Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prevalence of Malaria Infection in Some Localities of Fayoum Governorate
Prevalence of Malaria Infection in Some Localities of Fayoum Governorate
By
Gomaa Desoky Eimam Hassanien
M.B., B.CH.
Demonstrator of Medical Parasitology
Faculty of Medicine
Fayoum University
Under supervision of
Prof. Dr. Maysa Mohamed Kamel
Professor of Medical Parasitology
Faculty of Medicine
Cairo University
Faculty of Medicine
Cairo University
2014
Acknowledgements
I offer my deepest thanks to Prof. Dr. Mona Mahmoud Hamed,
Head of Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo
University, for her kind support and persistent encouragement.
I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my supervisor
Professor Dr. Maysa Mohamed Kamel, Professor of Medical
Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, who gave me the
chance to start this work and to continue, with her encouragement,
scientific suggestions throughout this research work and extremely
unlimited efforts for revising this work.
I owe sincere thanks and everlasting gratitude to Dr.Naglaa Abd –
Elkhalek Al –shirbiny, Assistant Professor of Community Medicine ,
Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, for her moral support, valuable
suggestions and her guidance in the epidemiological aspect of this thesis .
Special thanks are extended to Dr. Samr Sayed Attia, Lecturer of
Medical Parasitology , Faculty of Medicine ,Cairo University, who gave
me help and provided me with facilities throughout the practical part of
this work and extremely unlimited efforts for revising and rewriting this
work.
Special thanks are extended to Dr. Gomaa Said
Mohamed,assistant Lecturer of Measurement and Evaluation , Faculty of
Education ,Fayoum University, for the statistical analysis of the data
reported in this thesis..
Also, I would like to express profound gratitude to Prof. Dr. Abd
El-Hamid Abd El-Tawab Sabry, Professor of Medical Parasitology,
Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, for his moral support.
I also appreciate the assistance I received from all staff members
in Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University,
throughout my work.
Finally, special deep rooted heartily thanks to my mother for her
love and support throughout my life. I also wish to thank my wife
Dr.Shimaa for her support and understanding during my study.
Abstract
The present work was carried on 600 cases, 500 from household
cases from El-Khaldia and Abo-Shanab villages, Abshoy
District ,Fayoum governorate and 100 selected cases from Fayoum Fever
and thick blood film for all cases in addition to malaria RDT applied to
the 100 selected cases. Three cases were diagnosed by malaria RDT;
while one case was positive by thick blood film.All positive cases were
I
SD Standard deviation
UN United Nation
UNMIS United Nation Missions In Sudan
VCS volume, conductivity, and scatter
WBC(s) White blood cell (s )
WHO The World Health Organization
μm A micrometre or micron
II
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
Malaria rapid test device positive for Plasmodium
1 38
falciparum
Malaria rapid test device negative for all Plasmodium
2 38
species
3 Malaria pf /pan rapid test. 39
4 Age groups of the household cases 41
5 Age groups of the selected cases 42
6 Gender distribution of household cases. 43
7 Gender distribution of selected cases. 44
8 History of travelling abroad in selected cases. 45
9 Drug intake in the household cases. 46
10 Drug intake in the selected cases. 47
11 Clinical symptoms detected in the household cases 48
12 Clinical symptoms detected in the selected cases 48
13 Clinical signs detected in the household cases 49
14 Clinical signs in the selected cases 50
Thick blood film showing ring stage of plasmodium
15 51
falciparum.
malaria (Pf/Pan) One Step Rapid Test applied for 100
16 52
selected cases
17 Malaria rapid test negative for all plasmodium species 53
III
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
1 Malaria in Egypt from 1960-2003. 6
2 Malaria in Egypt from 2004-2010. 7
Recorded indigenous malaria cases in Fayoum
3 8
governorate (1971- 2004)
4 Recorded imported malaria in Egypt from 1998-2004. 12
5 Age distribution of household cases 41
6 Age distribution of selected cases 42
7 Gender distribution of the household cases 43
8 Gender distribution of the selected cases 43
Number and percentage of household cases with
9 44
history of travel to Sudan
History of intake of anti-malaria drug in household
10 45
cases
Frequency of intake of anti-malaria drug in household
11 46
cases
12 Clinical signs detected in the household cases 49
13 Clinical signs detected in the selected cases 50
Distribution of positive cases as regard different
14 54
characteristics (history and clinical examination)
IV
Contents
Titles Pages
Introduction 1
Aim of the work 3
Review of Literature 4
Prevalence of malaria 4
Imported malaria, 9
Taxonomy 12
Anopheline vector 51
Diagnosis 21
Materials and methods 32
Results 40
Discussion 56
Summary and Conclusion 66
Recommendations 69
References 70
Arabic Summary
V
Introduction
Introduction
Forty-one percent of the world's population lives in areas where malaria is
transmitted (e.g., parts of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Central and South
America) (WHO, 2002).About 3.3 billion people -half of the world's population-
are at risk of malaria leading to about 250 million malaria cases and nearly one
million deaths every year. People living in the poorest countries are the most
vulnerable (WHO, 2009).
It has been shown that malaria infection increased with the decrease of
socioeconomic level of families, educational level of examined individuals and
among unemployed or students. The infection increased among those living in
1
Introduction
muddy or bad constructed houses near the breeding places of mosquitoes. Also,
it decreased significantly among individuals who owned animal sheds (Dahesh
et al., 2009).
2
AIM OF WORK
AIM OF WORK
area using thin and thick blood film, in addition to malaria pf/pan one
3
Review of Literature
Review of Literature
3
Review of Literature
4
Review of Literature
The last focus of malaria in Egypt was in Fayoum which became free
from transmission of malaria since 1998 and Egypt was certificated as free
of malaria. There were few annual imported malaria cases since the year
1998.
5
Review of Literature
6
Review of Literature
7
Review of Literature
Since 2000, the problem has grown and changed in at least four ways:
(i) in non-endemic countries with large and relatively affluent immigrant
populations (e.g. countries in North America and Western Europe),
immigrants returning home to endemic areas to visit friends and relatives
8
Review of Literature
have become a high-risk group among travellers; (ii) non endemic countries
take refugees from malaria-endemic areas; (iii)malaria cases are imported
with returning members of national armed forces and UN peacekeeping
forces; and (iv) malaria infections are often brought into countries by
temporary migrant workers (WHO, 2012).
01
Review of Literature
00
Review of Literature
3.2-Taxnomy
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Aconoidasida
Order: Haemosporida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus: Plasmodium
01
Review of Literature
3.3.1-Pre-erythrocytic development
After injection, sporozoites enter the circulation and rapidly target the
hepatic parenchymal cells and begin a phase of asexual reproduction. This
stage lasts on average between 5.5 (P. falciparum) and 15 days (P. malariae)
before the hepatic schizont ruptures to release merozoites into the
bloodstream (Smith et al., 2004). In P. vivax and P. ovale infections a
proportion of the intrahepatic parasites do not develop, but instead they rest
inert as sleeping forms or „hypnozoites‟ causing the relapses which
characterize infections with these two species. During the hepatic phase of
development, asexual multiplication takes place and many thousands of
merozoites are released from each ruptured infected hepatocyte. However, as
only a few liver cells are infected, this phase is asymptomatic for the human
host (Smith et al., 2008).
