Asian Journal

Asian Research Consortium of Research in

Social Sciences
and
Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities
Vol. 7, No. 6, June 2017, pp. 251-260. Humanities
ISSN 2249-7315 www.aijsh.com
A Journal Indexed in Indian Citation Index
DOI NUMBER: 10.5958/2249-7315.2017.00347.1

Issues and Concerns of Intimate Partner Relationship of

Devadasi Sex Workers in the Rural North Karnataka,
India

Dr. Janardhana N Navaneetham*; Muthuraj**; Manjula***

*Additional Professor,
Department of Psychiatric Social Wo,
NIMHANS.
janardhannimhans@gmail.com
**Ph.D Scholar,
NIMHANS.
muthurajupsw@gmail.com
***Ph.D Scholar,
NIMHANS.
manjulab.manju@gmail.com

Abstract
The objective of the present study is to understand the issues and concerns of intimate partner
relationship of Devadasi sex workers. Literature suggests that Devadasi sex workers are being in an
intimate relationship and been victims of the violence and looses power for condom negotiation.
Condom use within intimate relationships is often seen as a sign of infidelity and fosters mistrust
which could affect longevity, trust and intimacy within partnerships. Data were gathered through
in-person interviews during the field visit. Using qualitative data from Devadasi sex workers and
their intimate male partners in Bagalkot District, Karnataka, India, we examined both partners’
perspectives to understand the quality and dynamics of these relationships. Devadasi sex workers
and their intimate partners define their relationships as ‘like marriage’ which reduced their
motivation to use condoms. Violence from their intimate partner is very common in their
relationship. Devadasi sex workers do feel being abused, but accept it as they feel mentally secured
and recognition, as they have a regular visitor to their home. Devadasi sex workers accept the
violence from their intimate partner as a symbol of love. Couple-based interventions may be more

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effective than individual-based interventions in promoting safer sex behaviours within intimate
relationships.

Keywords: Devadasi Sex worker, Intimate partner, Intimate partner relationship, sex work,
partner violence.

Introduction
The subject of sex work evokes strong and immediate emotional reactions from public, primarily
because of the low respect attached, stigma, sexuality, human rights issue, and sex trade. Previously
Devadasi’s, temple servants, artists, and started satisfying the biological needs of the priest, in the
modern world Devadasi practice sex work or dhandha in their homes or small lodges and brothels
in the rural settings (Blanchard et al., 2005, Vimochana, 1985). Devadasi the word derived from the
Sanskrit words ‘deva’(God)and ‘dasi’ (servant or slave), Devadasi’s were women and girls
dedicated through marriage to different Gods and Goddesses, a system that originated in South
India around the 6th century A.D. (Dasgupta, 2000; Tarachand, 1991). After their dedication they
became the wives of the deities and performed various temple duties, including cleaning the
premises, gods ornaments, items in the temples, dancing for deities in the festivals, and delivering
prayers and food to Gods, all of which were sacred forms of worship (Kersenboom,1987; Orr,
2000). As wives of deities, Devadasi’s never attained the socially and morally stigmatized status of
widowhood, and this was the primary reason for their auspiciousness (Marglin,1985). Along with
possessing ritually significant social positions, many Devadasi’s learned to read and write, an
opportunity not afforded to otherwomen (Evans, 1998). Some women also received large tracts of
land and material wealth from admirers, from which they made donations to temples for the upkeep
of buildings and to support particular ceremonies (Nair, 1994; Orr, 2000).

Another role performed by Devadasi’s was the provision of sexual services to male temple
attendants, priests, and men who could be regarded as patrons or clients. While sex work was not
their sole profession and most women had one or two patrons during their lifetime, religious and
political developments over several centuries produced a situation where more women were
engaged in this aspect of ritual service (Orr, 2000). Within religious worship and practice,
Devadasi’s started practicing sex work, started satisfying the biological needs of kings, priests, and
wealthy landowners which became the part of the Devadasi tradition.

