CHAPTER 15
Oscillations
A torsion pendulum designed to detect
the possible existence of a "fifth
force." (See Physics Today, July 1988,
p 21.)
Definition of an oscillation
Major Points
1. In a simple harmonic oscillation the amplitude is constant and the period is
independent of the amplitude.
2. Simple harmonic motion occurs when the restoring force is proportional to
the displacement from equilibrium and in the opposite direction.
3. The variation of the kinetic and potential energies with time and with
position.
4. The behavior of simple pendulums, physical pendulums, and torsional
pendulums.
Any motion or event that repeats itself at regular intervals is said to be periodic. In
some periodic motions a body moves back and forth along a given path between
two extreme positions. Examples include the vibration of a guitar string or a
speaker cone, the swinging of a pendulum, the motion of a piston in an engine and
the vibrations of the atoms in a solid. Such periodic motions are examples of
oscillation. In general, an oscillation is a periodic fluctuation in the value of a
physical quantity above and below some central or equilibrium value.
In mechanical oscillations, such as those cited above, the body undergoes
linear or angular displacement. Nonmechanical oscillations involve the variation
of quantities such as voltage or charge in electrical circuits, or the electric and
magnetic fields in radio and TV signals. In this chapter we discuss only mechani-
cal oscillations, but the techniques we develop are applicable to other kinds of
oscillatory behavior.
The first quantitative observations of oscillations were probably made by
Galileo. The chandeliers in the cathedral at Pisa had to be pulled toward a balcony
for them to be lit. After they were released, they would swing back and forth for
some time. On one occasion, Galileo used his pulse to time the swings and was
surprised to learn that even as the oscillations diminished in size, the time for each
complete swing did not change. This property of isochronism (isa = same,
chronos = time) was the basis of early pendulum clocks.
We begin by discussing examples of simple harmonic oscillation which is an
oscillation that occurs without loss of energy. If friction, or some other mecha-
nism, causes the energy to decrease, the oscillations are said to be damped.
Finally, we discuss the response of a system to an external driving force that
 15.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATION 305

varies sinusoidally in time. Such forced oscillations exhibit the phenomenon of

resonance when the frequency of the driving force is close to the natural frequency
of oscillation of the system.

15.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATION

A convenient system for studying oscillations is a block attached to a spring. To
see how the displacement from equilibrium, x, varies with time, we can record the
motion on a strip of paper that moves at a constant speed, as shown in Fig. 15.1.
We find that a sinusoidal pattern is traced out. In the absence offriction, the block
oscillates between the exreme values x = +A and x = -A, where A is called the
amplitude of the oscillation. As depicted in Fig. 15.1, the displacement from
equilibrium is given by
x(t) = A sin wt
where w, measured in rad/s, is called the angular frequency, rather than the
angular velocity, since it does not refer to the rotation of something physical. One
cycle corresponds to 27T radians and is completed in one period, T. Therefore,
27T = wT, or
27T
W =- = 27Tf (15.1) Angular frequency
T
wheref = liT, called the frequency, is measured in S-I, or hertz (Hz). In Fig. 15.1
the block was at x = 0 at t = O. In general this will not be the case, so we write
x(t) = A sin (wt T c/J) (15.2) Simple harmonic oscillation

-
- A

FIGURE 15.1 An oscillating block leaves a sinusoidal trace on a moving strip of paper. 1'---\-+---1'-1---"'1

The argument wt + c/J is called the phase, while c/J is called the phase constant (or in
some contexts, the phase angle). Both the phase and the phase constant are -A
measured in radians. The specific values of A and c/J in a given problem are
determined by the values of x and the velocity, v = dx/dt, at some specific time, FIG URE 15.2 The function x-
such as t = O. A sin(wt + cf» (solid curve) is shifted by cf>
to the left relative to x = A sin wt
According to Eq. 15.2, we see that x = A sin c/J at t = 0, and that x = 0 when
(dashed curve). Note that the
sin(wt + c/J) = O. That is, x = 0 when wt = -c/J or t = -c/J/w. As Fig. 15.2 shows, horizontal axis is wt (measured in
this means that when q, is positive, the curve shifts to the left in comparison with radians). The position at t = 0 is x =
x = A sin wt. A sin <p.
306 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS

Any system in which the variation in time of a physical quantity is given by

Eq. 15.2 is called a simple harmonic oscillator. In the case of oscillations in
electrical circuits the displacement x might be replaced by charge or voltage. In
the case of light and radio waves, x is replaced by electric and magnetic fields. A
simple harmonic oscillator has the following characteristics:
1. The amplitude A is constant. (The oscillation is simple.)
Properties of a simple harmonic 2. The frequency and period are independent of the amplitude: Large oscillations
oscillator have the same period as small ones. (The property of isochronism.)
3. The time dependence of the fluctuating quantity can be expressed in terms of a
sinusoidal function of a single frequency. (The oscillation is harmonic.)
The first and second derivatives of Eq. 15.2 are
dx
:r dt = wA cos(wt + c/» (15.3)

d 2x
dt 2 = -w2A sin(wt + c/» (15.4)

As Fig. 15.3 shows, the extreme values ofthe velocity, u = ± wA, occur when x =
0, whereas the extreme values of the acceleration, a = ± w2A, occur when x =
=t=A.
Comparing Eq. 15.4 with Eq. 15.2 we see that
2
d x1 + w-x
-d 1
=
0 (15.5)
(-

This form of differential equation characterizes all types of simple harmonic

a
FIGURE 15.3 The variation in time of
the position, the velocity, and the
acceleration in a simple harmonic
motion. Note that a = -w1x.
oscillation-mechanical or nonmechanical. The techniques we develop to deal
with this equation may be applied to all examples of simple harmonic oscillation.
Equation 15.2 is a solution of this differential equation.
The term simple harmonic motion (SHM) is applied to mechanical examples
of simple harmonic oscillation. For SHM to occur, three conditions must be
satisfied. First, there must be a position of stable equilibrium. Second, there must
be no dissipation of energy, for example, due to friction. Third, as we can see by
writing Eq. 15.5 in the form
the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and opposite in direction.

EXAMPLE 15.1: The position of a particle moving along the x (b) The velocity and acceleration at any time are given by
axis is given by
dx
v = dl = 0.96 cos(121 + 0.3) m/s
x = 0.08 sin(121 + 0.3) m
where 1 is in seconds. (a) What are the amplitude and period of a = = -11.5 sin(121 + 0.3) m/s 2
the motion? (b) Determine the position, velocity, and accelera-
tion at 1 = 0.6 s. At 1 = 0.6 s, the phase of the motion is (12 x 0.6 + 0.3) = 7.5
rad. When this is used in the above expressions, we find x =
Solution: (a) On comparing the given equation with the form in
0.075 m, v = 0.333 mis, and a = -10.8 m/s 2 •
Eq. 15.2 we see that the amplitude is A = 0.08 m and the
angular frequency is w = 12 rad/s. Thus, the period is T = 21Tlw EXERCISE 1. What is the acceleration when the position is x =
= 0.524 s. -0.05 m?
 15.2 THE BLOCK-SPRING SYSTEM 307

15.2 THE BLOCK-SPRING SYSTEM

We begin by considering the dynamics of a block that is oscillating at the end of a A A
massless spring, as in Fig. 15.4. We assume that the net force acting on the block
I_F
is that exerted by the spring, which is given by Hooke's law:
F sp = -kx
where x is the displacement from the equilibrium position. When x is positive, F sp ... . . .
is negative, the force is directed to the left. When x is negative, F sp is positive, the FIGURE 15.4 A block oscillating at
force is directed to the right. Thus, the force always tends to restore the block to the end of a spring. The restoring force
its equilibrium position x = O. Newton's second law (F = rna) applied to the block is proportional to the displacement
is - kx = rna, which means from equilibrium.

k
a = --x
rn

The acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement, but is in the opposite

direction, as is required for SHM. Since a = d 2x/dt 2 , we have
d 2x k
- + -x = 0 (15.6)
dt 2 rn

This differential equation is merely another way of writing Newton's second law.
When Eq. 15.6 is compared with Eq. 15.5, we see that the block-spring system
executes simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency
k
w= (15.7)
In
or a period
27T 111
T =- = 27T k (15.8) Period of a block-spring system
W

As is required for SHM, the period is independent of the amplitude. For a given
spring constant, the period increases with the mass of the block: A more massive
block oscillates more slowly. For a given block, the period decreases as k in-
creases: A stiffer spring produces quicker oscillations.

