MASSMOVEMENT
WEDGE FAILURE / PLANE OR BLOCK
 MASS MOVEMENT/MASS WASTING - IS
THE DOWNSLOPE MOVEMENT OF A MASS
OF SURFACE MATERIALS, SUCH AS SOIL,
ROCK OR MUD.
- OCCURS ALONG HILLSIDES AND
MOUNTAINS DUE TO THE INFLUENCE
OF GRAVITY AND CAN HAPPEN VERY
SLOWLY OR VERY QUICKLY
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT
1. F L O W - Occur when the material, soil,
and/or rock, behave more like a liquid or
fluid.
- include mudflows, debris flows or
lahars (superheated water that moves
down an erupting volcano).
- occur due to a large amount of water or
ice present in the soil.
- most often the fastest travelling of 70
miles per hour.
2. S L U M P S - occur as a wedge or slice of
material that moves as one piece along a
curved surface.
- resemble a spoon scoop.
- occur where there is loose material or
rock.
3. R O C K F A L L - pieces of rock travel
downward through some combination of
falling, bouncing, and rolling.
4. L A N D S L I D E S - Typically consist of
unconsolidated rock. A great example of
this is a rockslide and avalanche..
- The rocks do not behave as a fluid, such
as in flows, and they do not move as
one unit, as in slumps.
5. Rockslides - can be extremely dangerous
because they occur very quickly with
tremendous force.
6. An avalanche - occurs when snow or snow
and ice move quickly downslope.
 SLOPE FAILURE - PHENOMENON IN WHICH
A SLOPE COLLAPSES ABRUPTLY DUE TO
WEAKENED SELF RETAINABILITY OF THE
EARTH UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF A
RAINFALL OR AN EARTHQUAKE.
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE
1. ROTATIONAL FAILURE - THE FAILURE
OCCURS BY THE ROTATION ON THE SLIP
SURFACE, USUALLY BY THE OUTWARD AND
INWARD MOVEMENT OF SOIL, AND THE
SHAPE OF THE SLIP SURFACE IS CURVED
2. TRANSLATIONAL FAILURE - OCCURS IN THE
CASE OF INFINITE SLOPES, FAILURE
SURFACE IS PARALLEL TO THE SLOPE
SURFACE.
3.
FAILURE - OCCURS ON A PLANE THAT IS
INCLINED.
- THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A
WEDGE AND TRANSLATIONAL FAILURE
IS THAT WEDGE FAILURE CAN HAPPEN
IN BOTH INFINITE AND FINITE SLOPES.
4. COMPOUND FAILURE - IS THE
COMBINATION OF TRANSLATION AND
ROTATIONAL.
- HAPPENS, WHEN THE HARD STRATUM
IS BELOW THE TOE AT CONSIDERABLE
DEPTH
- THE FAILURE SURFACE IS CURVED AT
TWO ENDS, AND PLAIN AT THE MIDDLE
PORTION IS CALLED COMPOUND
FAILURE.
 ROCK SLIDE - SLIDES OF FROM 100 TO
10,000 CUBIC METRES OF ROCK . CAN
CAUSE MAJOR DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS OR
OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE IN THEIR PATH.
- ROCK SLIDES OCCUR ON LARGE SLOPES
OF 50 M HEIGHT AND ABOVE WHERE
THERE ARE WEAKNESSES.
 ROCK FLOWS - SLIDES OF OVER 10,000
CUBIC METRES OF ROCK MASSES.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ROCKSLIDE AND LANDSLIDE
 Landslides - involve the movement of soil
and debris down a slope
 Rockslides - involve the movement of large
rocks.
Both can cause significant damage, but their
different mechanisms of movement and
materials involved can require different
prevention and mitigation strategies.
 ROCK FLOW - also known as a debris flow
or mudflow, involves a fast-moving mixture
of rock, soil, and water flowing down a
slope.
- occur during heavy rainfall, snowmelt,
or other events that saturate the soil
and cause it to lose cohesion.
CONTROL OF MASS MOVEMENT
- important to prevent property damage,
loss of life, and environmental
degradation. It helps to stabilize slopes,
prevent landslides and erosion, and
maintain the integrity of infrastructure
such as roads and buildings.