Devadasi’s in the Current Era

In northern Karnataka, the Devadasi system remains a culturally and economically valued form of
sex work, and approximately 1000–10,000 young girls are inducted into the system annually
(Chakraborthy, 2000; Giri, 1999). Devadasi’s in the present generations are markedly different
from their past traditions, especially due to legal ban and loss of social status gained by being
Devadasi, got in to sex trade as part of Devadasi practice. Most of the Devadasi’s in North
Karnataka live in their communities with low caste status. Some of them live in separate
communities within the larger towns or villages. The women and girls work out of their homes,
which may have a separate room attached for sex work, or in the houses of their Devadasi

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Vol. 7, No.6, pp. 251-260.

neighbors. Some travel to larger rural centers to conduct dhandha in small-scale brothels, which
usually consist of 1–2 girls in a home within an identifiable sex work area under the watch of a
madam or ‘Gharwalli’, who customarily takes half of the girls’ earnings (O’Neil et al., 2004).
During the process of their sex work, they will be developing an intimate relationship with one of
their customer; they would start misusing them, some time would take their money, abuse them
economically, physical, socially, and psychologically.

Global literature on female sex workers suggests that many female sex workers do
develop intimate relationship with one of their customers, and they lose power of negotiation for
safe sex practices. Safe sex practice is often viewed as infidelity and fosters mistrust which could
affect the longevity, trust and intimacy within partnerships. Research studies on issues of FSWs
shows that they are subjected to social exclusion. Sex workers are also subjected to psychosocial
vulnerabilities, including exposure to childhood physical abuse, childhood sexual abuse,
interpersonal violence in adulthood and substance uses (Burnette et al 2008).

In India, the national AIDS control program has identified FSWs and their clients as two
priority groups for HIV prevention interventions. The focus of such interventions are mainly
providing HIV prevention education through peer educators combined with free condom
distribution and treatment for STIs (NACO, 2007). There is an urgent need for capacitating the
counsellors to shift their focus from condom counselling to deal with the problems of the sex
workers, so that their quality of life can be enhanced, and their rights get respected, recognized and
supported for their fulfilment. The study was conducted in the area of Bijapur and Bagalkot with
mentoring the counsellors working with the female sex workers, the programme was supported by
Karnataka Health Promotion Trust, a National NGO.

The present article targets the needs of counselors while working with the sex workers and
their intimate partners. Building the capacities of the counsellors so that their skilled enough in
dealing with the issues of violence, identifying mental health problems among sex worker,
empowering them to realized their rights, stop getting exploited by their intimate partners, able to
understand the boundaries in relationship. The present article deals with understanding the needs
and issues of female sex workers, violence experienced from their intimate partners, so that the
counselors skills can be capacitated to deal with the above mentioned problems of the sex workers.

Methodology:
The present study aimed at identifying the needs and issues of female sex worker in the context of
their relationship with the intimate partners. During the field visits, Key Informant Interview was
also held with the female sex workers to understand their needs and issues with their intimate
partners. The interviews were recorded in the form of field visit reports. All the field visit reports of
8 months been used for generating data for the present study. Voices were identified from the field
visit reports, similar voices were grouped under each theme. Phenomenological analysis was used
for the current study.

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Results

Socio Demographic Details of the Participants

All the 10 female sex workers were in the age range of 30- 50 years. All of them were from
Devadasi community. Most of them (100%) had intimate partners and majority of them experience
violence from their intimate partners. All of them have not completed their schooling. All the
female sex workers got married to the gods before they attained puberty.

Needs Identified through Interviews with Female Sex Workers

Female sex workers were interviewed individually in their village with the prior consent in order to
understand the needs of the female sex workers and to understand their relationship with the
intimate partner violence. Counselling services were provided to the Devadasi women, and
continued home visits were also provided by the field staff to ensure their wellbeing.

Theme 1: Condom related Issues

Female sex workers have problems related to condom negotiation with their intimate partners. The
intimate partners expect the sex workers to be loyal to them. Would insist them not get in to sex
trade and promises to meet their financial needs if they are loyal to them. Most of the time intimate
partners are not aware of the sex work of the female sex workers. Once known, become cause for
their separation. Female sex workers find it difficult to negotiate for condom use, often end up in
unsafe sex practices.

Mrs V ‘If I ask my intimate partner to use condom he gets angry and questions that if you are not
practicing sex work why you are forcing me to use condom?’

Mrs X ‘intimate partner treats me as his property, he does not get satisfied using condoms, so
wanted to have sex without condoms’

Mrs T ‘intimate partner is like my unwed husband, but does not take care of my family needs, to
meet my economic needs, I do practice sex work, but my intimate partner feels that I should be
loyal to him’

Mrs B says ‘my intimate partner is like my husband, do I need to negotiate with him for condom
use?..... but I do not know whether he has many more women in his life, apart from his legally wed
wife’

Being loyal is something expected by all sex workers and their intimate partners. Participants
reported that their intimate partner treat them as their wives but do not have legal sanction for their
relationship. They view this relationship as more like husband and wife relationship (without legal
santity), so they find it difficult to negotiate for condom use with their intimate partners.