EXAMPLE 15.2: A 2-kg block is attached to a spring for which Since sin ¢ = I and cos ¢ = 0, it follows that ¢ = 7T/2 rad. Thus,
k = 200 N/m. It is held at an extension of 5 cm and then
released at t = O. Find: (a) the displacement as a function of x = 0.05 sin( lOt + -i) m (i)
time; (b) the velocity when x = +AI2; (c) the acceleration when
x = +AI2. (b) In order to find the velocity we have to find when x = A12.
Equation (i) yields! = sin(lOt + 7T/2), from which we infer that
Solution: (a) We need to find A, w, and 1> in Eq. 15.2. The
(lOt + 7T/2) = 7T/6 or 57T/6. (We need just the phase, not the
amplitude is the maximum extension; that is, A = 0.05 m. From
time.) The velocity is given by
Eq. 15.7 the angular frequency is

w= -
k
= 10 rad/s
v= = 0.5 cOS(IOt +-i)
In
7T 57T
To find 1> we note that at t = 0 we are given x = +A and v = O. = 0.5 cos"6 or 0.5 cos 6
Thus, from Eq. 15.2 and Eq. 15.3, = +0.43 m/s or -0.43 m/s
A = A sin(O + 1» At a given position, there are two velocities of equal magnitude
o = lOA cos(O + ¢) but opposite directions.
308 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS

(c) The acceleration at x = AI2 may be found from Eq. 15.5:

-0.08 =A + cf» (ii)
k
a =- - x = -w 2x
m When we square both equations and add them we find A = 0.10
-(10 rad/s)2(O.05/2 m) = -2.5 m/s 2 m. (Note that cos 29 + sin 29 = 1.) The ratio of the equations can
be used to find cf>:
Figure 15.5 depicts values of a and v at intervals of T/4.
(iii)

TIme ... 0 x=A

I 1
which means (rr/2 + cf» = arctan (One could also substitute
Ilama.. I
I
A = 0.1 m into either (i) or (ii» There are two pos:;ibilities,
I
I
I
Qu=O (rr/2 + cf» = 377T/180 rad or 2157T/180 rad. Since both the sine
and the cosine in (i) and (ii) are negative, the angle is in the third
I I quadrant, so we pick (rr/2 + cf» = 215rr!l80 radians. Thus, cf> =
I
127rr/180 = 2.2 rad. The displacement as a function of time is
given by
I
a = 01I x = 0.1 sin(5t + 2.2) m (iv)
I
I This function is plotted in Fig. 15.6. Notice that the horizontal
I
I axis is plotted in terms of wt (in radians), not t.
I
I (b) The derivative of (iv) is
I
I
J
v = 0.5 cos(5t + 2.2) m/s
I
I We are given that v is 60% of the maximum value; thus,
I
I
I 0.6 = cos(5t + 2.2)
I

3T
Um..
_I
i which means 5t + 2.2 = cos- 1 0.6. Thus, 5t + 2.2 = 53rr!l80 rad
I or 307rr/180 rad. The first possibility leads to t < 0, which is
unacceptable. The other leads to 5t = (5.4 - 2.2) rad, which
yields t = 0.64 s.

U = 0

FIGURE 15.5 The acceleration and velocity of a block oscillating

at the end of a spring at intervals of T/4.

EXERCISE 2. (a) Use part (b) above directly to find a when x =

A12. (b) What is the force on the block at t = rr/15 s?

EXAMPLE 15.3: In a block-spring system, m = 0.2 kg and

k = 5 N/m. At t = rr/lO s, the spring has a compression of 6 cm FIGURE 15.6 The function x = A sin (wI + 2.2 rad). Note that
and the block has a velocity v = -40 cm/s. (a) What is the the horizontal axis is WI. not I.
displacement as a function of time? (b) What is the first time
(>0) at which the velocity is positive and 60% of its maximum
value?
EXAMPLE 15.4: Show that a block hanging from a vertical
Solution: (a) We need to find w, A, and cf> in Eq. 15.2. From Eq. spring, as in Fig. 15.7, executes simple harmonic motion.
15.7, the angular velocity is
Solution: The block is subject to two forces: the upward force
(k !5N1ITi exerted by the spring and the downward force due to gravity. If
w = Ym = V'OTkg = 5 rad/s Xo is the equilibrium extension at which these two forces bal-
ance, then
Using the given information in Eq. 15.2 and Eq. 15.3 we find
mg = kxo
-0.06 =
. (5rr
A sm W + cf>) (i)
For any extension x, the net force on the block is
 15.3 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 309

F = mg - kx = -k(x - xo)
= -kx' l

where x' = x - Xo is the displacement from the equilibrium

position. Since the restoring force is linearly proportional to the
displacement from equilibrium, the motion will be simple har-
monic.

FIGURE 15.7 A block oscillating on a vertical

spring executes simple harmonic motion about
the equilibrium position.

15.3 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

The force exerted by an ideal spring is conservative, which means that, in the
absence of friction, the energy of the block-spring system is constant. Thus, we
may examine the motion of the block from the viewpoint of energy conservation.
We can use Eq. 15.2 to express the potential energy as
U= !kx 2 = !kA 2 sin2(wt + c/J) (15.9)
Using Eq. 15.3, the kinetic energy is
K = 1mv2 = !mw 2A2 cos 2(wt + c/J) (15.10)
Since w 2 r k/ m and cos 2(J + sin 2(J = 1, the total mechanical energy, E = K + U, is
E = 1mv2 + !kx2 = tkA2 (15.11) Energy ora block-spring system
The total energy of any simple harmonic oscillator is constant and proportional to
the square of the amplitude. The variation of K and U as functions of x is shown in
Fig. 15.8. When x = ± A, the kinetic energy is zero and the total energy is equal to
the maximum potential energy, E = U max = 1kA 2 • These are the turning points of
the SHM. At x = 0, U = 0 and the energy is purely kinetic; that is, E = K max =
1m(wA)2. Figure 15.9 shows how K and U vary in time, assuming that c/J = O.
In Fig. 15.8 we see that the block is in a "potential well" created by the
spring (see Section 8.8). All SHM is characterized by a parabolic potential well.
That is, the potential energy is proportional to the square of the displacement. If a
well is not parabolic, the simple harmonic approximation is often used as a first
step to a complete solution. This is particularly important in dealing with inter-
atomic potentials in molecules and crystals.

