==================================================================

B. Compound curves

A compound curve consists of two (usually) or more circular arcs between

two main tangents turning in the same direction and joining at common
tangent points. These curves may be two centered, three centered or so,
according to the number of simple arcs these are composed of.

Two center compound curve

I 
T1 I1  T2
PCC  I2
t1
L1 t2
L2
BC EC

Forward Tangent
2
Back Tangent R2
R1
 O2
R1-R2

O1

Fig.: Two center compound curve.

The essential components of compound curves are:

 = total deflection angle
1= deflection angle of first curve
2= deflection angle of second curve
R1 = radius of first curve
R2 = radius of second curve
T1 = back word tangent length
T2 = forward tangent length

In the case of compound curve the total tangent length T1 and T2 are found
as follows:
T1 = t1+ I1I
T2 = t2+ I2I

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==================================================================
1
Where t1 = R1 tan
2
2
t2 = R2 tan
2
Applying sine rule to triangle I I1I2,

sin(180  ) sin  sin  2 sin  1

= = =
(t1  t 2 ) (t1  t 2 ) II 1 II 2

sin  2
 I I1= (t1+t2)
sin 
sin  1
 I I2 = (t1+t2)
sin 

Out of seven the essential part of a two centered compound curves i.e. T1,
T2, t1, t2, R1, R2, 1, 2, and  if any four of these quantities including at east
one angle are known the remaining parameters can be solved.

Under normal circumstance 1 and 2 or  are measured in the field and R1

and R2 are given by design consideration with minimum values governed by
design speed.

An important point to remember is, compound curves can be manipulated

to provide practically any vehicle path desired by the designer, they are not
employed where simple curves or spiral curves can be used to achieve the
same desired effect. Practically, compound curves are reserved for those
applications where design constraints [topography or cost of land] preclude
the use of simple or spiral curves, and they are now usually found chiefly in
the design of interchange loops and ramps.

TIP:
 All problems can be solved by use of the sine law or cosine law or the
omitted measurement traverse technique.
 Smooth driving characteristics require that the larger radius be no
more than 1-1/3 times larger than the smaller radius [this ratio
increases to 1-1/2 when dealing with interchange curves].

Setting out compound curves

As a compound curves may be consists of two or more simple curves, its
setting out involve setting out of two or more simple curves of different radii
in continuation. Compound curves may be set out any one of the methods
used for simple curves
However, to achieve better accuracy it is recommended that compound
curves may be set out by the method of deflection angle, using a theodolite.

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1. Office work
a) Calculate all the seven variables of the curve, from four known
parameters.
b) Locate the point of intersection I, the point of commencement BC and
point of tangency EC.
c) Calculate the chainage of the point commencement, the point
compound curvature, and the point of tangency.
d) Calculate the deflection angle for both the arcs from their tangent

2. Field work

Setting up the theodolite at BC, in the first curve is set out in the usual way
to point PCC. The theodolite is move to PCC and back sighted to BC, with

the horizontal circle reading ( 180  1 2 )
Set the instrument to read zero and it will then be pointing to I2. Thus, the
instrument is now oriented and reading zero, prior to setting out second
curve.

Summary

The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the
terrain and other controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use
of compound curves, because the driver doesn’t expect to be confronted by a
change in radius once he has entered a curve. Their use should also be
avoided where curves are sharp.

Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same

problems as are found at the transition from a tangent to small radius
curve. Where the use of the compound curves cannot be avoided, the radius
of the flatter curve circular arc should not be more than 50% greater than
the radius of the sharper arc, i.e. R1 should not exceed 1.50 R2. A compound
arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or
a tangent to a sharper curve, although as spiral is to be preferred.

C. Reverse curves

A reverse curves consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii

having their centers on the opposite side of the common tangent at the point
of reverse curvature.

Reverse curves are generally provided, in the highway or railway alignment,

when the straights are either parallel or the angle between them is very
small. The instantaneous change in direction occurring at the Point of

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Reverse Curvature (PRC) would cause discomfort and safety problems for all
but the slowest of speed.