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Theme 2: Intimate Partner Violence

Violence from their intimate partner is very common in their relationship. Their intimate partners
under the influence of alcohol do abuse them both physically and sexually and they do accept the
violence attached to their intimate partners relationship. Devadasi sex workers do feel being
abused, but accept it as they feel mentally secured and recognition, as they have a regular visitor to
their home.

Ms B. ‘Intimate Partner when drunk beats me and verbally abuses me’

Mrs V ‘Intimate partner does not pay for sex nor takes care of my needs’

Mrs L ‘being in sex work, it is common to get physically abused by our customer, same thing is
done by the intimate partner’

Mrs T says ‘Intimate Partner suspects me of continuing sex work, gets angry and beats me,
sometimes takes away my money’

Even though the relationship is governed by violence, devadasi sex workers does not view it as
problem as they feel secured and their emotional needs been addressed by their intimate partners.
Often it is difficult to understand why does Devadasi sex worker continue such relationship which
has governed by violence?

Theme Three: Acceptance of Violence as Symbol of Love

Devadasi sex workers accept the violence from their intimate partner as a symbol of love. In rural
community women feels getting battered from their husband is a form of expression of love. When
they like and love their intimate partners Devadasi sex workers are willing to accept the violence in
their relationship.

Mrs X says ‘I like him, so would entertain him, need to bare the violence as I like him’

Mrs A says ‘Hitting or questioning me is a form of expressing his love’

Mrs K ‘Intimate Partner beats or screams at me, because he loves me’

Mrs H ‘ Intimate partner likes me and my company, he visits regularly even though he is married
and having children, at times he uses his power to get his work done’.

Mrs B ‘in our village, husbands beats their wives, in my life intimate partner is like my husband, it
is okay to be beaten some times’

Devadasi sex worker view their relations hip as more like husband and wife without legal santity,
as they accept the violence associated with the relationship. As their intimate partners are full
filling their desire to have a ‘husband’ they bare the violence. Violence has been viewed as more a
expression of love from their liked ones. They respect and entertain their intimate partners because
their psychological needs getting addressed by regular visits from their intimate partners.

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Theme 4: Unplanned Separation and Re joining

Often Devadasi sex worker experience breakup’s with their intimate partners because of trust
issues, violence, communication difficulties, use of condom related issues, uncertainty about
permanence of relationship, unhealthy boundaries, violence and unplanned separations and new
intimate relationship. Most of the Devadasi sex workers have more than one intimate partner in
their life. Fights and breakups and rejoining are common in the lives of Devadasi sex worker, as
they have invested on the relationship.

Mrs V ‘Intimate partner fought with me and didn’t turn up, continued sex work and got an intimate
partner. After few months first IP came and assured me to take care. Do not know what to do…..’

Mrs B ‘ it is very common for us to breakup with intimate partners, sometimes they would come
back, sometimes new customers become intimate partner’

Mrs L says ‘do not know when customer becomes our intimate partner....., look forward to be with
them, when he stop coming, do not understand what to do and why did he stop coming’

Mrs K ‘sometimes under the influence of alcohol we do not know why did we fight, it would
escalated so much that he would stop visiting, maybe I was too rude with him..... ended up with
separation’

Most Devadasi Sex workers wanted to main relationship with the intimate partners for addressing
their psychological need of security and experiencing of ‘being as wives’. Separation leads to
feeling sad and they would miss their intimate partner and look forward for their companionship,
compromise and continue the relationship with the intimate partners.

Discussion
Most of the female sex workers were Devadasi’s and engaged in sex work for their livelihood.
After abolition of the devadasi system, lost the religious and legal recognition, and many continued
their sex trade. In their sex trade they do develop or get attracted with some of their customers, and
get involved more and become their intimate partner. Most Devadasi Female sex workers did
mention financial needs as the main reason for them in entering sex work. (Datar 1992). Female sex
workers migrate to cities like Mumbai and Pune, where avibrant sex industry been practiced in the
red light areas and, has more economic perspectives for their earning. In fact, reports from both
northern Karnataka and Mumbai suggest that substantial migration of FSWs occur sfrom rural
Karnataka to Mumbai (Mukhopadhyay 1995).