02
Review of Literature
03
Review of Literature
3.4-Methods of transmission:
3.5-Anopheline vector
04
Review of Literature
05
Review of Literature
3.6.1-Uncomplicated malaria
06
Review of Literature
years of age, while is less common in older children and adults because of
the acquisition of partial immunity. In areas of lower endemicity, the age
distribution of severe malaria is less well defined and may also occur in
adult semi-immune (Cook et al., 2009).
07
Review of Literature
Left untreated, the acute attack is self limiting but may last for several
months before spontaneous remission occurs. Severe complications of P.
malariae infection are rarely observed. However, recrudescences may occur,
more frequently during the first year and then at longer intervals, even after
30-50 years. P. malariae has no hypnozoite form, so recrudescences arise
from persisting blood stage. Asymptomatic P. malariae parasitaemia in
blood donors may cause transfusion malaria ( Harinasuta and
Bunnang,1988).
08
Review of Literature
11
Review of Literature
4.1- Microscopic diagnosis using stained thin and thick peripheral blood
smears (PBS):
10
Review of Literature
11
Review of Literature
12
Review of Literature
2009). Recently, a new RDT method has been developed for detecting P.
knowlesi (McCutchan et al., 2008).
13
Review of Literature
4.4-Serological tests
14
Review of Literature
4.5.1-PCR technique:
15
Review of Literature
4.5.3-Microarrays:
16
Review of Literature
17
Review of Literature
4.5.6-Mass spectrophotometry:
4.6-Culturing:
18
Review of Literature
21
Review of Literature
20
Materials and methods
Sampling
Blood samples were collected from all cases included in the study.
Samples were collected in sterile syringes labeled with patient name and date of
collection.
Thin and thick blood films were immediately prepared and stained. The
remaining whole blood samples were transferred to clean sterile dry tubes
containing EDTA. Blood specimens were stored at 2°C-8°C for up to 3 days or
at -20°C for longer storage.
Plan of work
All cases included in the present study were subjected to the following:
3. Immunological methods: by malaria pf/pan one step rapid test for detection
of plasmodium antigens in blood samples was performed only for 100 blood
samples obtained from 100 selected cases in Fayoum Fever Hospital.
23
Materials and methods
Clinical data were obtained from each case in the present study according
to a clinical sheet that included the following items:
2- Laboratory examination
Reagents:
22
Materials and methods
Blood samples were collected from all cases included in the present study and
examined (Chotivanich et al.,2006).
3. The patient's finger was cleaned with 70% ethyl alcohol and allowed to dry
4. The side of fingertip was picked with a sharp sterile lancet to obtain blood
drops.
C- The blood was smeared with a swift and steady sweep along the surface.
D- The film was allowed to air-dry and was fixed with absolute methanol.
E- The sample was stained with diluted Giemsa (1 : 20, vol/vol) for 20 min
F- The sample was washed by briefly dipping the slide in and out of a jar of
buffered water.
23
Materials and methods
G- The slide was then allowed to air-dry in a vertical position and examined
under a light microscope X100.
A- A blood spot was stirred in a circular motion with the corner of the slide.
C- The spot was stained with diluted Giemsa (1 : 20, vol/vol)for 20 min.
D- The slide was washed by placing the film in buffered water for 3Min.
E- The slide was allowed to air-dry in a vertical position and was examined
using a light microscope X1000.
3- Immunological methods:
The Malaria (Pf/Pan) One Step Rapid Test is a lateral flow chromatographic
immunoassay for the simultaneous detection and differentiation of antigens of
Plasmodium species in human blood samples or serum samples.
24
Materials and methods
Reagents
The Malaria (Pf/Pan) One Step Rapid Test comprises the following:
2) A nitrocellulose membrane strip containing two test bands (pf and pan bands)
and a control band (C band). Pf band is pre-coated with monoclonal anti-
pLDH antibody and polyclonal anti-pHRP-II antibodies by which the
infection with Plasmodia falciparum can be detected, the pan band is
precoated with monoclonal anti-pLDH antibody and polyclonal anti-pHRP-II
antibodies by which the infection with Plasmodim vivax,Plasmodium ovale
or Plasmodium malariae can be detected. While the control band (C band) is
coated with goat anti-mouse IgG .
3) Pipette dropper
4) Desiccant
5) Buffer
6) Package Inser
7) Timer
25
Materials and methods
2- The pouch was opened at the notch and device was removed. the test device
was Placed on a clean, flat surface .
5- The dropper was hold vertically, the entire specimen was dispensed into the
center of the sample well -1(w1) making sure that there were no air bubbles .
Interpretation of results
Negative test for all species was indicated by absence of pf and pan bands in
addition to the presence of C band.
26
Materials and methods
Figure (1): Malaria rapid test device positive for Plasmodium falciparum.
Figure (2): Malaria rapid test device negative for all Plasmodium species.
27
Materials and methods
28
RESULTS
RESULTS
The present study was conducted on a total of 600 cases from Fayoum
governorate during a period of 13 months from March 2013 to March 2014. Out
of these 600 cases, 500 cases were randomly from inhabitants of Abo –Shanab
and EL-Khaldia villages of Abshoy District in a random manner. The remaining
100 were selected from Fayoum Fever Hospital and were presenting with
symptoms suggestive of malaria as headache, fever or darkening of urine. The
data collection lasted for six months from June 2013 to December 2013.
All data were collected and statistically analysed and presented as follow:
04
RESULTS
The mean (average) age of household cases was 23.30 ± 17.70. Two
hundreds and thirteen of them (42.6%) were below eighteen years old and 287
(58.4%) were above eighteen years old as shown in table (5) and Figure (4) .As
regard 100 selected cases it was found that ages ranged from 1 to 83 years with
mean of 25.89±18.70 years old. Twenty nine of selected cases (29%) were
below eighteen years old and 71 of them (71%) were above eighteen years old
as shown in figure (5) and table (6). .
100
90
80
70
58.4
percentage
60
50 42.6
40
30
20
10
0
Childern Adult
Age
04
RESULTS
04
RESULTS
Frequency
Gender Percentage
Male 16 16%
Female 84 84%
Total examined populations 100 100 %
04
RESULTS
Frequency
Travelling abroad Percentage.
(Total= 500)
Yes 80 16%
No 420 84%
Total examined population 500 100 %
00
RESULTS
04
RESULTS
04
RESULTS
04
RESULTS
100%
90%
80%
70%
Percentage
60%
50%
40%
Figure30%
(11): clinical symptoms detected in the household cases.
20%
10%
0%
temperature rigors sweating darkening fever with
of urine coma
Symptoms
04
RESULTS
Hepatomegaly 33 6.6%
04
RESULTS
Hepatomegaly 11 11%
Pallor 80 80%
Total of populations
80 80%
have clinical signs
44
RESULTS
Figure (15): Thick blood film showing ring stage of Plasmodium falciparum
(magnification X1000).
44
RESULTS
Figure (16): malaria (Pf/Pan) One Step Rapid Test applied for 100 selected cases
44
RESULTS
Figure (17): Malaria rapid test negative for all Plasmodium species.
44
RESULTS
Variable Mean SD
Age (Years) 32.7 11.2
Variable N %
Male gender 3 100.0
Fever 3 100.0
Rigor 3 100.0
Sweating 3 100.0
Dark urine 0 0.0
Coma 0 0.0
Hepatomegally 0 0.0
Splenomegally 0 0.0
History of drug taking 3 100%
Coartem for 4 weeks
immediately after return from
sudan
40
RESULTS
Statistical Analysis
Data was collected, coded, translated to English to facilitate data
manipulation and double entered into Microsoft Excel and data analysis
was performed using SPSS software version 22 under windows 7.