-
1. REINFORCING STEEP SLOPES - Steep slopes
are often reinforced to prevent mass
wasting events such as landslides,
rockslides, and debris flows. Reinforcement
measures like retaining walls, erosion
control mats, and vegetation can increase
the slope's stability and reduce the risk of
damage to infrastructure and human life.
2. BUILDING RETAINING WALLS -built to
prevent soil erosion and landslides, and to
create level areas for construction or
landscaping. They are used to hold back soil
on sloped terrain or to separate different
elevations in a landscape or construction
site.
3. REVEGITATION - necessary to stabilize soil,
prevent erosion, and maintain biodiversity.
It helps to control the flow of water and
nutrients, reduces the risk of landslides and
improves the aesthetic value of the area.
Additionally, it can provide habitats for
wildlife and prevent the invasion of non-
native species.
4. RELOCATION - may be necessary for slopes
due to safety concerns such as landslide
risks, erosion, or environmental hazards. In
some cases, it may be more cost-effective
than long-term solutions, and provide an
opportunity for communities to move to
safer and sustainable areas.
What is an Earthquake?
- intense shaking of Earth's surface. The
shaking is caused by movements in
Earth's outermost layer.
Why do Earthquakes Happen?
The Earth is made of four basic layers:
- a solid crust
- a hot, nearly solid mantle
- a liquid outer core
- a solid inner core
-
 Lithosphere - solid crust and top, stiff layer
of the mantle make up a region
Tectonic plates are constantly shifting as they drift
around on the viscous, or slowly flowing, mantle
layer below.
This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth's
crust. When the stresses get too large, it leads to
cracks called faults. When tectonic plates move, it
also causes movements at the faults. An
earthquake is the sudden movement of Earth's
crust at a fault line.
Two basic features of an earthquake
- Magnitude and depth
 Magnitude - measures the energy released
at the source of the earthquake. 
 o Depth range of 0 - 700 km is
divided into three zones
o Shallow earthquakes are between 0
and 50 km deep.
o Intermediate earthquakes, 50 - 300
km deep.
o Earthquakes, 300 - 700 km deep.  the next strong earthquake to occur in
 Intensity - a number that characterizes the
severity of ground shaking at that location.
Elastic Rebound Theory
- what happens to the crustal material
on either side of a fault during an
earthquake. The idea is that a fault is
stuck until the strain accumulated in
the rock on either side of the fault has
overcome the friction making it stick.
Energy is spread during earthquakes. As rocks on
opposite sides of a fault are subjected to force and
shift, they accumulate energy and slowly deform
until their internal strength is exceeded. At that
time, a sudden movement occurs along the fault,
releasing the accumulated energy, and the rocks
snap back to their original undeformed shape.
- Elastic rebound theory is one of the
central ideas to the mechanics of
earthquakes and was originally
proposed by Reid (1910) following the
1906 San Francisco earthquake on the
San Andreas Fault.
 Earthquake prediction - a branch of the
science of seismology concerned with the
specification of the time, location, and
magnitude of future earthquakes within
stated limits
- "the determination of parameters for
a region"
 Seismology is the study of earthquakes
and seismic waves  3. Make a supply kit
 Seismologist is a scientist who studies
earthquakes and seismic waves.
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION AND EARTHQUAKE
FORECAST
 Prediction - involves specifying the
location, time, and magnitude of an
earthquake.
 Forecasting - involves giving a probability
of an earthquake in a given area over a
period of time.
Scientists estimate earthquake probabilities in two
ways:
1. by studying the history of large earthquakes in a
specific area.
2. the rate at which strain accumulates in the rock.
The goal of earthquake prediction is to give
warning of potentially damaging earthquakes early
enough to allow appropriate response to the
disaster.
Preparation Before an Earthquake
1. Make an Emergency Plan
2.Plan where to meet if you get separated.
4. Secure heavy items in your home
5.Store heavy and breakable objects on low shelves.
Stay Safe During
 1. If you are in a car, pull over and stop. Set your
parking brake.
2. If you are in bed, turn face down and cover your
head and neck with a pillow.
3. If you are outdoors, stay outdoors away from
buildings.
4. If you are inside, stay and do not run outside and
avoid doorways.
Stay Safe After
1.Expect aftershocks to follow. Be ready to Drop,
Cover, and Hold On.