Energy Energy

EIor--...........,..----,......- - " " " " -

FIGURE 15.8 The variation of the kinetic energy, potential FIGURE 15.9 The variation of the kinetic energy, potential
energy, and total energy as a function of position. energy, and total energy as a function of time.
310 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS

EXAMPLE 15.5: In Example 15.2 the displacement of a 2-kg Therefore,

particle attached to a spring for which k = 200 N 1m was given 2 = 3kA2 = 3(200 N/m)(0.05 m)2 = 0 188 21 2
by U 4m 4 x 2 kg . m s
from which we find u = 0.43 m/s.
x = 0.05 sin( lOt + m
EXERCISE 3. For what value(s) of x is K = U? Express your
(a) Find K, U, and E at t = 1T115 s. (b) What is the speed at x = answer in terms of A and compare it with Fig. 15.8.
A12? EXERCISE 4. Use energy considerations to find A in part (a) of
Example 15.3.
Solution: (a) The total energy is simply the maximum potential
energy. Since A = 0.05 m, we have EXAMPLE 15.6: Show that the differential equation for sim-
ple harmonic motion can be obtained from the expression for
E = tkA2 = ¥2oo N/m)(0.05 m)2 = 0.25 J the energy of the system.
The potential and kinetic energies are Solution: The total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is

U = = N/m) [0.05 sin(2; + r

m
constant both in time and in space. Thus, from Eq. 15.11 we
have
dE du dx
=M
K = !mv2 = !(l kg) [0.5 cose; + m/s r dt = mu at + kx dt

By eliminating the common factor u = dxldt, we obtain

=0

= 16J du
m dt + kx = 0
Clearly E = K + U, as it must.
(b) Substituting x = A/2 into Eq. 15.11 we have Since duldt = d 2xldt 2 , this equation is equivalent to Eq. 15.5.
EXERCISE 5. Show that the condition dEldx = 0 also leads to
Eq. 15.5. (You will need the chain rule.)

15.4 PENDULUMS

The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum is an idealized system in which a point mass is suspended at
the end of a massless string. Figure 15.10 shows a simple pendulum length of L
and a "pendulum bob" of mass m. The distance along the arc from the lowest
point is s = L(), where () is the angle (in radians) to the vertical. The net force on
the bob along the tangent is the component of the weight along the tangent.
Newton's second law applied along this direction is
. d 2s
- mg sm () = m dt 2

FIGURE 15.10 A simple pendulum.
The only force along the tangent is the
component of the weight: mg sin 6. For
small angles, the restoring force is
proportional to the displacement, so the
motion is simple harmonic.
The negative sign arises from the way s is defined. Its physical meaning is that the
component of the weight acts as a restoring force. Clearly this equation does not
have the form associated with SHM. However, for small angles sin () = (), where ()
is in radians. Since s = L(), we substitute d 2s/dt 2 = Ld 2()/dt 2 and sin () = () into the
above equation to find
d 2() g _
dt2 + I () - 0 (15.12)

Comparing this with Eq. 15.5 for SHM we see that within the small-angle approxi-
mation, a simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion with an angular
frequency
 15.4 PENDULUMS 311

(Simple pendulum) w = Jf
and a period

T = 21T Ii (15.13) Period of a simple pendulum

The period does not depend on either the mass or the amplitude (Galileo's discov-
ery). The solution to Eq. 15.12 is based on Eq. 15.2:
8 = 80 sin(wt + cP) (15.14)
where 80 is the angular amplitude. Note that 8 is a physical angular displacement,
whereas cP is a mathematical phase constant that depends on the initial conditions.
Furthermore, the angular frequency w should not be confused with the (physical)
instantaneous angular velocity d8/dt .

The Physical Pendulum

In Fig. 15.11 an extended body is pivoted freely about an axis that does not pass
through its center of mass. Such an arrangement forms a physical pendulum that
executes simple harmonic motion for small angular displacements. A practical
example of a physical pendulum is an arm or a leg. If d is the distance from the
pivot to the center of mass, the restoring torque is -mgd sin 8 (toward decreasing
8). The rotational form of Newton's second law, or = la, is
d 28
-mgd sin 8 = I dt 2
FIGURE 15.11 A physical pendulum
where I is the moment of inertia about the given axis. If we make the small-angle pivoted about a point other than its
approximation, sin 8 = 8, then center of mass.
2
d 8 mgd 8 =0 (15.15)
dt 2 + I
which is the equation for simple harmonic oscillation. Comparison with Eq. 15.5
shows that

(Physical pendulum) w = (15.16)

and

T = 21T ) I (15.17) Period of a physical pendulum

mgd
If the location of the center of mass and d are known, then a measurement of the
period allows us to determine the moment of inertia of the body.

EXAMPLE 15.7: The angular displacement of a simple pendu- Solution: (a) We are given 80 = O.I7T rad, 1> = 7T/6 rad, and w =
lum is given by 27T rad/s. Since w 2 = (giL), we have

8 = 0.17T sin(27Tt + i) rad g 9.8 m/s 2

L = w2 = (2 x 3.14 rad/s)2 = 0.25 m
The mass of the bob is 0.4 kg. Calculate: (a) the length of
the simple pendulum; and (b) the velocity of the bob at t =
0.25 s. (b) Since s = La, the velocity of the bob, v = ds Idt , is
312 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS

- L dO its center, so d = Ll2 in Eq. 15.17. The period is

v- dt

= (0.25 m)(0.17r)(21T) + T = 21T mgLl2 = 21T

m
"VIi
= -0.123 m/s (b) Comparing Eq. 15.17 with T = 21Tvrrg for a simple pendu-
lum, we see that the period of a physical pendulum is the same
as that of an "equivalent" simple pendulum of length
EXAMPLE 15.8: A uniform rod of mass m and length L is
freely pivoted at one end. (a) What is the period of its oscilla-
tion? (b) What is the length of a simple pendulum with the same
period? For the uniform rod
Solution: (a) The moment of inertia of a rod about one end is mL2/3 2L
1= tmL 2 (Eq. 11.18). The center of mass of a uniform rod is at L eq = (mLl2) = 3

If the angular amplitude of a pendulum is large, the small-angle approximation

sin (} = (} ceases to be valid. As a result, the oscillations are no longer simple
harmonic. In fact, the period increases as the angular amplitude increases (see
Problem 11). In practice, frictional losses cause the amplitude, and therefore the
period, of a pendulum to diminish in time. In a grandfather clock a falling weight
drives a mechanism that compensates for such energy losses. By keeping the
amplitude constant, it also ensures more accurate timekeeping.

Torsional Pendulum
Consider a body, such as a disk or a rod, suspended at the end of a wire, as shown
in Fig. 15.12. When the end of the wire is twisted by an angle (}, the restoring
torque T obeys Hooke's law: T = -K(}, where K is called the torsional constant. If
the wire is twisted and released, the oscillating system is called a torsional pendu-
lum. The rotational form of Newton's second law, T = la, is
d 2 (}
-K(} = I dt 2

which may be written in the form

FIGURE 15.12 A torsional pendulum.
The restoring torque due to a twisted d 2(} K
wire or fiber is proportional to the dt2 + I (} = 0
angle of twist. Thus, the motion is
simple harmonic. This is the equation of a simple harmonic oscillator with an angular frequency

(Torsional pendulum) (15.18)

and a period

Period of a torsional pendulum T = 21T -JJ; (15.19)

Notice that we did not use the small-angle approximation. As long as the elastic
limit of the system is not exceeded, it will execute simple harmonic motion. The
balance wheel connected to the hairspring in a wristwatch is also a torsional
pendulum.
 15.5 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS (OPTIONAL) 313