Simple descriptive analysis in the form of numbers and percentages for
qualitative data, and arithmetic means as central tendency measurement,
standard deviations as measure of dispersion for quantitative parametric
data was done.
44
Discussion
Discussion
About 3.3 billion people; half of the world's population-are at risk of malaria
leading to about 250 million malaria cases and nearly one million deaths every
year. People living in the poorest countries are the most vulnerable (WHO,
2009). Forty-one percent of the world's population lives in areas where malaria
is transmitted (e.g., parts of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Central and South
America) (WHO, 2002).
The present study was conducted on a total of 600 cases from Fayoum
governorate during a period of 13 months from March 2013 to March 2014.Out of
these 600 cases,500 cases were selected from inhabitants of Abo –Shanab and
EL-Khaldia villages of Abshoy District in a random sampling. The remaining 100
were selected from Fayoum Fever Hospital and were chosen from those having
symptoms suggestive of malaria as headache, fever or darkening of urine.
All cases included in the present study were subjected to history taking, clinical
examination and laboratory examination (thin and thick blood film) for detection
of different malaria stages. Also, immunological method was done by malaria
pf/pan one step rapid test for detection of Plasmodium antigens in blood samples
collected from 100 selected cases in Fayoum Fever Hospital.
Blood samples were collected from all cases included in the study. Samples
were collected in sterile syringes labeled with patient name and date of
collection. For laboratory examination of samples thin and thick blood films
were immediately prepared and stained. The remaining whole blood samples
were transferred to clean sterile dry tubes containing EDTA. Blood specimens
were stored at 2°C-8°C for up to 3 days or at -20°C for longer storage.
Regarding age and gender, the examined cases ranged from 1 to 90 years with
average age of 23.73±17.89 years old. One hundred and sixty of participants
(32%) were males and three hundred and forty (68%) were females in the
65
Discussion
household cases and as regard 100 selected cases, Sixteen (16%) were males and
eighty four (84%) were females.
As regard gender and age of exposure to malaria; Rahman et al., (1993) showed
that males above 18 years old were more exposed to malaria than females and
those less than 18 years old were less exposed.
Risk of infection is often greater in men because they are more likely to migrate
to malaria-endemic areas for agricultural or mining work and more likely to
sleep outdoors during peak biting times of vector (Reuben, 1993).
Out of 500 household cases, 80 (16%) gave history of travel to malaria endemic
areas in addition to 9 cases of selected cases from Fayoum Fever Hospital. All
these cases gave history of travel to Sudan. Malaria appears to have been caught by
travel of persons to endemic country (Sudan) for working as in the present study,
all the three positive cases detected in the present work gave a history of traveling
to Sudan and this was in accordance with the Malaria Control Program reports that
published on WHO website in 2008.In this report, 23 cases of malaria were
discovered in Egypt in 2005, but they were imported from Sierraleon and Sudan.
They came immediately from the quarantine so no period of relapse.
65
Discussion
locally acquired cases in this study was diagnosed by the use of bone marrow
smears as they were negative by peripheral blood examination and that El-Gabal
El-Ahmar area (Cairo) was the most extensively infected region (37.4%). El-
Sharkia and El-Fayoum Governorates were next in order (18.7%) and (12.5%).
(El-Bahnasawy et al.,2010)
Malaria is an important threat not only for autochthonous populations, but also
for non-immune individuals travelling or working in malaria endemic areas.
According to the 2011 international travel and health book; approximately 125
million international travellers visit malaria-endemic countries yearly and over
10,000 cases are reported having malaria after returning home (WHO, 2011).
In the French Armed Forces, the annual incidence rate was 14 per 1,000 people
per year in 2006. Amongest French soldiers who served in Ivory Coast between
1998 and 2007, the annual malaria incidence rate ranged from 37 to 388 cases
per 1,000 people per years (Gaeten et al., 2013).
65
Discussion
As regard the 100 selected cases, ninety-nine (99%) had elevated body
temperature, 19 person (19%) had rigors, twelve persons (12%) had sweating,
four persons (4%) had darkening of urine and none with cerebral coma (0%).
Malaria paroxysms are defined by intense chills, fever and sweating caused by
new merozoites burst from the erythrocytes and infect more cells (Sadanand,
2010 ).
The study was in line with (Genton and D’ Acremont , 2001) who said that in
general, the majority of patients experience fever (>92%), chills (79%),
headaches (70%), and diaphoresis (64%) .
In the present study, fever was a constant symptom in malaria positive patients
and this was in accordance with the universal screening symptom for malaria in
65
Discussion
research studies (D’Acremont et al., 2010). In Fayoum, where the present study
was carried out, local clinical officers state that they must inquire about fever to
capture all cases of malaria.
On the contrary; Murray et al., (2007) stated that fever is not always a feature of
malaria, and signs may be unusual if prophylaxis has been given, and is partly
effective. Also; Sakaria et al., (2013) stated that the classic presentation of
malaria with paroxysms of fever is seen only in 50-70% of the patients. In
addition, Abdel-Wahab et al., (2012) studied the use of fever alone as a
presumptive prompt for anti-malarial treatment would result in a huge over-
treatment burden.
Bejon et al., (2010) reported that the clinical signs of malaria may be
nonspecific and parasitaemia accompanied by clinical symptoms consistent with
malaria does not necessarily imply clinical malaria especially in endemic areas.
Out of 500 population forty three persons (8.6%)had splenomegaly, thirty three
person (6.6%) had hepatomegaly and three hundred and twenty-nine persons
(65.9%) had pallor and as regard 100 selected cases, it was found that twelve
persons (12%)had splenomegaly ,eleven person (11%) had hepatomegaly and
eighty persons (80%)had pallor.
56
Discussion
Of particular interest was the high percentage of pallor (80%) among the
selected cases but this was not due to malaria as pallor was absent in the three
positive cases. Pallor is most probably due to anemia due to low socioeconomic
levels.
In the present study, some of population (3%) received antimalarial drug; Coartem
(artemether-lumefantrine ) as a therapeutic agent and this was in line with WHO
56
Discussion
Malaria diagnosis has for a long time, and particularly at community level,
depended on clinical diagnosis. However, this is unreliable due to the non-
specific nature of signs and symptoms of malaria leading to over-diagnosis and
over-treatment (Reyburn, 2010). Misdiagnosis can lead to inappropriate or
delayed treatment that has been implicated in malaria-associated deaths in
developed countries (Kain and Keystone,199).
Our results showed that the differences in detection rates of microscopy and
ABON PLUS (RDT) test are 0.16%, and 3% respectively. On the other hand,
reported studies from different countries of South Asia: Sri Lanka (Fernando et
al., 2004), Pakistan (Iqbal et al., 2003) .and Thailand. (Pattanasin et al.,2003)
that demonstrated 38%, 42%, 53% malaria positive cases were diagnosed among
studied groups using microscopy and RDTs. Also;Abdel-Wahab et al.,(2012)
showed that the differences in detection rates of microscopy, RDT test (45%,
42.5% respectively) in 120 clinically suspected cases.