Additionally, since the change in the curvature is instantaneous, there is no

room to provide super elevation transition from cross-slope right to cross-
slope left. However, reveres curves can be used to advantage where the
instantaneous change in direction poses no threat to safety or discomfort.

These curves commonly used in mountainous highway route. Also they are
frequently used in cities where roads turn in different directions in
succession or where road approach flyovers.
Moreover, this curve is particularly pleasing to the eye and is used with
great success a park roads, formal paths, etc.

Limitations of a Reverse Curve

When high-speed vehicles apply on highways, use of reverse curves should

be avoided for the following reasons:

a. Sudden change of super elevation is required from one side to the

other.
b. At the point of reverse curvature, no super elevation is provided.
c. Steering is dangerous in the case of high ways. Unless driver is
cautions, there are chances of overturning the vehicle.
d. Sudden change of directions causes great discomfort to the passenger.

Tip: It is, therefore, recommends to avoid the reverse curves by inserting a

small length of straight between the circular arcs. (fig. 4 reverse curves
with tangent)

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Elements Of A Reverse Curve

O2
2

T1 A R2
1
1 R2  I

PRC 2 T2

2
B
R1
R1

1

O1

Fig. Elements of a reverse curve.

 Radii R 1 and R 2 of two circular arcs

 Angle of total deflection (  ) of the straight.
 Angle of deflection (  1 ,  2 ) of the common tangent.
 Angle (1, 2) between the straight and the line joining the points of
commencement and tangency.

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 ==================================================================

a. Non–Parallel Tangent Reverse Curves

O2
2
Fore Tangent
BC[T1] R2
1 t1 I1
Back Tangent 1 R2  I
L1 t1
PRC L2 2 EC[T2]
t2
t2
2
I2
R1
R1
PRC=Point Of Reversed
1
Curve

O1

Fig; Non–Parallel Tangent Reverse Curves.

Chainages:
i. Chain age of T1 = Chainage of I- T1 I
ii. Chan age of PRC = Chainage of T1  L1
iii. Chain age of T2 = Chainage of PRC+ L2

b. Parallel tangent reverse curves

Specified condition, Δ1 =Δ2, Alternate interior angel.

Through PRC, draw a line AB parallel to two starlight
 O1 T1 O2 T2
Form Δ1 = Δ2, y= AT1 + BT2
But, AT1 = R1 – R1 cosΔ1=R1 (1-cos Δ1)
= R1 versineΔ1, 1- cosΔ1= versineΔ1
Similarly, BT2=R2 versineΔ2
Thus, y = R1 versine Δ + R2 versine Δ2
 y= (R1+R2) versin Δ1, Δ1=Δ2
Also, T1T2 = T1PRC +PRCT2
But, T1PRC=2R1 sin  1 2 , PRCT2=2R2 sin  2 2
 T1T2=2(R1+R2) sin  1 2 , Δ1=Δ2

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==================================================================
 L=2(R1+R2) sin  1 2 , T1T2=L

O2

2

Back Tangent T1 I1 R2
1/2 R2
1

y
A PRC B

2 Fore Tangent
I2 T2
R1
R1

1
x
O1

Fig; Parallel tangent reverse curves

 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves

Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened,
and a stage may be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt
with in isolation. Three cases of successive curves are (see Figure 8-4):
• Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite
direction
• Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same
direction
• Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any
intervening tangent section

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==================================================================

III. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections of the
highway known as grades, or tangents, connected by vertical curves. The
design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable
grades for the tangent sections and the design of the vertical curves. The
topography of the area through which the road traverses has a significant
impact on the design of the vertical alignment.