15.5 DAMPED OSCILLAnONS (Optional) y < 2mwo, must be satisfied. When w' is real, the oscillations
are underdamped, as illustrated in Fig, 15.14. The amplitude
Thus far we have ignored the inevitable energy losses that oc- decays according to
cur in real situations. Such losses may arise from external fluid
resistance or from "internal friction" within a system. The en- (Underdamped) ACt) = Aoe-Ylf2m (15.24)
ergy, and consequently the amplitude, of such a damped oscil-
The damped period is T' = 21rlw'.
lator decrease in time. To formulate the equation for damped
oscillations, we consider the situation depicted in Fig. 15.13
x
which shows a block immersed in a liquid. When the velocity is
low, the damping is due to a resistive force f that is proportional
to the velocity (see Section 6.4):
"y < 2m",0
f = -yv (15.20)
where y, measured in kg/s, is the damping constant. If we
ignore the buoyancy of the fluid, Newton's second law applied
to the block is
dx d 2x
F = -kx - y dt = m dt 2
where x is the displacement from equilibrium. (The prime used FIGURE 15.14 In an underdamped oscillation the system
in Example 15.4 is dropped for simplicity.) This equation may oscillates with an exponentially decaying amplitude,
be written in the form
When the damping is so large that y > 2mwo, w' is an
d 2x dx
m dt 2 + y dt + kx = 0 (15.21) imaginary number. In this case there is no oscillation and the
system moves slowly back to its equilibrium position, as shown
in Fig. 15.15. Hinged doors that close automatically and cueing
devices on tonearms of turntables are overdamped•

•T
-)'0 -ks.

t
i > 2m",0

l'

FIGURE 15.13 The oscillations of a block are damped when it is
immersed in a fluid. In a real system, energy losses within the
spring itself also lead to damping.
This form of differential equation arises in other mechanical or
nonmechanical damped oscillations. Experience tells us that
the mass will oscillate with ever-decreasing amplitude. As you
can verify by substitution, the solution to Eq. 15.21 is
x = Aoe-y/f2m cos(w't + cP) (15.22)
The damped angular frequency w' is given by
FIGURE 15.15 In critical damping (oy = 2mwo) the system
approaches the equilibrium position most rapidly, In an
overdamped system (oy > 2mwo), the system approaches
equilibrium slowly.
When y = 2mwo, we have w' = 0 and again there is no
oscillation. This condition of critical damping leads to the short-
est time for the system to return to equilibrium and is also
shown in Fig. 15.15. Critical damping is used in the movements
of electrical meters to damp the oscillations of the needle. The
suspension system of a car is adjusted to have somewhat less
than critical damping. When a fender is pressed down and re-

w' = - (2:J (15.23)

leased, the car executes perhaps one and a half oscillations
before coming to rest.

The damped angular frequency w' is less than the natural angu- EXAMPLE 15.9: A O.5-kg block is attached to a spring (k =
lar frequency, Wo = -...IiJin. 12.5 N/m). The damped frequency is 0.2% lower than the natu-
For w' to be real, the condition y/2m < we, or equivalently ral frequency. (a) What is the damping constant? (b) How does
314 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS

the amplitude vary iIi time? (c) What is the critical damping where {) is the phase angle between the displacement x and the
constant? external force F. Notice that the amplitude is constant in time
and that We is the angular frequency of the external driving
Solution: (a) The natural angular frequency is Wo = Vkim = 5
force. When Eq. 15.26 is substituted into Eq. 15.25, we are led
rad/s. The damped angular frequency is w' = 0.998 Wo = 4.99
to conclude (the details are omitted)
rad/s. From Eq. 15.23,
y2 = 4m2(w6 - w'2) A(w) = Fo/m (15.27)
e V(w6 - + (yw e /m)2
This yields y = 0.316 kg/so
(b) From Eq. 15.24 Each driving frequency is characterized by its own amplitude,
as shown in Fig. 15.17. At We = 0, the amplitude is merely the
A(t) = Aoe-03161 static extension Fo/mw5 = Fo/k. As the external angular fre-
(c) The critical damping constant is quency We is increased, the amplitude rises until it reaches a
maximum at W max , which is somewhat below Wo0 At higher fre-
y = 2mwo = 5 kg/s quencies, the amplitude again decreases. Such a response is
This is considerably larger than that found in part (a). called resonance and W max is called the resonance angular fre-
quency. When y is small, the resonance curve is narrow and the
peak occurs close to the natural angular frequency W00 For large
15.6 FORCED OSCILLATIONS (Optional)
y, the resonance is broad and the peak is shifted to lower fre-
The loss in energy of a damped oscillator may be compensated quencies. The value of y may be so large that there is no reso-
for by work done by an external agent. For example, a child on nance. At the resonance frequency the external force and the
a swing can be kept in motion by appropriately timed pushes velocity of the particle are in phase. As a result, the power
(Fig. 15.16). In many instances, the external driving force var- transfer (P = F . v) to the oscillator has its maximum value. At
ies sinusoidally at some angular frequency We' We assume frequencies above or below the resonance value, the force and
F(t) = F o cos wet. Newton's second law applied to such a forced velocity are not in phase, so the power transfer is lower.
or driven oscillator yields
d 2x dx A (w)
m dt 2 + Y dt + kx = F o cos wet (15.25)
6 Folk

m",o
·r

mwo
"1'=--
2

Folk 1--::::"'_-

L..-_ _--'-_ _-----l--l.-_ _-----l'--- '"

0.5"'0 1. 5w o

FIGURE 15.16 A child can be kept swinging by appropriately

timed pushes.
When the force is first applied, the motion is complex. How-
ever, the system ultimately settles into a steady-state oscilla-
tion. At this stage the energy dissipated by the damping is ex-
actly balanced by the external input. The steady-state solution
to Eq. 15.25 is
x = A cos(wet + 8) 05.26)
FIGURE 15.17 The amplitude of a driven oscillator displays a
resonance as the angular frequency of the external agent is varied.
For large damping, the peak occurs below the natural angular
frequency Wo and resonance is broad.
Even large-scale structures, such as towers, bridges, and
airplanes, can oscillate. If the frequency of the driving mecha-
nism is close to the natural frequency, the object can literally be
shaken to pieces. A dramatic example of resonance is the col-
lapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington. The wind
 SUMMARY 315

flowing past the structure set the bridge into one of its natural in electrical circuits, which is vital to the transmission and re-
modes of vibration, as in Fig. 15.18a. After a couple of hours ception of radio and TV signals. Resonance also plays a role in
the amplitude became so large that the center span disinte- atomic and nuclear processes.
grated (Fig. 15.18b). In later chapters we will discuss resonance

(a) (b)
FIGURE 15.18 (a) In July 1940, high winds set the Tacoma Narrows Bridge into oscillation. (b)
After a couple of hours, the center span collapsed.

SUMMARY
In a simple harmonic oscillation the amplitude A is constant and the period T is
independent of the amplitude. The variation of the physical quantity is given by
x = A sin(wt + cb)
where w is the angular frequency. The phase constant <P is determined by the
values of x and dx/dt at a given time, such as t = O. For a mechanical system to
execute simple harmonic motion, the force or torque restoring the system to
equilibrium must obey Hooke's law. The total energy of a simple harmonic oscil-
lator is constant in time.
All simple harmonic oscillators obey a differential equation of the form
d 2x ,
-d)
t-
+ w-x = 0

In mechanical examples, this equation is a disguised form of Newton's second

law. The angular frequency and period of the oscillation of a block of mass m
attached to a spring whose constant is k is given by
T
w = \/ m
T 211' 211'
=
(lJ
=
VI
The energy of the block-spring system is
316 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS

The energy of any simple harmonic oscillator is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
Within the small-angle approximation, the angular frequency and period of a
simple pendulum of length L are

T = 27T I;
The angular frequency of a physical pendulum of mass m and moment of inertia 1
IS

w =

where d is the distance from the pivot to the center of mass. The angular fre-
quency of a torsional pendulum of moment of inertia 1 is
r;
w = \Ij
where K is the torsional constant.
In the presence of friction, or some other mechanism that causes the energy tc
decrease, the oscillations are damped. That is, the amplitude decreases in time. 11
is possible to compensate for the energy loss by applying an external force tha1
varies sinusoidally in time. As the frequency of the driving force is changed, the
amplitude reaches a maximum at a certain resonance frequency that is close to the
natural frequency of oscillation.