56
Discussion
56
Discussion
In the present study, positive RDT with negative blood films may be explained
by treatment that clears parasitaemia with persistent of antigenaemia.
(WHO,2004). Other possible reasons include persistence of antigens due to
sequestration of malaria parasites from peripheral blood (Reyburn ,2006),
incomplete treatment, delayed clearance of circulating antigen (free or in
antigen-antibody complexes), and cross reaction with non- falciparum malaria,
rheumatoid factor or heterophile antibodies( Moody and Chiodini ,2002).
Thus, the slightly better RDT performance in our study is most likely due to two
facts. First, the study population consisted of non-immune, returning Sudan
travelers who typically have higher parasitemia levels than other studies’
populations in malaria endemic areas. Second, we compared the RDT to single
blood smears performed under “real world” conditions (rather than the gold
standard three tests read by expert malariologists) and finally hemolysis of the
blood during transport.
Therefore, it is important that the instruction for use (IFU) clearly mentions that
reading test results should be performed within the time specified in the IFU and
any test line becoming visible beyond the recommended reading time should be
ignored and this occurs clearly For One Step even reading a few minutes too late
resulted in some false positive P. falciparum test lines observed by the second
observer and explaining the low interobserver agreement.
56
Discussion
However, limitations should be considered in this study. The present study used
a limited and selected number of samples, precluding calculation of predictive
values and providing wide confidence intervals for non-falciparum results.
Besides, the present study has not used a collection of samples comprising all
four human Plasmodium species at different parasite densities for providing
relevant data on diagnostic accuracy.
56
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The present study was designed to study the prevalence of malaria in some
localities in Fayoum governorate ; in addition to study the demographic
criteria of the examined population incorporated in this study and to
determine the likelihood of acquisition of malaria infection in this area using
thin and thick blood film, in addition to malaria pf/pan one step rapid test to
detect plasmodium antigen in blood samples.
66
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
As regard the 500 household cases, 213 of participants (42.6%) were below
eighteen years old and 287 of them (58.4%) were above eighteen years old,
160 of them (32%) were males and 340 were females (68%).As regard the
100 selected cases it was found that ages ranged from 1 to 83 years with
mean (average) age 25.89±16.43 years old. Twenty nine of them (29%) were
below eighteen years old and seventy one (71%) was above eighteen years
old. Sixteen (16%) were males and eighty four (84%) were females.
66
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In the present study, positive RDT with negative blood films may be
explained by treatment that clears parasitaemia with persistent of
antigenaemia. Other possible reasons include persistence of antigens due to
sequestration of malaria parasites from peripheral blood, incomplete
treatment, delayed clearance of circulating antigen (free or in antigen-
antibody complexes), and cross reaction with non- falciparum malaria,
rheumatoid factor or heterophile antibodies.
66
RECOMMENDATIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
Malaria control programme should be strengthened along South Egypt
and Fayoum governorate and Oases to prevent reintroduction of malaria.
96
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Abdel-Wahab, M.; Ismail, K. and El-Sayed, N. (2012): Laboratory diagnosis
of malaria infection in clinically suspected cases using microscopic
examination, OptiMAL Rapid Antigen test and PCR. P.U.J., 5(1):59-66.
Amexo, M.R.; Tolhurst, G. and Barnish, I. (2004): Malaria misdiagnosis:
effects on the poor and vulnerable. Lancet, 364(9448):1896-1898.
Baas, M.C.; Wetsteyn , J.C.; Van Gool, T. (2006):Patterns of imported
malaria at the Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. J.
Travel. Med., 13(1): 2–7.
Baird, J.K. (2009): Neglect of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Trends Parasitol.,
23(11):533-539.
Bassiouny, H.K. (1996): Determination of epidemiological factors causing
the persistence of malaria transmission in Fayoum goveronorate, final report
Alexandria, WHO Reginal Office for the Eastern Mediteranean.
Bassiouny, H.K. (2001): Bioenvironmental and meteorological factors
related to the persistence of malaria in Fayoum goveronorate aretrosoective
study. East. Medit. Health J., 7(6):895-906.
Behrens, R.; Carroll, B.; Smith , V. and Alexander, N. ( 2008): Declining
incidence of malaria imported into the UK from West Africa. Malar. J.,
7:235.
Bejon, P.;Williams ,T.N.; Liljander, A.; Noor, A.M.; Wambua, J.;
Ogada, E. Olotu, A.; Osier, F.H.; Hay, S.I.; Färnert, A. and Marsh,
K.(2010): Stable and unstable malaria hotspots in longitudinal cohort studies
in Kenya. PLoS Med.,7(7): 10.
Bell, D.; Wongsrichanalai, C. and Barnwell, J. (2006): Ensuring quality
and access for malaria diagnosis: how can it be achieved? In: Evaluating
Diagnostics Review. Available from www.nature.com/reviews/micro.
Bhandari, P.L.; Raghuveer, C.V.; Rajeev, A. and Bhandari, P.D. (2008):
Comparative study of peripheral blood smear, quantitative buffy coat and
07
REFERENCES
modified centrifuged blood smear in malaria diagnosis. Ind. J. Pathol.
Microbiol., 51(1):108–112.
Bharti, A.R.; Patra, K.P.; Chuquiyauri, R.; Kosek, M.; Gilman, R.H.L. and
lanos-Cuentas, A. (2006): Polymerase chain reaction detection of
Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum DNA from stored serum
samples: implications for retrospective diagnosis of malaria. Am. J. Trop.
Med. Hyg., 77(3):444–446.
Briges, C.; Costa, A.D.; Freeman, L.; and Aucamp, I. (2006):
Development of an automated malaria discriminant factor using VCS
technology. Am. J. Clin. Path., 126(5):691-698.
Butcher, G.A. (1979): Factors affecting the in vitro culture of Plasmodium
falciparum and Plasmodium knowlesi. Bull. World Health Organ., 57 (S1):
17–26.
Chaijaroenkul, W.; Wongchai, T.; Ruangweerayut, R. and Na-
Bangchang, K. (2011): Evaluation of rapid diagnostics for Plasmodium
falciparum and P. vivax in Mae Sot malaria endemic area, Thailand. Korean
J. Parasitol., 49(1): 33-38.
Cheesbrough, M. (1999): District laboratory practice in tropical countries.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp, 178-309.
Chotivanich, K.; Silamut, K. and Day, N.P.J. (2006): Laboratory diagnosis
of malaria infection-a short review of methods. Aust. J. Med. Sci., 27:11–15.
Chotivanich, K.; Silamut, K.U.; Domsangpetch, R.; Stepniewska, K.A.;
ukrittayakamee, S.; Looareesuwan , S. and White, N.J. (2008) : Ex-vivo
short-term culture and developmental assessment of Plasmodium vivax.
Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 95(6):677–680.
Christopher, J.; Hopkins, H.; Ansah, E.; Leslie, T. and Reyburn, H.
(2008): Opportunities and threats in targeting antimalarials for the AMFm:
the Role of Diagnostics. Discussion paper prepared for the Consultative
Forum on AMFm- the Affordable Medicine Facility- malaria Available at
www.rrf.org.
07
REFERENCES
Clendennen, T.E.; Long, G.W. and Baird, K.J. (1995): QBC and Giemsa
stained thick blood films: diagnostic performance of laboratory technologists.
Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 89(2):183–184.
