks have three tools of monetary policy in common.

 Open Market Operations Central banks all use open market operations (OMO). With OMO, the
central bank can create new money by buying government securities, such as Treasury bonds, and
issuing new money

 Reserve Requirement The reserve requirement is when the central banks tell their members how
much money they must keep on reserve each night. Not everyone needs all their money each day,
so it is safe for the banks to lend most of it out.

 The Discount Rate The discount rate is how much a central bank charges members to borrow
funds from its discount window. It raises the discount rate to discourage banks from borrowing.
That action reduces liquidity and slows the economy.