2. Do not enter damaged buildings.
3. If you are trapped, send a text or bang on a pipe
or wall. Cover your mouth with your shirt for
protection and instead of shouting, use a whistle.
 4. Go inland or to higher ground immediately after
the shaking stops.
5. Check yourself to see if you are hurt and help
others if you have training.  3) How to locate natural resources (oil, gold, etc).
Geological structures
 Structural geology - study of the feature
formed by the geological process
 Geologic structures - characteristics or
features formed in rocks caused by the
disturbance from internal or external
forces.
 Geologic features - strike and dip or
dipping beds, folding, faulting, joints, etc
1. TRUE DIP - it is the maximum inclination of
a bed with respect to the horizontal plane.
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES ARE IMPORTANT FOR
UNDERSTANDING:
2. APPARENT DIP - dip along any direction
1) The locations of earthquakes (faults). other than that of true dip, always have a
value less than a true dip.
2) The formation of mountains (faults and folds).
Tan(apparent dip)=tan(true dip) x cos B
 Strike and dip - parameters of describing
thevorientation of the tilted layers of the  Fold - geologic structure that is formed by
rocks. layers or beds of rock being bent or folded.
 OUTCROPS - part of a rock formation that FOLD CLASSIFICATION
appears above the surface of the
surrounding ground.
1.Tightness of folding - the tighness of folds can be
 Strike - direction perpendicular to the dip
described as open (limbs dip gently), tight (limbs dip
direction. Thus, if dip is due East, the Strike
steeply) or isoclinal (limbs are parallel).
direction is North-South.
- intersects the ground surface.
- The direction of strike is measured by 2 Orientation of axial plane - the orientation of the
compass. axial plane relative to the horizontal together with
 DIP - is an angle between an inclined the orientation of fold limbs allow subdivision into
bedding plane and an imaginary horizontal
- upright (axial plane vertical, limbs symmetric),
surface.
- The angle of an inclination of a rock bed - overturned (axial plane moderately inclined, one
with horizontal plane perpendicular to limb overturned)
the strike.
- The dip angle is measured with a - recumbent (axial plane near horizontal, one limb
clinometer and its direction is inverted).
measured with a compass.
TYPES OF DIP
3. Thickness of folded beds - thickly-bedded, brittle
units tend to form concentric folds with the bed
thickness preserved normal to bedding surfaces.
FOLD STRUCTURES
Warps in rock layers and occur folded or bended
upwards, downwards, or sideways
- compression forces are the prime cause
of folds (important in mountain
formation).
TYPES OF FOLDS
1. Anticline - fold that is convex: it curves like
a rainbow. The capital letter “A” represents
the shape of the fold. plane or fold axis.
2. Syncline - fold that is concave: it forms a
“U” shape. A series of down- arched strata
dipping towards the fold axis on both sides
formations.
3. Monocline - special type of fold in which
both limbs are parallel but offset to each
other. The limbs are horizontal, or nearly
so.
OTHER TYPES OF FOLDS
Types of Faults
1. Dome - consisting of symmetrical anticlines
that intersect each other at their respective
apices.
2. Structural basin - large-scale structural
formation of rock strata formed by tectonic
warping of previously flat lying strata.
Structural basins are geological
depressions, and are the inverse of domes.
3. Chevron folds - characterized by repeated
well behaved folded beds with straight
limbs and sharp hinges , v-shaped beds.
4. Asymmetrical/recumbent fold - the axial
plane is inclined. An overturned fold, or
overfold,has the axial plane inclined to such
an extent that the strata on one limb are
overturned.
5. Slump - Typically monoclinal, result of
differential compaction or dissolution
during sedimentation and lithification.
 Fault - Cracks or fractures in the Earth’s
crust
 Fault line - an area of related cracks
 Fault plane - The two surfaces of these two
blocks moving past each other form.
1. Normal fault - blocks of earth are pulled
apart and follow normal gravitational pull,
and one block slips downwards.
2. Reverse fault - fault blocks move towards
each other. One block rides up to overlap
the other.
3. Strike slip Fault - the blocks shift past each
other in a horizontal movement.
4. Oblique-Slip Faults - This left-lateral
oblique-slip fault suggests both normal
faulting and strike-slip faulting.