Cook, G.C.; Manson, P. and Zumla, A. (2009): Malaria. In: Manson's
tropical diseases. 22nd: Saunders; pp., 1201-1300.
Cooke, A.H.; Chiodin, P.L. and Doherty, T. (1999): Comparison of a
parasite lactate dehydrogenase base immunochromotographic antigen
detection assay with microscopy for the detection of malaria parasite in
human blood samples. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 60 (2):173.
Cox-Singh, J. Davis, T.M.; Lee, K.S.; Shamsul, S.S; Matusop, A.; Ratnam,
S.; Rahman, H.A.; Conway, D.J. and Singh, B. (2008):Plasmodium knowlesi
malaria in humans is widely distributed and potentially life threatening. Clin.
Infect. Dis., 46(2):165–171.
D’Acremont, V.; Lengeler, C. and Genton, B. (2010): Reduction in
the proportion of fevers associated with Plasmodium falciparum
parasitaemia in Africa: a systematic review. Malar. J., 9:240.
Dahesh, S.M.; Bassiouny, H.K. and El-Masry, S.A. (2009):
Socioeconomic and environmental factors affecting malaria infection in
Fayoum Governorate, Egypt. J. Egypt Soc. Parasitol., 39(2):511-523.
Daneshvar, C.; Davi, T.M.; Cox-Singh, J.; Rafa'ee, M.Z.; Zakaria, S.K.
and Divis, P.C. (2009): Clinical and laboratory features of human
Plasmodium knowlesi infection. Clin. Infect. Dis., 49(6):852-860.
Daoud, A.I.E. (2003): Malaria situation in Egypt, formal report by Ministry
of Health.
Doderer, C.; Heschun, A.; Guntz, P.; Cazenave, J.P.; Hansmann, Y.;
Senegas , A.; Pfaff, A.W.; Abdelrahman, T. and Candolfi, E. (2007): A new
ELISA kit which uses a combination of Plasmodium falciparum extract and
recombinant Plasmodium vivax antigens as an alternative to IFAT for
detection of malaria antibodies. Malar. J., 6:19.
Dollan, D.L.; Mu, Y.; Unal, B. and Sundresh, S. (2008): Profiling
humoral immune response to P. falciparum infection with protein
microarrays. Proteomics, 8(22):4680-4694.
07
REFERENCES
D'Ortenzio, E.; Godineau, N.; Fontanet, A.; Houze, S.; Bouchaud, O.
and Matheron, S. (2008): Prolonged Plasmodium falciparum infection in
immigrants, Paris. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 14:323-326.
El-Bahnasawy, M.; Dabbous, H. and Morsy, T. (2010): Imported malaria
as a threat to Egypt. J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol., 40(3):773-788.
Erdman, L.K. and Kain, K.C. (2008): Molecular diagnostic and surveillance
tools for global malaria control. Travel Med. Infect. Dis., 6(1-2):82–99.
Fernando, S.D.; Karunaweera, N.D. and Fernando, W.P. (2004):
Evaluation of a rapid whole blood immunochromatographic assay for the
diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria. Ceylon
Med. J., 49(1):7-11.
Gaeten,V.; Machault, T.; Meili, B.; Jean-Paul, B. and Christophe, R.
(2013): Environmental determinant of malaria cases among travellers. Malar.
J., 12: 87.
Genton, B. and D’Acremont, V. (2001): Clinical features of malaria in
returning travelers and migrants In : Travelers’ malaria.Schlagenhauf, P.
Hamilton: BC Decker: 371–392.
Ghosh, A.; Edwards, M.J. and Jacobs-Lorena, M. (2000): The journey of
the malaria parasite in the mosquito: hopes for the new century. Parasitol.
Today, 16(5): 196 - 201.
Ghosh, A.; Srinivasan, P.; Abraham, E.G.; Fujioka, H. and Jacobs-
Lorena, M. (2003): Molecular strategies to study Plasmodium-mosquito
interactions. Trends Parasitol., 19 (2): 94 - 101.
Gilles, H. M. (1993): Diagnostic methods in malaria. In: H. M. Gilles and D.
A. Warrell (eds.), Bruce-Chwatt's essential malariology, 3rd edition. Edward
Arnold, London, United Kingdom. pp., 78-95
Hanscheid, T.; Melo-Cristino, J. and Pinto, B.G. (2008): Automated
detection of malaria pigment in white blood cells for the diagnosis of malaria
in Portugal. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., (64):290–292.
Harb, M. (1994): Malaria situation in Egypt. Annual report, Ministry Of
Health and Population, Cairo.
07
REFERENCES
Harinasuta, T. and Bunnang, D. (1988): The clinical features of malaria.
In: Wernsdorfer, W.H. and McGregor, I. (eds), Malaria: principles and
practice of malariology. Churchill Livingstone. pp., 709-734.
Hassan, M. A.; Kenawy, H.; Abdelsattar, A. and Sowielm, M. (2003):
GIS-based prediction of malaria risk in Egypt. East. Mediterr. Health J.,
9(4):549.
Hawkes, M. and Kain, K.C. (2007): Advances in malaria diagnosis. Expert
Rev. Anti Infect. Ther., 5(3): 485-495.
Hay, S.I.; Guerra, C.A.; Tatem A.J.; Noor, A.M and Snow, R.W. (2004):
The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past, present and
future. Lancet Infect. Dis., 4(6): 327 – 336.
Henry, M.; Diallo, .;, Bordes, J.; Ka, S.; Pradines, B.; Diatta, B.;
M'Baye, P.; Sane, M.; Thiam, M.; Gueye, P . ; Wade, B.; Touze, J.;
Debonne, J.; Rogier C.; and Fusai, T.(2007): Urban malaria in Dakar,
Senegal: chemosusceptibility and genetic diversity of Plasmodium
falciparum isolates. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 75:146–151.
Holland, C.A. and Kiechle, F.L. (2005): Point of care molecular diagnostic
systems-past, present and future. Curr. Opin. Microbiol., 8(5):504-509.
Hurd, H.; Al-Olayan, E. and Butcher, G.A. (2003): In vitro methods for
culturing vertebrate and mosquito stages of Plasmodium. Microbes Infect.,
5(4): 321–327.
Iqbal, J.; Muneer, A.; Khalid, N. and Ahmed, M.A. (2003): Performance
of the OptiMAL test for malaria diagnosis among suspected malaria patients
at the rural health centers. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 68:624-628.
Izumiyama, S.; Omura, M.; Takasaki, T.; Ohmae, H. and Asahi, H.
(2009): Plasmodium falciparum development and validation of a measure of
intraerythrocytic growth using SYBR Green I in a flow cytometer. Exp
Parasitol., 121(2):144-150.
Jonkman, A.R.A.; Chibwe, C.O.; Khoromana, U.L.; Liabunya, M.E.;
Chaponda, G.E.; Kandiero, M.E. and Molyneux, T. E. (1995): Cost-
07
REFERENCES
saving through microscopy based versus presumptive diagnosis of malaria in
adult outpatients in Malawi. Bull. World Health Organ., 73:223-227.
Kain, K.C. and Keystone, J.S. (1998): Malaria in travelers. Epidemiology,
disease, and prevention. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am., 12:267–284.
Kamya, M.R.; Yeka, A.; Bukirwa, H.; Lugemwa, M. and Rwakimari,
J.B. (2007): Artemether-lumefantrine versus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine
for treatment of malaria: A randomized trial. Plos Clinical Trials 2.