Grades
The effect of grade on the performance of heavy vehicles is more pronounced
than that for passenger cars. The speed of a heavy vehicle can be
significantly reduced if the grade is steep and/or long. In order to limit the
effect of grades on vehicular operation, the maximum grade on any highway
should be selected with care. The selection of maximum grades for a
highway depends on the design speed and the design vehicle. It is generally
accepted that grades of 4 to 5 percent have little or no effect on passenger
cars, except for those with high weigh/horsepower ratios, such as those
found in compact and subcompact cars. As the grade increases above 5
percent, however, speeds of passenger cars decrease on upgrades and
increase on downgrades. Grade has a greater impact on trucks than on
passenger cars. Extensive studies have been conducted, and results have
shown that truck speed may increase up to 5 percent on downgrades and
decrease by 7 percent on upgrades, depending on the percent and length of
the grade.
Control Grades for Design
Maximum grades. Maximum grades of about 5 percent are considered
appropriate for a design speed of 110 km/h. For a design speed of 50 km/h,
maximum grades generally are in the range of 7 to 12 percent, depending on
topography. If only the more important highways are considered, it appears
that a maximum grade of 7 or 8 percent would be representative for 50-
km/h-design speed. Control grades for 60-, 70-, 80-, 90-, and 100-km/h
design speeds are intermediate between the above extremes. The maximum
design grade should be used infrequently rather than as a value to be used
in most cases. At the other extreme, for short grades less than 150 m and
for one-way downgrades, the maximum gradient may be about 1 percent
steeper. For low-volume rural highways, grades may be 2 percent steeper.
Minimum grades. Minimum grades depend on the drainage conditions of
the highway. Zero-percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with
adequate cross slopes to laterally drain the surface water. When pavements are
curbed, however, a longitudinal grade should be provided to facilitate the
longitudinal flow of the surface water. It is customary to use a minimum of 0.5
percent in such cases, although this may be reduced to 0.3 percent on high-type
pavement constructed on suitably crowned, firm ground.

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==================================================================

Vertical Curve Formula

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive
gradients. The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a
constant rate of change of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility,
along its length and has the form:

Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = end of the vertical curve

Critical Lengths of Grade for Design

Maximum grade in itself is not a complete design control. It is necessary
also to consider the length of a particular grade in relation to desirable
vehicle operation. The term "critical length of grade" is used to indicate the
maximum length of a designated upgrade on which a loaded truck can
operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. For a given grade,

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==================================================================
lengths less than critical result in acceptable operation in the desired range
of speeds. If the desired freedom of operation is to be maintained on grades
longer than critical, design adjustment such as change in location to reduce
grades or addition of extra lanes should be made. The data for critical
lengths of grade are used with other pertinent considerations (such as traffic
volume in relation to capacity) to determine where added lanes are
warranted. To establish design values for critical lengths of grade for which
grade ability of trucks is the determining factor, data or assumptions are
needed for the following:

 Size and power of representative truck or truck combination to

be used as a design vehicle
 Speed at entrance to critical length grade
 Minimum speed on the grade below which interference to
following vehicles is considered unreasonable

Figure. speed-distance curves for a typical heavy truck of 180kg/kw for

deceleration on upgrades

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==================================================================
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade
to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
These curves are usually parabolic in shape. The expressions developed for
minimum lengths of vertical curves are therefore based on the properties of
a parabola. They are classified as crest vertical curves or sag vertical curves.
The different types of vertical curves are shown in Figure below.
The main criteria used for designing vertical curves are:
 Provision of minimum stopping sight distance
 Adequate drainage
 Comfortable in operation
 Pleasant appearance
The first criterion is the only criterion associated with crest vertical curves,
whereas all four criteria are associated with sag vertical curves.

Figure. Types of vertical curves

Crest Vertical Curves. Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves as

determined by sight distance requirements generally are satisfactory from
the standpoint of safety, comfort, and appearance. The basic formulas for

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lengths of a parabolic vertical curve in terms of algebraic differences in
grade and sight distance follow:

(1) When the sight distance is greater than the length of the vertical
curve: Let us first consider the case of the sight distance being greater
than the length of the vertical curve. Figure below shows this condition.
This figure schematically presents a vehicle on the grade at C with the
driver's eye at height H1, and an object of height H2 located at D. If this
object is seen by the driver, the line of sight is PN and the sight distance
is S. Note that the line of sight is not necessarily horizontal, but in
calculating the sight distance, the horizontal projection is considered.