ANSWERS TO IN-CHAPTER EXERCISES

1. From Eq. 15.5 we know a = -uh = -(12 rad/s)2( -0.05
m) = 7.2 rnls 2.
2. (a) The acceleration is a = dv/dt = -5 sin(lOt + 7T/2) = - 2.5
rnls 2 at both times.
(b) Fsp = -kx = -(200 N/m)(0.05 m) sin(107T/15 + 7T/2) = +5
N.
3. Since E = K + U and K = U, we have U = E/2. Thus, tkx 2 =
ikA2, which leads to x = ± A/V2 = 0.7A.
4. From E = tmv2 + tkx 2 = tkA 2 , we have
(0.2 kg)(O.4 m/s)2 + (5 N/m)(O.06 m)2 = (5 N/m)A2
which yields A = 0.1 m.
5. Set dE/dx = mv dv/dx + kx = 0 and use the chain rule
dv/dx = (dv/dt)(dt/dx).

QUESTIONS
1. Does either of the following execute simple harmonic mo-
tion: (a) an arm or leg allowed to swing freely; (b) a tonearm
tracing a warped record?
2. If the amplitude of a simple harmonic oscillator is doubled,
how are the following quantities affected: (a) frequency; (b)
phase constant; (c) maximum speed; (d) maximum acceler-
ation; (e) total energy?
3. A block-spring system undergoes simple harmonic motion
at frequency f. How many times per cycle do the following
conditions occur: (a) the speed is a maximum; (b) the accel-
eration is zero; (c) the kinetic energy equals 50% of the
potential energy; (d) the potential energy equals the total
energy?
4. A simple pendulum is suspended from the roof of an eleva
tor. How is its period affected when the elevator's acceler
ation is (a) upward? (b) downward?
5. A block oscillates at the end of a vertical spring suspendec
from the roof of an elevator. How is the period affectel
when the elevator accelerates (a) upward? (b) downward'
6. A particle executes simple harmonic motion with a perioc
T. It takes a time T/4 to travel from x = -A to x = O. Is thl
time to travel from x = -A/2 to x = A/2 (a) less, (b) th
same, or (c) greater?
7. An open cart oscillates on a frictionless horizontal surfac,
at the end of spring. How are the total energy and periol
affected if a block with the same mass is dropped verticall:
 EXERCISES 317

into the cart (a) when x = A, or (b) when x = O?
8. Two suspended balls undergo repeated elastic collisions at
the lowest point in their swings, as shown in Fig. 15.19. Is
this motion simple harmonic?
17. A simple pendulum is suspended from the roof of a truck.
How is the period affected when the truck accelerates hor-
izontally?
18. Discuss qualitatively the effect of the mass of a real spring
on the period of a block-spring system.
19. Figure 15.20 shows a method by which the mass of an
astronaut in stable orbit can be determined. What is the
procedure?

FIGURE 15.19 Question 8.

9. If you were given a stopwatch and a ruler, how cO,'lid you

roughly estimate the mass of an arm, or a leg?
10. A particle executes simple harmonic motion in one dimen-
sion with amplitude A and period T. What is the average
speed (a) for one quarter cycle between x = 0 and x = ± A,
and (b) for one complete oscillation?
11. Even in the absence of air resistance, a mass oscillating at
the end of spring eventually stops. Why does this occur?
U. Use qualitative reasoning to show that a simple pendulum FIGURE 15.20 Question 19.
cannot execute true simple harmonic motion. (Hint: Con-
sider the restoring force at a large angular displacement
from the vertical.)
13. Why are marching soldiers ordered to break step when they 20. A ball rolls down one incline and up another as shown in
cross a small bridge? Fig. 15.21. Ignore frictional losses. (a) Is the motion peri-
14. The displacement of a particle is given by x = A cos wt. odic? (b) Is there a point of stable equilibrium? (c) Is the
What is the phase constant in terms of the standard form motion simple harmonic?
x = A sin(wt + ¢J) used in the text?
15. A block oscillates at the end of a spring. The spring is cut in
half and the block is attached to one of the smaller springs.
Is the new period longer or shorter? Explain your answer
qualitatively.
16. Simple harmonic motion occurs when the potential energy
is quadratic in the displacement from equilibrium. Does a
particle sliding without friction on the inside of a bowl with
a parabolic shape execute simple harmonic motion? FIGURE 15.21 Question 20.

EXERCISES
15.1 and 15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion; The Block-Spring Sys- 0.03 sin(201Tt + 1T/4) m. What are the first times (>0) at
tem which the following quantities have their maximum (>0)
values: (a) the displacement; (b) the velocity; (c) the accel-
1. (1) The displacement from equilibrium of a particle is given
eration?
by x = A cos(wt - 1T/3). Which, if any, of the following are
equivalent expressions: 3. (II) When two adults of total mass 150 kg enter a car of
(a) x = A cos(wt + 1T/3); (c) x = A sin(wt + 1T/6); mass 1450 kg, the car is lowered by 1 cm. (a) What is the
(b) x = A cos(wt + 51T/3); (d) x = A sin(wt - 51T/6)? spring constant of the suspension system? (b) What is the
2. (II) The displacement of a particle is given by x = period of oscillation when the loaded car hits a bump?
318 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS
4. (I) The displacement of a block attached to a spring is given
by x = 0.2 sin(l2t + 0.2) m. Find: (a) the acceleration when
x = 0.08 m; (b) the earliest time (>0) at which x = +0.1 m
with u < O.
5. (I) The condition lui = 0.5u max , where Umax is the max-
imum speed, occurs four times in each cycle in the oscil-
lation of a block-spring system. Determine the first four
times (>0) given that the displacement from equilibrium is
x = 0.35 cos(3.6t - 0.5) m.
6. (I) A block attached to a spring is displaced from equilib-
rium to the position x = + A and released. The period is T.
At what positions and times during the first complete cycle
do the following conditions occur: (a) lui = 0.5u max , where
Umax is the maximum speed; (b) lal = 0.5a max , where a max is
the maximum magnitude of the acceleration? Specify your
answer in terms of A and T.
7. (II) A block of mass m = 0.5 kg is attached to a horizontal
spring whose spring constant is k = 50 N/m. At t = 0.1 s,
the displacement x = -0.2 m and the velocity u = +0.5
mls. Assume x(t) = A sin(wt + rf». (a) Find the amplitude
and the phase constant. (b) Write the equation for x(t). (c)
When does the condition x = 0.2 m and u = -0.5 m/s occur
for the first time?
8. (II) In a block-spring system m = 0.25 kg and k = 4 N/m.
At t = 0.15 s, the velocity is u = -0.174 m/s and the
acceleration a = +0.877 m/s 2 • Write an expression for the
displacement as a function of time, x(t).
9. (II) A block of mass 0.5 kg attached to a vertical spring
extends it by 0.16 m. It is pulled down a further 0.08 m and
released. (a) Write the equation for the displacement from
equilibrium, xU). (b) Find the speed and acceleration when
the spring extension is 0.1 m.
10. (II) With a block of mass m, the frequency of a block-
spring system is 1.2 Hz. When 50 g is added, the frequency
drops to 0.9 Hz. Find m and the spring constant.
11. (I) A block of mass 30 g oscillates with an amplitude of 12
cm at the end of a horizontal spring whose constant is 1.4
N/m. What are the velocity and acceleration when the dis-
placement from equilibrium is (a) -4 cm; (b) 8 cm?
12. (II) Find the period for each of the spring combinations
shown in Fig. 15.22. Assume each block slides on a friction-
less horizontal surface.
13. (II) A particle moves at constant speed in a circle. Show
that the projection of the tip of the position vector of the
particle onto a diameter exhibits simple harmonic oscilla-
tion.
15.3 Energy in SHM
14. (II) The displacement of a 50-g block attached to a horizon-
tal spring (k = 32 N/m) is given by x = A cos wt, where A =
20 cm. Find: (a) the kinetic and potential energies at t =
0.2T, where T is the period; (b) the kinetic and potential
energies at x = A12; (c) the times at which the kinetic and
potential energies are equal.
(bJ
kl
FIGURE 15.22 Exercise 12.
15. (II) The displacement of a block of ITlaSS 80 g attached to a
spring whose spring constant is 60 N/m is given by x = A
sin wt, where A = 12 cm. In the first complete cycle find the
values of x and t at which the kinetic energy is equal to one-
half the potential energy.
16. (I) An atom of mass 10- 26 kg executes simple harmonic
oscillation about its equilibrium position in a crystal. The
frequency is 10 12 Hz and the amplitude is 0.05 nm. Find: (a)
its total energy; (b) its maximum speed; (c) its maximum
acceleration; (d) the effective spring constant.
17. (II) The displacement of a block attached to a horizontal
spring whose spring constant is 12 N/m is given by x = 0.2
cos(4t - 0.8) m. Find: (a) the mass of the block; (b) the total
energy; (c) the earliest time (t > 0) when the kinetic energy
equals one-half the potential energy; (d) the acceleration at
t = 0.1 s.
18. (I) A cart of mass m is attached to a horizontal spring and
oscillates with amplitude A. When x = A, a block of mass
m/2 is dropped vertically into the cart. How are the follow-
ing quantities affected: (a) the amplitude; (b) the total en-
ergy; (c) the period; (d) the phase constant?
19. (II) A 50-g block is attached to a vertical spring whose
stiffness constant is 4 N/m. The block is released at the
position where the spring is unextended. (a) What is the
maximum extension of the spring? (b) How long does it
take the block to reach the lowest point?
20. (I) A 60-g block attached to a horizontal spring is held at 8
cm from its equilibrium position and released at t = O. Its
period is 0.9 s. Find: (a) the displacement x at 1.2 s; (b) the
velocity when x = - 5 cm; (c) the acceleration when x = - 5
cm ; (d) the total energy.
21. (I) Show that for any given value of the displacement x of a
block attached to a spring, the velocity is given by
u = ± wYA2 - x 2
where w is the angular frequency and A is the amplitude.