Joints
Joints - cracks or fracture present in the rocks along
which there has been no displacement. They may
be vertical, inclines or even horizontal.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
(a) On the basis of the origin joints.
1. Tension joints - formed as a result of
tension forces. These joints are
relatively open and have rough and
irregular surfaces.
2. Shear joints - which are due to shearing
stresses involved in folding and faulting
of rocks. These joints are rather clear-
cut and tightly closed.
(B) On the basis of their altitude and geometry
they may be classified
1. Strike Joints - Joints that are parallel to the strike
of rocks.
2. Dip Joints - parallel to the dip of rocks
3. Oblique Joints - run in a direction that lies
between the strike and dip direction of the rock
beds.
4. Bedding Joints - parallel to the bedding planes in
a sedimentary rock.
5. Master Joints - run in two directions at nearly
right angles, strongly developed than the other and
extends for long distances
6. Mural Joints - Granites show three sets of joints
mutually at right angles, which divide the rocks
mass into more or less cubical blocks.
7. Sheet Joints - often seen in the exposures of
granites
- run in the horizontal direction
- formed tension cracks during cooling of the rock.
- somewhat curve and essentially parallel to
topographic surface
8. Columnar Jointsm - formed in tabular
igneous masses such as dykes, sills and lava
flows.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING JOINTS IN
ENGINEERING
1. In quarry operation, for easier detachment of the
rocks.
2. Well-cleaved rocks with many systems of joints
are broken at much less expenses.
3. Provide passage for the percolation of water and
help weathering and formation of soil.
4. Control the natural ground water drainage
system in rocks and underground.
5. Useful in exploration of water and in location of
well sites.
6. Source of weakness and as pathways of leakage
of water through rocks
7.Acts as oil and gas reservior
9. Presence of joint in dams and reservoir leads to
water leakage
10. Can be a construction materials line limestone
and sandstone joints .
Geologic Maps and Cross-Sections
Geologic map - uses lines, symbols, and colors
to illustrate information about the nature and
distribution of rock units within an area.
Mappable unit of rock /sediment - one that a
geologist can consistently recognize, trace
across a landscape, and describe.
Why Geologic Map is important?
 They develop a theoretical
understanding of the geology and
geologic history of a given area.
 Esessential tools for practical
applications such as zoning,
engineering, and hazard assessment.
 Vital in finding and developing
geological resources, such as sediments,
groundwater, fossil fuels, and minerals.
What Are the Essential Components of
Geologic Maps?
1. The map itself
2. The map legend or key that explains all the
symbols on the map
3. Geologic cross-section(s) of the map area.
What Is a Geologic Map Legend?
The map legend to a geologic map is usually
printed on the same page as the map and
follows a customary format.
The map legend also contains an explanation of
the symbols shown on the map, such as the
symbols for different types of faults and folds.
 General geologic age symbols - follow
superposition and are stacked in an age
sequence from oldest at the bottom to
youngest at the top.
- This allows the map reader to
quickly assess the relative age of
each unit.
 The geologic age (typically the geologic
period) - is listed for each unit in the
key and uses standard symbols.
direction you believe the rocks are dipping. To
determine this, use any strike and dip symbols.
If they are not provided, use the Rule of V’s or
the ages given to help determine the geologic
structure.
Step 4 - Transfer the marks from your paper to
a provided diagram.
Step 5 - Sketch in and complete any structures,
paying careful attention to dip angles (if
provided). Structures may be drawn in with a
dotted line above the Earth’s surface to
indicate rocks that were formerly present but
that have since been eroded.

 Geologic cross-section - illustrates how
different types of rock are layered or
otherwise configured, including
geologic structures, such as folds and
faults.
How Do I Construct a Geologic Cross-section?
Step 6 - Incorporate a legend into the cross-
section to explain the types of geologic
materials present.
Step 7 - Include vertical and horizontal scales
along with the statement of vertical
exaggeration.

Step 1 - Locate the points between which you

will be constructing a cross-section for. close
Step 2 - Take a sheet of scrap (scratch) paper.
Place the paper along the map where you want
to draw a cross-section.

Step 3 - At each geologic contact, make a mark

on the scratch paper. Position the marks in the