Figure. Sight distance on crest vertical curves (S>L)

From the properties of the parabola,

X3 = L/2

The sight distance S is then given as

S = X1 + L/2+ X2

X1 and X2 can be found in terms of the grades G1 and G2 and their

algebraic difference A. The minimum length of the vertical curve for
the required sight distance is obtained as

L  2S 

200 H 1  H 2 2

where, L = length of vertical curve, m;

S = sight distance, m;
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent;

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H1 = height of eye above roadway surface, m;
H2 = height of object above roadway surface, m.

When the height of eye and the height of object are 1070 mm and 150
mm, respectively, as used for stopping sight distance, the length of
the vertical curve is,
404
L  2S 
A

(2) When the sight distance is less than the length of the vertical
curve. When the sight distance is less than the length of the crest
vertical curve, the configuration shown in Figure applies.

Figure. Sight distance on crest vertical curves (S<L)

Also, the properties of a parabola can be used to show that the

minimum length of the vertical curve given as

AS 2
L

200 H 1  H 2 
2

Substituting 1070 mm for H1 and 150 mm for H2 gives

AS 2
L
404

Design values of crest vertical curves for passing sight distance differ from
those for stopping sight distance because of the different height criterion.
The general formulas apply, but the 1300 mm height of object results in the
following specific formulas with the same terms as above:

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==================================================================
When S > L,

946
L  2S 
A
When S < L,
AS 2
L
946

Sag Vertical Curves

The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is usually

controlled by the following different criteria:

(1) Headlight sight distance,

(2) Rider comfort,
(3) Drainage control, and
(4) A rule-of-thumb for general appearance.

The headlight sight distance requirement is based on the fact that as a

vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the position of the
headlight and the direction of the headlight beam dictate the stretch of
highway ahead that is lighted----and therefore the distance that can be seen
by the driver. The Figure below is a schematic of the situation when S > L.
The headlight is located at a height H above the ground, and the headlight
beam is inclined upward at angle  to the horizontal. The headlight beam
intersects the road at D, thereby restricting the available sight distance to S.

The values used for a headlight height, H and upward divergence of the light
beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle,  are usually 600 mm and a
1o, respectively. The upward spread of the light beam provides some
additional visible length but this is generally ignored. The following formulas
show the S, L, and A relation, using S as the distance between the vehicle
and point where the 1o angle of light ray intersects the surface of the
roadway:

When S < L,

AS 2 AS 2
L =
200(0.6  S tan  ) 120  3.5 S

When S > L,
200(0.6  S tan  ) 120  3.5S
L  2S  = 2S 
A A

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==================================================================
Where: L = length of sag vertical curve, m;
S = light beam distance, m; and
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent.

Figure. Headlight sight distance on sag vertical curves (S>L)

To provide a safe condition on a sag vertical curve, the curve must be of

such a length that it will make the light beam sight distance S be at least
equal to the SSD. The SSD for the appropriate design speeds are therefore
used for S when the above equations are used to compute minimum lengths
of sag vertical curves.

The comfort criterion for the design of sag vertical curves takes into
consideration that when a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve, both the
gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in a greater
effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces act in opposition to
each other. Several factors such as weight carried, body suspension of the
vehicle, and tire flexibility affect comfort due to change in vertical directions.
This makes difficult for comfort to be measured directly. However, it is
generally accepted that a comfortable ride will be provided if the radial
acceleration is not greater than 0.3 m/s3. The general expression for such a
criterion is:

AV 2
L
395
Where L and A are the same as in previous formulas, and V is the design
speed, km/h.

The length of vertical curve required to satisfy this comfort factor at the
various design speeds is only about 50 percent of that required to satisfy the

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*headlight sight distance requirement for the normal range of design
conditions.