Kenawy, M.A.; Beier, B.C.; Asiago, C.M.; El Said, S.E. and Roberts,
C.R. (1990): Interpretation of low-level Plasmodium infection rates
determined by ELISA for anophelines (Diptera: Culicidae) from Egyptian
oases. J. Med. Entomol., 27(4): 681 - 685.
Land, K.M. (2003): The mosquito genome: perspectives and possibilities.
Trends Parasitol., 19(3):103-105.
Lee, K.S.; Cox-Singh, J. and Singh, B. (2009): Morphological features and
differential counts of Plasmodium knowlesi parasites in naturally acquired
human infections. Malar. J., 8:73.
Leech, J.H.; Barnwell, J.W.; Aikawa, M.; Miller, L.H.; and Howard, R.
J. (1984a): Plasmodium falciparum malaria: association of knobs on the
surface of infected erythrocytes with a histidine-rich protein and the
erythrocyte skeleton. J. Cell Biol., 98(4): 1256-1264.
Leech, J. H.; Barnwell, J. W.; Aikawa, M.; Miller, L. H.; and Howard,
R. J. (1984b): Identification of a strain-specific malarial antigen exposed on
the surface of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. J. Exp. Med.,
159(6):1567-1575.
Li, T.; Glushakova, S. and Zimmerberg, J. (2003): A new method for
culturing Plasmodium falciparum shows replication at the highest
erythrocyte densities. J. Infect. Dis., 187(1):159–162.
Machault, V.; Orlandi-Pradines, E.; Michel, R.; Pagès, F.; Texier, G.;
Pradines, B.; Fusaï, T.; Boutin, J. and Rogier, C. (2008): Remote sensing and
malaria risk for military personnel in Africa. J. Travel Med., 15(4):216–220.
07
REFERENCES
Magill, A.J. (2006): Malaria: diagnosis and treatment of falciparum malaria
in travelers during and after travel. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep., 8(1): 35–42.
Makler, M.T.; Palmer, C.J. and Ager, A.L. (1998): A review of practical
techniques for the diagnosis of malaria. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.,
92(4):419–433.
Malvy, D.; Pistone, T.; Rezvani, A.; Lancon, F.; Vatan, R.; Receveur,
M.C.; Durand, I.; Hercberg, S. and El Hasnaoui, A.(2006): A. Risk of
malaria among French adult travellers. Travel Med. Infect. Dis., 4(5):259–
269.
Marchiafava, E. and Celli, A. (1885): Nouve recherché sulla infezione
malarica.Arch.Sci. infezione malarica. Arch. Sci. Med. Torino., 9:311–340.
McCutchan, T.F.; Piper, R.C. and Makler, M.T. (2008): Use of malaria rapid
diagnostic test to identify Plasmodium knowlesi infection. Emerg. Infect.
Dis., 14:1750–1752.
Michel, R.; Ollivier, L.; Meynard, J.; Guette, C.; Migliani, R. and
Boutin, J. (2007): Outbreak of malaria among policemen in French
Guiana. Mil. Med., 172:977–981.
Miller, L.H.; Roberts, T.; Shahabuddin, M. and McCutchan, T.F.
(1976): Analysis of sequence diversity in the Plasmodium falciparum
merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP-1). Mol. Biochem. Parasitol., 59(1): 1 - 14.
Ministry Of Health and Population – MOHP (2006): Egypt, malaria
report May, Cairo
Moloney, M.B.; Pawluk, A.R. and Ackland, N.R.(1990): Plasmodium
falciparum growth in deep culture. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 84:516–
518.
Moody, A. (2002): Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria parasites. Clin.
Microbiol. Rev., 15(1):66–78.
Moody, A. and Chiodini, P.L. (2002):Non-microscopic method for malaria
diagnosis using OptiMAL IT: A second-generation dip-stick for malaria
pLDH antigen detection. Br. J. Biomed. Sci., 59(4):228–231.
07
REFERENCES
Morassin, B.; Fabre, R.; Berry, A. And Magnaval, J.F. (2002): One year's
experience with the polymerase chain reaction as a routine method for the
diagnosis of imported malaria. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 66(5):503–508.
Mungai, M.; Tegtmeier, G.; Chamberland, M. and Parise, M. (2001):
Transfusion-transmitted malaria in the United States from 1963 through
1999. N. Engl. J. Med., 344(26):1973–1978.
Murray, C.K.; Gasser, R.A.; Magill, A.J. and Miller, R.S. (2008): Update
on Rapid Diagnostic Testing for Malaria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., (21): 97–
110.
Murray, L.; Ian, W.; Tom, T. and Chee, K.C. (2007): Malaria:treatment and
prophylaxis, cerebral malaria (Plasmodium falciparum), Oxford Hand Book
of Clinical Medicine. Oxford University Press, England, 385.
Nelder, M.; Russell, C.; Williams, D.; Johnson, K. and Li, L. (2013):
Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Demographic Profiles of
Imported Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax Infections in
Ontario, Canada (1990–2009). PLoS ONE 8(9): e76208.(Canada statistics,
chronological index ).
Ngasala, B.; Mubi, M.; Warsame, M.; Petzold, M.G.; Massele, A.Y.;
Gustafsson, L.L.; Tomson, G.; Premji, Z. and Bjorkman, A. (2008) : Impact
of training in clinical and microscopy diagnosis of childhood malaria on anti-
malarial drug prescription and health outcome at primary health care level in
Tanzania: a randomized controlled trial. Malar. J., 7:199.
Nigatu, W.; Abebe, M. and Dejene, A. (1992):Plasmodium vivax and P.
falciparum epidemiology in Gambella, South-West Ethiopia. Trop. Med.
Parasitol., 43(3): 181 - 185.
Ochola, L.B.; Vounatsou, P.; Smith, T.; Mabaso, M.L. and Newton, C.R.
(2006): The reliability of diagnostic techniques in diagnosis and management
of malaria in absence of a gold standard. Lancet Infect. Dis., (6):582–588.
Oh, J.S.; Kim, J.S.; Lee, C.H.; Nam, D.H.; Kim, S.H.; Park, D.W.; Lee, C.K.;
Lim, C.S. and Park, G.H. (2008):Evaluation of a malaria antibody enzyme
immunoassay for use in blood screening. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz.,
103(1):75–78.
00
REFERENCES
Ohrt, C.; Sutamihardia, M.A.; Tang, D. and Kain, K.C. (2002): Impact of
microscopy error on estimates of protective efficacy in malaria prevention
trials. J. Infect. Dis., 186(4):540–546.
Padial, M.M.; Subirats, M. and Puente, S. (2005): Sensitivty to laser light
depolarization analysis for detection of malaria in blood samples. J. Med.
Microbiol., 54(Pt 5):449-452.
Palacios, G.; Quan, P.L. and Jabado, O.J. (2007): Panmicrobial
oligonucleotide array for diagnosis of infectious diseases. Emerg. Infect.
Dis., 13(1):73-81.
Palmer, C.J.; Bonilla, J.A. and Bruckner, D.A. (2003): Multicenter study
to evaluate the OptiMAL test for rapid diagnosis of malaria in U.S.
Hospitals. J. Clin. Microbiol., 41(11):5178-5182.