15.4 Pendulums
22. (II) A simple pendulum consists of a bob of mass 40 g and a
string oflength 80 cm. At t = 0, the angular displacement is
(j = 0.15 rad and the velocity is v = 60 cm/s. Find: (a) the
angular amplitude and phase constant; (b) the total energy;
(c) the maximum height above the equilibrium position.
23. (II) Determine the period of a meter stick when it is pivoted
about a horizontal axis at (a) one end, and (b) at the 60-cm
mark. The moment of inertia of a uniform rod of mass M
and length L about an axis through the center and perpen-
dicular to the rod is I eM = ML 2/12. (You will need the
parallel axis theorem, Eq. 11.16.)
24. (II) Determine the period of a uniform disk of mass M and
radius R pivoted about a horizontal axis at the rim. The
moment of inertia is I = 3MR2/2.
25. (I) A wire has a torsional constant K = 2 N·m/rad. A disk of
radius R = 5 cm and mass M = 100 g is suspended at its
center (see Fig. 15.23). What is the frequency of torsional
oscillations? The moment of inertia ofthe disk is I = 1MR2.
FIGURE 15.23 Exercise 25.
26. (I) A rod of length L = 50 cm and mass M = 100 g is
suspended at its midpoint from a wire whose torsional con-
stant is 2.5 N'm/rad, as shown in Fig. 15.24. What is the
period of torsional oscillations? The moment of inertia of
the rod is I = ML 2/12.
FIG RE 15.24 Exercise 26.
27. (I) A simple pendulum of length 0.4 m is released when it
makes an angle of20° with the vertical. Find: (a) its period;
(b) the speed at the lowest point. (c) If the mass of the bob is
50 g, what is the total energy?
EXERCISES 319
28. (II) A rod suspended at its center oscillates as a torsional
pendulum with a period of 0.3 s. The moment of inertia is
1= 0.5 kg·m 2 • The period changes to 0.4 s when an object is
attached to the rod. What is the moment of inertia of the
object?
29. (I) A rod suspended at its midpoint oscillates as a torsional
pendulum with a period of 0.9 s. If another rod with twice
the mass but half the length were used, what would be the
period? Take 1= ML 2112.
30. (I) (a) What is the length of a simple pendulum whose pe-
riod is 2.0 s? (b) If the pendulum were taken to the moon's
i
surface, where the weight of the bob is that on earth, what
would be its period?
31. (I) The 20-g bob of a simple pendulum of length 0.8 m is
released at 30° to the vertical. Find: (a) the period; (b) the
angular displacement as a function of time, (j(t); (c) the
total energy; (d) the speed of the bob at (j = ISO.
32. (I) A simple pendulum oscillates with an amplitude of 20°
and a period of 2 s. How long does it take to travel directly
from -10° to + 10°?
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
33. (I) A 150-g particle oscillating in SHM travels 24 cm be
tween the two extreme points in its motion with an average
speed of 60 cm/s. Find: (a) the angular frequency; (b) the
maximum force on the particle; (c) the maximum speed.
34. (I) The displacement of a particle is given by x = 0.25
sin(57Tt + 7T/4) m. Find:(a) the period; (b) the amplitude; (c)
the phase angle; (d) the maximum speed; (e) the maximum
acceleration.
35. (I) The displacement of a particle is given by x = 0.25
sin(57Tt + 7T/4) m. At t = 0.2 s, find: (a) the position; (b) the
velocity; (c) the acceleration.
36. (I) The position of a particle is given by x = 0.16 sin(8t -
0.3) m. At t = 0.1 s determine: (a) the position; (b) the
velocity; (c) the acceleration.
37. (I) The simple harmonic motion of a particle has a fre-
quency of 1.2 Hz and a maximum acceleration of 4 m/s 2 •
Find: (a) the total distance traveled in one complete cycle;
(b) the maximum velocity.
38. (I) The maximum speed and acceleration of a 0.2-kg parti-
cle undergoing SHM are 1.25 m/s and 9 m/s 2 respectively.
(a) What are the angular frequency and amplitude? (b) Find
the speed when the displacement from equilibrium is 0.l2
m.
39. (I) A particle executing SHM takes 0.6 s to move between
the two extremes (turning points) which are 24 cm apart.
Find: (a) the amplitude and the angular frequency; (b) the
maximum speed; (c) the maximum acceleration.
40. (I) The maximum speed and maximum acceleration of a
particle executing SHM are 15 cm/s and 90 cm/s 2 , respec-
tively. Find: (a) the period; (b) the amplitude.
41. (I) A point on the diaphragm of a loudspeaker oscillates in
simple harmonic motion at 50 Hz with an amplitude of
320 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS
1 mm. Determine: (a) the maximum speed; (b) the maxi-
mum acceleration.
42. (I) The midpoint of a string on a guitar oscillates at a fre-
quency of 440 Hz with an amplitude of 0.8 mm. What are
(a) the maximum speed, and (b) the maximum acceleration
at that point?
43. (I) A particle moves in SHM about x = 0 along a straight
line with a period of 0.4 s. At t = 0, it has its maximum
positive acceleration of 28 m/s 2 . (a) Find the amplitude and
the phase angle, (b) Write the displacement as a function of
time.
44. (I) The position of a particle is given by x = 0.08 cos(5.l5t)
m. Determine the first time (t > 0) at which the following
quantities have their maximum (positive) values: (a) the
position; (b) the velocity; (c) the acceleration.
45. (I) A block attached to a spring oscillates with an amplitude
of 10 cm and a period of 2.5 s. What is the period if the
following changes are made: (a) the amplitude is doubled,
(b) the mass is doubled, (c) the spring constant is doubled?
46. (I) When a 25-g object is attached to a vertical spring, it
stretches by 16 cm. What would be the period if a 40-g
block were to oscillate at the end of the spring?
47. (I) In an oscillating block-spring system the spring constant
is 2.45 N/m, the amplitude is 16 em, and the maximum
speed is 56 cm/s. What is the mass of the block?
48. (I) A 0.19-kg block attached to a horizontal spring is pushed
so that the spring is compressed by 22.5 em and then re-
leased at t = O. It first comes to instantaneous rest at t =
0.35 s. Find: (a) the spring constant; (b) the maximum
speed; (c) the maximum acceleration.
49. (I) The 0.5-kg pan of a scale at a shop causes the vertical
spring to extend by 14 cm. When a fish is placed in the pan,
the system oscillates at 1.7 Hz. What is the mass of the
fish?
50. (I) When a 20-g block is attached to a spring, the system
oscillates at 1.4 Hz and the maximum speed of the block is
29 cm/s. Find: (a) the amplitude; (b) the spring constant; (c)
the average speed for one complete oscillation.
51. (I) A 20-g block attached to a spring oscillates with a period
of 0.5 s. At a certain instant its displacement from equilib-
rium is 4 cm and its velocity is - 33 cm/s. Use energy con-
siderations to find the amplitude.
52. (I) At a certain point in the oscillation of a block-spring
system the kinetic energy is 0.1 J and the potential energy is
0.3 J. The amplitude is 20 cm and the period is 0.8 s. Find:
(a) the spring constant; (b) the mass of the block.
53. (I) An 80-g block attached to a spring oscillates with an
amplitude of 12 em and a period of 1.2 s. Find: (a) the total
energy; (b) the maximum speed; (c) the speed when the
displacement from equilibrium is 6 cm.
54. (I) The total energy of a block-spring system is 0.2 J. The
mass of the block is 120 g and the spring constant is 40 N/m.
Find: (a) the amplitude; (b) the maximum speed; (c) the
displacement from equilibrium when the speed is 1.3 m/s;
(d) the maximum acceleration.
55. (I) An 80-g block oscillates with a period of 0.45 s. The total
energy of the system is 0.344 J. Find: (a) the amplitude; (b)
the maximum speed; (c) the speed when the displacement
from equilibrium is 10 cm.
56. (I) The position of a 60-g block attached to a horizontal
spring is given by x = 0.24 sin(l2t) m. (a) What is the speed
when x = 0.082 m? (b) What is the position when the speed
is 1.5 m/s? (c) What is the total energy of the system?
57. (I) The total energy ofa block-spring system is 0.22 J. The
block oscillates with an angular frequency of 14.5 rad/s and
an amplitude of 15 em. Find: (a) the mass of the block; (b)
the maximum speed; (c) the kinetic energy when the dis-
placement is 6 cm; (d) the potential energy when the speed
is 1.2 m/s.
58. (I) The total energy of a block-spring system is 0.18 J. The
amplitude is 14 cm and the maximum speed is 1.25 m/s.
Find: (a) the mass; (b) the spring constant; (c) the fre-
quency; (d) the speed when the displacement from equilib-
rium is 7 cm.
59. (I) At a certain instant in the motion of a block-spring
system the displacement is 4.8 cm, the velocity is 22 cm/s
and the acceleration is -9 m/s 2 • The spring constant is 36
N/m. Find: (a) the angular frequency; (b) the mass of the
block; (c) the total energy of the system.
60. (I) A block of mass 60 g is attached to a spring (k = 5 N/m).
At a certain time the displacement from equilibrium is 6 em
and the velocity is -32 cm/s. Find: (a) the total energy; (b)
the amplitude; (c) the maximum speed.
61. (I) A 75-g block is attached to a spring and oscillates with an
amplitude of 8 em. The maximum acceleration is 7.7 m/s 2 .
Find: (a) the period; (b) the total energy.
62. (I) A simple pendulum of length 1.4 m makes 8 complete
oscillations in 19 S. What is the acceleration due to gravity
at this location?
63. (I) What is the length of a simple pendulum that passes
through the equilibrium position once each second?
64. (I) A 0.32-kg metal sheet of irregular shape is pivoted 15 em
from its center of mass. The period is 0.45 S. What is the
moment of inertia about the pivot?
65. (I) A uniform rod of mass M and length L = 1.2 m oscillates
about a horizontal axis at one end. What is the length of the
simple pendulum that would have the same period? The
moment of inertia is MU/3.
66. (II) A particle moving in SHM passes through the equilib-
rium point (x = 0) once in each second. At t = 0 its velocity
at x = 0 is negative. The total distance traveled in each
complete cycle is 60 em. What is the displacement as a
function of time?
67. (II) A particle executing SHM about x = 0 travels a total
distance of 40 em in each cycle. Its maximum acceleration
is 3.6 m/s 2 • At t = 0 it is at its maximum positive displace-
ment. (a) Write the displacement as a function of time, (b)
When does the particle pass through the origin for the first
time (t > O)?
68. (II) A particle undergoes SHM. It is released from rest at