Drainage affects design of vertical curves of where curbed sections are used.
The drainage requirement differs from other criteria in that the length of sag
vertical curve determined for it is a maximum, whereas, the length for any
other criterion is a minimum. The requirement usually specified to satisfy
this criterion is that a minimum grade of 0.30 percent be provided within 15
m of the level point of the curve. It has been observed that the maximum
length of the drainage criterion is usually greater than the minimum length
for other criteria up to 100 km/h and nearly equal for other criteria up to
120 km/h for minimum-length vertical curves.

For general appearance, some use formerly was made of a rule-of-thumb for
length of sag vertical curves wherein the minimum value of L is 30A.
Experience has shown, however, that longer curves are frequently necessary
for high-type highways if the general appearance of these highways is to be
improved.

I. COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Horizontal and vertical alignments are permanent design elements for which
thorough study is warranted. It is extremely difficult and costly to correct
alignment deficiencies after the highway is constructed. Horizontal
alignment and profile are among the more important of the permanent
design elements of the highway and should not be designed independently.
They complement each other, and poorly designed combinations can spoil
the good points and aggravate the deficiencies of each. Excellence in their
design and in the design of their combination increase usefulness and
safety, encourage uniform speed, and improve appearance, almost always
without additional cost.

Proper combination of horizontal alignment and profile is obtained by

engineering study and consideration of the following general controls:

1. Curvature and grades should be in proper balance. Tangent

alignment or flat curvature at the expense of steep or long grades
and excessive curvature with flat grades are both poor design.
2. Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature, or vice
versa, generally results in a more pleasing facility, but it should be
analyzed for effect on traffic.
3. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the
top of a pronounced crest vertical curve. This condition is
undesirable in that the driver cannot perceive the horizontal

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change in alignment, especially at night when the headlight beams
go straight ahead into space.
4. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the
low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve.
5. On two-lane roads and streets the need for safe passing sections at
frequent intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the length
of the roadway often supersedes the general desirability for
combination of horizontal and vertical alignment.
6. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible
at intersections where sight distance along both roads and streets
is important and vehicles may have to slow or stop.
7. On divided highways and streets, variation in width of median and
the use of separate profiles and horizontal alignments should be
considered to derive design and operational advantage of one-way
roadways.

PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICALALIGNMENT

Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing

Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their

coordination so that the line of the road appears to a driver to flow
smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects. It is
particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver
must be able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment
well within the safe stopping distance. It becomes more important with
small radius curves than with large.
Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely
visual and leaves the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of
the road. Such defects often occur on sag curves. When these defects are
severe, they may create a psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to
reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may endanger the
safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A sharp bend
hidden by a crest curve is an example of this kind of defect.

Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action

When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when
they are coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is
required. Where defects occur, phasing may be achieved either by
separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and
horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common station.
In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of
each of the curves is at a common station. Cases of mis-phasing fall into

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several types. These are described below together with the necessary
corrective action for each type.

Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve

If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal
curve, a driver’s perception of the change of direction at the start of the
horizontal curve may be delayed because his sight distance is reduced by
the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The position of the crest is
important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient
following the highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an
unexpected change of direction is consequently greater. The defect may be
corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at
both ends, if the horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be
coincident at only one end, if the horizontal curve is of longer radius.

Insufficient Separation Between The Curves

If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and
vertical curves, a false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at
the beginning of the horizontal curve. Corrective action consists of
increasing the separation between the curves, or making the curves
concurrent.

Both Ends Of A Crest Curve Lie On A Sharp Horizontal Curve

If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of
the horizontal curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the
length of the crest curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of
the horizontal curve may appear to increase.

Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends Of The Horizontal Curve

If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a
hazard may be created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of
direction during the passage of the vertical curve while sight distance is
reduced.
The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the
horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest
occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the change of direction at
the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a downgrade (for
traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.

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