Pattanasin, S.; Proux, S. and Chompasuk, D. (2003): Evaluation of a new
Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase assay (OptiMAL-IT) for the detection of
malaria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 97(6):672-674.
Payne, D. (1988): Use and limitations of light microscopy for diagnosing
malaria at the primary health care level. Bull. WHO, 66(5):621–628.
Radfar, A.;Mendez, D.;Moneriz, C.;Linares, M.; Marin-Garcia, P.;
Puyet, A.; Diez, A. and Bautista, J.M. (2009):Synchronous culture of
Plasmodium falciparum at high parasitemia levels. Nat. Protoc., (4):1899–
1915. Correct this reference in the text Radfar not Radfa
Raether, W.; Enders, B. and Hoffman, J. (1989): Antimalarial activity of
new floxacrine-related acridinedione derivatives:studies on blood
schizontocidal action of potential candidates against P.berghei in mice and P.
falciparum in vivo and in vitro. Parasitol. Res., 75(8):619-626.
Rahman, W.A.; Abu Hassan, A.; Adanan, C.R. and Abdul Hamid, K.
(1993): Malaria transmission in remote village located in northern peninsular
Malaysia near the malaysia-Tailand border. Trop. Biomed., (9):83-89.
Reuben, R. (1993): Women and malaria-special risks and appropriate
control strategy. Soc. Sci. Med., 37(4): 473–480.
07
REFERENCES
Reybun, H.R.; Mbita, C.; Drakel, I.; Carneiro, E.; Mwakasungula, O.;
Mwerind, K. ; Saganda, J.; Shao, A.; Kitua, R. and Olom, B.M.(2004):
Overdiagnosis of malaria in patients with severe febrile illness in Tanzania: a
prospective study. BMJ, 329:1212.
Reyburn, H. (2010): New WHO guidelines for the treatment of malaria.
BMJ, 340:c2637.
Reyburn, H.; Ruanda, J.; Mwerinde, O.; Drakele, C. (2006): The
contribution of microscopy to targeting antimalarial treatment in a low
transmission area of Tanzania:aprospective study. Malar J., 5:4.
Rosenberg, R.;Wirtz, R.A.; Schneide, I. and Burge, R. (1990):An
estimation of the number of malaria sporozoites ejected by a feeding
mosquito. Trans. Roy. Soc.Trop. Med. Hyg., 84(2):209-212.
Sachanonta, N.; Medana, I., M.; Roberts, R. and Jones, N. (2008):
Hostvascular endothelial growth factor is tropic for Plasmodium falciparum-
infected red cell. Asian Pac. J. Allergy Immunol., 26(1):37-45
Sadanand, S. (2010): Malaria: An Evaluation of the Current State of Research
on Pathogenesis and Antimalarial Drugs. Yale J. Biol. Med., 83: 185–191.
Sagui, E.; Resseguier, N.; Machault, V.; Ollivier, L.; Orlandi-Pradines,
E.; Texier, G.; Pages, F.;Michel, R.; Pradines, B.; Briolant, S.;
Buguet ,A.; Tourette-Turgis, C. and Rogier, C. (2011):Determinants of
compliance with anti-vectorial protective measures among non-immune
travellers during missions to tropical Africa. Malar. J., 10:232.
Sakaria, A.; Mahajan, S.; Desai, R. and Shah, K. (2013): Delayed
cerebellar ataxia: A rare self limiting complication of Plasmodium
falciparum malaria. Adv. Biomed Res., 2:27
Salak, L.A.; Akinyanju, O. and Afolabi, B.M. (1999): Comparison of the
standard Giemsa –stained thick blood film with Quantative Buffy Coat
Tecnique in malaria diagnosis in Nigeria. Niger Q.J. Hosp. Med., 9:256-269.
Schmidt, G.D. and Roberts, L.S. (1985): Phylum Apicomplexa: Malaria
and piroplasms.149 –178. In: Schmidt GD, Roberts LS. Foundations of
ParasitologyTimes ,Mirror/Mosby College Publishing, St. Louis, Missouri .
07
REFERENCES
Scholl, P.F.; Kongkasuriyachai, D. and Demirev, P.A. (2004): Rapid
detection of malaria infection in vivo by laser desorption mass spectrometry.
Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 71:546–551
Schuste, F. (2002): Cultivation of Plasmodium spp. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.,
15(3): 335-364.
She, R.C.; Rawlins, M.L.;Mohl, R.; Perkins, S.L.; Hill, H.R. and Litwin,
C.M. (2007): Comparison of immunofluorescence antibody testing and two
enzyme immunoassays in the serologic diagnosis of malaria. J. Travel Med.,
14(2):105–111.
Shehata, M.G.; Kenawy, M.A.; El Said, S.M.; Beier, J.C. and Gwadz, R.
(1989): Anopheles sergenti (Theobald) a potential malaria vector in Egypt.
Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp., 64(1): 72 - 76.
Smith, A.D.; Bradley, D.J.; Smith, V.; Behrens, R.; Chiodini, P.;
(2008): Imported malaria and high risk groups: observational study using UK
surveillance data 1987-2006. B.M.J., 337.
Szmitko, P.E.; Kohn, M.L. and Simor, A.E. (2008): Plasmodium
falciparum malaria occurring 8 years after leaving an endemic area. Diagn.
Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 63(1):105-107.
Tangpukdee, N.; Duangdee, C.; Wilairatana, P. and Krudsood, S.
(2009): Malaria diagnosis: a brief review. Korean J. Parasitol., 47(2): 93-102.
Taylor, T.E. and Strickland, G.T. (2003): In: Hunter's tropical medicine
and emerging infectious diseases. Hunter GW, Strickland GT. Eighth (eds).
Philadelphia: Saunders. pp, 614-643.
Warhurst, D.C and Williams, J.E. (1996): Laboratory diagnosis of malaria. J.
Clin. Pathol., (49):533–538.
Warrell, D.A.; Looareesuwan, S.; Warrell, M.J.; Kasemsarn, P.;
Intaraprasert, R. and Bunnag, D. (1993): Dexamethasone proves
deleterious in cerebral malaria. A double-blind trial in 100 comatose patients.
N. Engl. J. Med., (306):313-319.
World Health Organization (1996): WHO information consultation on
recent advances in diagnostic techniques and vaccines for malaria: a rapid
77
REFERENCES
dipstick antigen capture assay for the diagnosis of falciparum malaria. Bull
World Health Organ., (74):47–49.
World Health Organization (1999): The World Health Report 1999:WHO
Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.The world health report 1999:
Making a difference. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2002): The World Health Report: reducing
risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva, World Health Organization.
World Health Organization (2004): Africa malaria report, 2003. World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2006): Guidelines for the treatment of
malaria, (1):133–143. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2008): List of known commercially available
antigen-detecting malaria RDTs. World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2009): The World Health Report 2009:10
facts on malaria.
World Health Organization (2011): Guidelines for the treatment of
malaria, (2):13–15. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2011): International travel and health book.