I = 0 when its displacement from equilibrium is 0.34 m. The
initial acceleration is -8.5 mls 2. (a) Write X(I), the position
as a function of time, (b) What is the maximum velocity? (c)
At what time (t > 0) does the maximum (positive) velocity
occur for the first time?
69. (II) At I = 0 the position and velocity of a particle moving in
SHM with an angular frequency of 6 radls are x = 0.15 m
and v = + 1.3 m/s. Determine: (a) the amplitude; (b) the
phase angle.
70. (II) A particle executes SHM about x = O. At a given in-
stant x = 2 cm; the velocity v = -8 cmls and the accelera-
tion a = -40.5 cm/s 2 • Find: (a) the angular frequency; (b)
the amplitude.
71. (II) A block attached to a spring is released at t = 0 with the
spring extended. The period of oscillation is 0.61 s. At I =
0.05 s, the velocity is -96.4 cm/s. What is the amplitude?
72. (II) A 50-g block moving at 60 cmls on a frictionless hori-
zontal surface collides with a pan of negligible mass at-
tached to a spring for which k = 7.5 N/m; see Fig. 15.25. (a)
What is the maximum compression of the spring? (b) How
long is the block in contact with the spring?
73. (II) Determine the phase constant in Eq. 15.2 for each of
the following conditions at 1= 0: (a) x = A; (b) x = -A; (c)
x = 0, v < 0; (d) x = A12, v > 0; (e) x = A12, v < O.
74. (II) A lO-g body is attached to one end of a horizontal
spring (k = 1.25 N/m) and is pulled 5 cm from the equilib-
rium position and released at I = O. Write the displacement
as a function of time.
75. (II) An unknown mass hangs at the end of a vertical spring.
When a 50 g-block is added, the spring extends an addi-
tional 38 cm. The period of oscillation without the 50-g
block was measured to be 0.8 s. Find: (a) the spring con-
stant; (b) the unknown mass.
76. (II) A block attached to a spring is initially held at rest with
the spring compressed by 15 em. At I = 0 the block is
released. The speed at the equilibrium point is 90 cm/s.
What is the displacement as a function of time?
77. (II) The displacement from equilibrium of a mass-spring
system is given by x = 0.08 sin(21Tt) m. When x = 0.05 m
determine (a) the acceleration; and (b) the velocity.
78. (II) A 0.32-kg block oscillates with an amplitude of 15 cm at
PROBLEMS
1. (I) A block of mass 0.5 kg moving on a horizontal friction-
less surface at 2.0 mls collides with and sticks to a massless
pan at the end of a horizontal spring whose stiffness con-
stant is 32 N/m, as shown in Fig. 15.25. Obtain an expres-
sion for X(I), the displacement from the equilibrium position
as a function of time.
PROBLEMS 321
the end ofa spring (k = 6 N/m). At 1= 0, x = 0 and v > O.
(a) Write the displacement as a function of time. (b) Deter-
mine the time it takes to travel from x = 3 cm to x = 12 em.
79. (II) Two simple pendulums have lengths of 81 cm and 64
em. They are released from the same angular position at the
same instant. Mter how much time will they both arrive at
their initial positions simultaneously?
80. (II) A meter stick pivoted at a distance d from the midpoint
oscillates with a frequency of 0.44 Hz. What is d? The
moment of inertia of a rod about its center is ML 2/12. (The
parallel axis theorem, Eq. 11.16, is needed. You will need
to solve a quadratic equation.)
81. (II) A uniform disk of mass M = 1.2 kg and radius R = 20
cm oscillates about a horizontal axis at a distance of 8 em
from the center. What is the period of oscillation? The
moment of inertia ofthe disk about a central axis is MR 2/2.
(The parallel axis theorem, Eq. 11.16, is needed.)
82. (II) A dumbbell consists of a thin rod of length L = 82 cm
and negligible mass with two small spheres at the ends. The
mass of each sphere is m. What is the period of oscillation
about a horizontal axis when the rod is pivoted at a point
L/4 from the center?
83. (II) The angular amplitude of a simple pendulum is 0.35 rad
and the speed at the lowest point is 0.68 m/s. Determine the
period.
84. (II) A simple pendulum has a length of 0.7 m. The speed of
the bob at the lowest point is 0.92 mls. Find: (a) the angular
amplitude; (b) the time it takes to go from the vertical posi-
tion to an angular displacement of 0.2 rad.
85. (II) The position of a block in a block-spring system is
given by x = 0.13 sin(4.71 - 0.23) m. What is the first time (I
> 0) at which the maximum (positive) value occurs for (a)
the velocity, and (b) the acceleration?
86. (II) A 6O-g block is attached to a spring (k = 24 N/m). The
spring is extended and the block is released at I = O. After
0.05 s the velocity is -0.69 m/s. Find: (a) the amplitude; (b)
the total energy.
87. (II) The amplitude of oscillation of a block-spring system is
20 cm. What is the displacement from equilibrium (a) when
the speed is one half the maximum value, and (b) when the
kinetic and potential energies are equal?
FIGURE 15.25 Exercise 72 and Problem I.
2. (I) A coin rests on the top of a piston that executes simple
harmonic motion vertically with an amplitude of 10 em. At
322 CHAP. 15 OSCILLATIONS
what minimum frequency does the coin lose contact with
the piston?
3. (II) A block of mass m is attached to a vertical spring via a
string that hangs over a pulley (l = !MR 2) of mass M and
radius R, as shown in Fig. 15.26. The string does not slip.
Show that the angular frequency of oscillations is given by
w2 = 2k/(M + 2m). (Hint: Use the fact that the total energy
is constant in time. See Example 15.6.)
FIGURE 15.26 Problem 3.
4. (II) A block of mass m = I kg is placed on top of another
block of mass M = 5 kg that is attached to a horizontal
spring (k = 20N/m), as shown in Fig. 15.27. The coefficient
of static friction between the blocks is IJ., whereas the lower
block slides on a frictionless horizontal surface. The ampli-
tude of oscillation is A = 0.4 m. What is the minimum value
of JL such that the upper block does not slip relative to the
lower block?
til
FIGURE 15.27 Problem 4.
5. (I) A small particle slides inside a frictionless spherical
bowl of radius R, as shown in Fig. 15.28. (a) Show that the
motion is simple harmonic for small displacements from the
lowest point. (b) What is the period?
10. (1) (a) What are the dimensions of the torsional constant K
11. (l) When the angular amplitude (Jo of a simple pendulum or a
FIGURE 15.28 Problem 5.
6. (II) Water fills a length e of a U tube, as in Fig. 15.29. The
water is slightly displaced and then allowed to move freely.
(a) Show that the liquid executes simple harmonic motion.
(b) What is the period?
7. (II) Show that the angular frequency W rnax at which the am-
plitude of a driven and damped harmonic oscillator reaches
a maximum is given by
,
W max =
(Hint: Take the derivative of Eq. 15.27.)
FIGURE 15.29 Problem 6.
8. (II) A block of density PB has a horizontal cross-sectional
area A and a vertical height h. It floats in a fluid of density
Pr. The block is pushed down and released. Show that it
executes SHM with angular frequency
W
w = Vp;h
9. (II) Figure 15.30 shows a block of mass M on a frictionless
surface attached to a horizontal spring of mass m. (a) Show
that when the speed of the block is v, the kinetic energy of
the spring is imu 2 • (b) What is the period of oscillation?
(Hint: First consider the kinetic energy of an element of
length dx. Assume that its speed is proportional to the dis-
tance from the fixed end. All parts of the spring are in
phase. For part (b) use the fact that the energy is constant.
1-1· ---,e------.j,I
fiGURE 15.30 Problem 9.
in the equation T = -K(J? (b) Start with the assumption that
the period of a torsional pendulum is a function only of the
moment of inertia I and K. Express the period in the form
T = PKY and use dimensional analysis to determine x and y.
(See Example 1.5.)
physical pendulum is not small, the first few terms in the
formula for the period are
(1
T 7'
= 10 + 4ISIn
. 2 (Jo
"2 + 649SIn
. 4 (Jo
"2 + . . .)
where To is the period for the simple harmonic motion.