Devadasi’s from their intimate partner’s faces problems such as lack of trust, conflicts,
communication difficulties, use of condom related issues, uncertainty about permanence of
relationship, unhealthy boundaries, violence and unplanned separations and new intimate
relationship. Relationship issues have significant impact on life of Devadasi’s and needs attention
for their wellbeing. Devadasi being in sex trade are undergoing many problems from society such
as stigma, discrimination, HIV/ STI health problems, economic problems, addiction, poor physical
and mental health , Housing, Money, debt and finance related issues, Coercion and violence ,
Criminalisation, lack of education etc. The current study highlights that violence has been part of
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their sex work, violence been accepted by most of the women as they like and love their intimate
partner. Violence among sex workers have been studied extensively. The influence and severity of
violence works as a driving force for sex work involvement (Cusick and Berney, 2005). Sex
workers interviewed reported experiences of physical, sexual and verbal violence during childhood,
past experiences of abuse were said to compound feelings of worthlessness as said by Bindel et al
(2012). Physical, sexual and verbal violence are common experiences for many sex workers. Many
studies have reported that violence is a prominent feature in the lives of sex workers (Spice 2007).
A study by Bindel et al. (2012), found that two-thirds of the sex workers they interviewed
experienced violence, whilst another study by Sanders-McDonagh and Neville (2012, 2016) claims
that many sex workers have experienced increasing levels of violence and complained of
harassment by police and from their intimate partners.

A growing body of evidence suggests that couple-based interventions may be more effective than
individual-based interventions in promoting safer sex behaviours within intimate relationships (El-
Bassel et al., 2002; Syvertsen et al., 2012). It provides couples with an opportunity to learn and
practise new communication and negotiation skills together (Syvertsen et al., 2013). Women who
engage in sex work in southern India continue to be at high risk for HIV infection through
heterosexual transmission (Arora, Cyriac, & Jha, 2004).

A recent study in three districts of Karnataka found that 82% of female sex workers reported
condom use with paying clients, but only 10% reported condom use with intimate partners (Deering
et al., 2011b). A study of clients of female sex workers in brothels in Pune (Maharashtra), which
has a large number of migrant sex workers from northern Karnataka (Banandur et al., 2012), found
a number of long-term relationships (‘rakhel’) between sex workers and male partners.
Approximately half of the non-rakhel males reported ‘always using condoms’, compared to only
10% of men in rakhel relationships (Bhattacharya, 2004).

The relationships between the Devadasi women and their intimate partners are quite complex. They
compare their relationships to those of married couples in terms of power dynamics and decision-
making. Few female sex workers mentioned that Devadasis mentioned money, suspicions of
unfaithfulness, lack of interest in family matters and male partners’ alcohol use as important
reasons for disagreements. All female respondents said that having an intimate partner has given
them social status and increased their sense of security. Originally, these relationships may have
formed for money and sexual pleasure. However, over time and with the growth of love, affection
and concern for each other, they may begin to think of their relationship as equivalent to that of
husband and wife. For this reason, Devadasi women may hide their sex work practice from their
intimate partner and men may not accept their partner’s practice of sex work.

Devadasis and most of their intimate partners define their relationships differently from commercial
sex encounters. In most cases, participants consider themselves as husband and wife, and resist
behaviours that could undermine that relationship. Many Devadasi’s and other sex workers express
the belief that suggesting condom use to a person implies infidelity and mistrust (Balaiah et al,
2005; d’Cruz-Grote, 1996; Shah et al, 2011; Varma et al, 2010).

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Limitations
Devadasi sex worker were the participants of the study and therefore the results cannot be
generalised to female sex worker community as a whole. With the changing society, the
experiences and perceptions of Devadasi’s and their male partners may also change over period of
time. So, our results apply to the particular moment in time in which people were interviewed. This
study did not explore other important factors like their early child hood experience, their future
plans, their old age etc,. More extensive, in-depth studies are needed to understand more about the
complexities of relationships between Devadasis and their intimate partners under varying
circumstances, in different kinds of communities.

Conclusion
It is a well known fact that sex workers live on the margins of society as their work lacks legal and
moral approval. Most of the Devadasi female sex workers in Karnataka are from the lower castes,
and are often poor, and uneducated. Violence was identified as a key concern for the sex workers
and often accepts in their relationship. There is an urgent need for developing interventions model
for the counsellors and equip them to deal with the relationship issues of Devadasi sex workers.
The counsellors need to shift their focus from pre test, post test, condom counselling to that of
providing supportive counselling services for women to deal with their intimate partners.

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