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2012): WHO Global Malaria
Programme .World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2012): WHO malaria report 2011.World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Yaw, A.; Afrane, G.; Andrew, K. and Guiyun, Y. (2014):Clinical malaria
case definition and malaria attributable fraction in the highlands of western
Kenya. Malar. J., 13(1): 405
77
الملخص العربي
٠ؼزجش ِشع اٌّالس٠ب ِٓ األِشاع اٌطف١ٍ١خ اٌز ٟرٙذد ح١بح األٔسبٌْٙٚ ،ب ػٛالت طح١خ
ٚخّ١خ،فٕٙبن ِب٠مشة ِٓ ْٛ١ٍِ 033حبٌخ ِظبثخ ثٙزا اٌّشع غبٌج١ز ُٙف ٝأفش٠م١ب
ح١ثّب ٠ى ْٛاالؽفبي اوثش ػشػخ فِ ٛٙسؤي ػٓ ٚفبح حبٌخ ٌىً 5حبالد ٚفبح ٌٚمذ
طّّذ ٘زٖ اٌذساسخ ٌّؼشفخ ِذ ٞأزشبس اإلطبثخ ثّشع اٌّالس٠ب ف ٟثؼغ ِٕبؽك
ِحبفظخ اٌفٚ,َٛ١وزٌه ِؼشفخ اٌظفبد اٌذّٛ٠خشاف١خ الشخبص اٌذساسخ كما تم استخدام
الفحص المجهري لجميع حاالت الدراسة واختبار وحيد الخطوة السريع(االث ْٛثٍس)
ٌٍىشف ػٓ أز١دٕ١بد اٌجالصِٛد َٛ٠ف ٝػٕ١بد اٌذَ ٌٍّئخ شخض اٌز ٓ٠اخزٚا ثطش٠مخ
ِٕزمبح ِٓ ِسزشف ٝحّ١بد اٌفٚ َٛ١اٌّشزجخ ف ُٙ١اإلطبثخ ثبٌّالس٠ب إوٍ١ٕ١ى١ب
ٚلذ رُ فحض 033شخض ِٓ ث 533 ُٕٙ١شخض اخزٚا ثطش٠مخ ػشٛائ١خ ِٓ لش٠ز ٝاثٛ
شٕت ٚاٌخبٌذ٠خ ثبالػبفخ اٌ 033 ٝشخض اخزٚا ثطش٠مخ ِٕزمبح ِٓ ِسزشف ٝحّ١بد
اٌفٚ َٛ١اٌّشزجخ ف ُٙ١اإلطبثخ ثبٌّالس٠ب إوٍ١ٕ١ى١ب ٚرزشاٚذ اػّبس اشخبص اٌذساسخ ِٓ -0
03سٕخ ،ثّزٛسؾ ػّشٚ 30 ,30ٜثّؼذي أحشاف ٚٚ 03 ,90خذ ِٓ خالي
االسزمظبء أْ ِب٠مشة ِٓ 90شخض ( )%05لذ سبفشٚا اٌ ٝاٌ ٝاٌسٛداْ ٝ٘ٚدٌٚخ
ِٛثٛءح ثبٌّالس٠ب ٚٚخذ ا٠ؼب اْ 033شخض( )%32لذ رٕبٌٛٚا أد٠ٚخ ِؼبدح ٌٍّالس٠ب
ِٕ 033 ُٙشخض رٕبٌٛٚا اٌىٍٛسٚو )%03(05, )%92(ٓ٠ٛشخض رٕبٌٛٚا اٌىٛسر5,ُ١
أشخبص( )%2رٕبٌٛٚا اٌٍ١شَ.ثّٕ١ب رٕبٚي 0اشخبص ( )%0اٌىٛسر ِٓ ُ١اٌّبئخ حبٌخ
اٌزب٠ؼخ ٌّسزشف ٟحّ١بد اٌفَٛ١
ٚرج ِٓ ٓ١خالي اٌفحض االوٍ١ٕ١ى ٟاْ ِب ٠مشة ِٓ 20شخض (٠ )%9ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛرؼخُ
ثبٌطحبي 00 ,شخض (٠ )%0ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛرؼخُ ثبٌىجذ 030,شخض (٠ )%50ؼبِٔٓ ْٛ
شحٛة اٌٛخٗ ث ٓ١اشخبص اٌذساسخ إٌّضٌ١خ ثّٕ١ب ٚخذ اْ ِب ٠مشة ِٓ 03شخض
(٠ )%03ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛرؼخُ ثبٌطحبي 00 ,شخض (٠ )%00ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛرؼخُ ثبٌىجذ93,
شخض (٠ )%93ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛشحٛة اٌٛخٗ ث ٓ١اشخبص اٌذساسخ إٌّزمبح ِٓ اٌحّ١بد.
ٚرج ِٓ ٓ١خالي اٌفحض االوٍ١ٕ١ى ٟاْ ِب ٠مشة ِٓ 203شخض (٠ )%90ؼبِٔٓ ْٛ
اسرفبع دسخخ اٌحشاسح 93 ٚشخض (٠ )%00ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛاٌشػشخ )%0(23ٚشخض
٠ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛاٌؼشق ِغ غ١بة اٌّؼبػفبد ِثً اٌغ١جٛثخ اٌّخ١خ ث ٓ١اشخبص اٌذساسخ
إٌّضٌ١خ ٚ ,رج ِٓ ٓ١خالي اٌفحض االوٍ١ٕ١ى ٟاْ ِب ٠مشة ِٓ 00شخض (٠ )%00ؼبْٔٛ
ِٓ اسرفبع دسخخ اٌحشاسح ٠)%00( 00ٚؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛاٌشػشخ 03 ٚشخض ()%03
٠ؼبٔ ِٓ ْٛاٌؼشق ف ٝاشخبص اٌذساسخ إٌّزمبح ِٓ اٌحّ١بد
ِٓ خالي اٌفحض اٌّدٙش ٞثأسزخذاَ اٌفحض اٌّدٙشٚ ٜرٌه ٌدّ١غ حبالد اٌذساسخ
ٚاخزجبس ٚح١ذ اٌخطٛح اٌسش٠غ اٌز٠ ٞىشف االٔز١دٕ١بد اٌز ٟرٕزدٙب ؽف١ٍ١بد اٌّالس٠ب
أظٙشد إٌزبئح إطبثخ ثالس حبالد ثبٌّالس٠ب ثبسزخذاَ اخزجبس ٚح١ذ اٌخطٛح
اٌسش٠غ(االث ْٛثٍس) ثّؼذي (ٚ ، )%0حبٌخ ٚاحذح ِٕ ُٙثبسزخذاَ اٌفحض اٌّدٙشٜ
ثّؼذي (ٚ ، )%.16وبٔذ اٌّالس٠ب ٔز١دخ ا ألطبثخ ثطف ً١اٌفب ٌسجبسَٚ ،وبٔذ وً اٌحبالد
ٚافذح ِٓ اٌسٛداْ٠ٚ,ؼض٘ ٜزا اٌفبسق اٌ ٝاْ اٌؼالج لذ اصاي اٌطفِ ً١غ ثمبء االٔز١دٕ١بد
ا ٚأحظبس اٌطف ِٓ ً١اٌذٚسح اٌطشف١خ أ ٚز١دخ رفبػٍٗ ِغ ِؼبًِ اٌشِٚبر٠ٛذ ٘ ٛاٌدسبَ
اٌ١ٙز١شٚف١ٍ١خ.
دراسة انتشار االصابة بمرض المالريا في بعض مناطق محافظة الفيوم
رسالـة تـوطـئة لمحصـول عمـي درجـة المـاجـسـتير في عمـم الطفيمـيات الطبية
مقدمـة مـن
تحت إش ـراف
كميـة الطـب
جامعـة القاهـرة
2012م