Assume that To = 1 s. Use the above equation to calculate
the period for the following values of 80 : (a) ISO; (b) 30°; (c)
45°; and (d) 60°.
U. (I) (a) Write an expression for the mechanical energy E of a
system in which a block is attached to a vertical spring (as
in Fig. 15.7). Choose the position at which the extension is
zero as the zero for the gravitational and spring potential
energies Ug and Usp- (b) Use the condition dE/dt = 0 to
show that oscillations of the system are simple harmonic.
13. (II) Figure 15.31 shows a tunnel in a uniform planet of mass
M and radius R. At a distance r from the center, the gravita-
tional attraction is due only to the sphere of radius r (see
Example 13.5). Thus,
F = GmM(r) = mgr
r2 R
where M(r) = Mr 3/R3 and g = GM/R2. Show that Newton's
FIGURE 15.31 Problem 13.
PROBLEMS 323
second law for the motion along the tunnel leads to the
differential equation for simple harmonic motion:
d 2x g
dt2 + Ii x = 0
Estimate the period of the oscillation for the earth.
14. (I) A uniform rod of mass M and length L is pivoted about a
vertical axis at one end and attached to a horizontal spring
whose constant is k (see Fig. 15.32). Show that for small
angular displacements from the equilibrium position (indi-
cated by the dashed line) the oscillations are simple har-
monic. What is the period? The moment of inertia of the
rod is I = ML2/3.
FIGURE 15.32 Problem 14.