ELECTRIC CIRCUIT II CHAPTER 2

BEJ 10403 FIRST ORDER

CIRCUIT
CHAPTER 2

Objective of the Lecture Lecture Contents

◼ Explain the transient response of a RC circuit Introduction

▪ As the capacitor stores energy when there is:
▪ a transition in a unit step function source, u(t-to) The source-free RC circuit
▪ or a voltage or current source is switched into the circuit.
◼ Explain the transient response of a RL circuit The source-free RL circuit
▪ As the inductor stores energy when there is: Singularity Functions
▪ a transition in a unit step function source, u(t-to)
▪ or a voltage or current source is switched into the circuit. Step Response RC Circuit
Also known as a forced response to an independent source Step Response RL Circuit

2.1 First order circuits

◼ First order circuits are electrical circuits that

contain a single energy storage element (either a
2.1 capacitor or an inductor).
◼ The number of capacitors and inductors in a
Introduction to First Order circuit determine the differential order of the
equation that represents the network.
RL & RC Circuits ◼ Hence a first order differential equation is
required to solve a circuit containing a single
energy storage element.

6
1st Order Circuits
◼ Any circuit with a single energy storage
element, an arbitrary number of sources, and
an arbitrary number of resistors is a circuit of
order 1.
◼ Any voltage or current in such a circuit is the
solution to a 1st order differential equation.
7 8
◼ Thetotal response of a first order circuit is
made up of two parts; the transient
response and the steady state
response.
Total Response
Transient Response + Steady State Response
9 10
2.2
The source-free RC
circuit
Important Concepts
◼ The differential equation
◼ Forced and natural solutions
◼ The time constant
◼ Transient and steady-state waveforms
Transient response
- is the initial response of the circuit to a
change at its input. This response decays
exponentially, and will eventually disappear.
Steady state response
- is the response of the circuit after all
conditions have stabilized.
2.2 The source-free RC circuit
◼ A source-free RC circuit
occurs when its dc source
is suddenly disconnected.
◼ The energy already stored
in the capacitor is released
to the resistors.
 ▪ Applying KCL at the top
node of the circuit
iC + iR = 0 (2.3)

▪ By definition, iC = and iR =
▪ Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can Thus
assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is:
ν(0) = V0 (2.1) + =0 (2.4)

with the corresponding value of the energy stored as or + =0 (2.5)

w(0) = (2.2)
13 14

▪ This is a first-order differential equation, since only

the first derivative of ν is involved. To solve it, we ▪ Taking powers of e produces
rearrange the terms as

▪ But from the initial conditions,

▪ Integrating both sides, we get ν (0) = A = V0 . Hence,

(2.7)
▪ where ln A is the integration constant
This shows that the voltage response of the RC
circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
(2.6)
15 16

▪ Since the response is due to the initial energy ▪ The time constant, , of a circuit is the time
stored and the physical characteristics of the required for the response to decay by a factor of
circuit and not due to some external voltage or or 36.8 % of its initial value.
current source, it is called the natural response
of the circuit. Natural response: the
behavior (in terms of
▪ This implies that at t = , Eq. (6.7) becomes
voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself,
with no external sources = = 0.368 V0
of excitation.

The voltage response or = RC (2.8)

of the RC circuit

17 18
▪ In terms of the time constant, Eq. (6.7) can be
written as
(2.9)

▪ The capacitor is fully discharged (or charged)

after five time constants.
(*refer to Table 7.1 page 252,reference book)

▪ In other words, it takes 5 for the circuit to

reach its final state or steady state when no
Graphical determination of the time constant
changes take place with time. τ from the response curve.
19 20

▪ The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t

is (eq. 2.12)
▪ With the voltage in Eq. (2.9), we can find the
current iR(t),

(2.10)

▪ The power dissipated in the resistor is

▪ Notice that as t → ∞, → , which is the

(2.11) same as , the energy initially stored in the
capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in
the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the
21
resistor. 22

Example 1 iX
+
+
VC
νX
◼ In figure below, let νC (0) = 15 V. Find νC , νX _ _
, and iX for t > 0.

+
# Req 0.1 F VC
_

# 24
Example 2 Example 2 (solution)

Ref: Alexander Sadiku Ref: Alexander Sadiku

Example 2 (solution) Exercise 1

28

Exercise 2

2.3
The source-free RL
circuit
29
2.3 The source-free RL circuit ▪ At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has
an initial current I0 , or
i (0) = I0 (2.13)

▪ with the corresponding energy stored in

the inductor as

w (0) = (2.14)
◼ To determine the circuit response, we will assume
the current i(t) through the inductor.
32

▪ Applying KVL around the loop in the figure

above, ▪ Rearranging terms and integrating gives

νL + ν R = 0 (2.15)

▪ But νL = and νR = iR. Thus ⇒

+ Ri = 0 or (2.17)

or (2.16)
33 34

Taking the powers of e, we have

▪ Therefore, from Eq. (6.18), the time
(2.18)
constant for the RL circuit is
τ = (2.19)

Thus Eq. (6.18) may be written as

Current response
of the RL circuit (2.20)

35 36
▪ With the current in Eq. (6.20), we can find
the voltage across the resistor as
▪ The energy absorbed by the resistor is
(2.21)
(2.23)

The power dissipated in the resistor is

Note that as t → ∞, wR(∞) → ,
(2.22) which is the same as wL(0).

37 38

Example 3 :
The switch in the circuit has been closed
for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened.
Calculate i(t) for t > 0. 2.4
Singularity Function

Io = 6A, Tau = 2/(16||16) = ¼. i(t)=6 exp (-4t) 39

2.4 Singularity Functions

(Mathematical concepts) The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values
▪ Singularity functions (also called switching of t and 1 for positive values of t.
functions) are very useful in circuit analysis. In mathematical terms,

▪ They serve as good approximations to the u(t) = (2.24)

switching signals that arise in circuits with
switching operations. u(t)

▪ The most widely used singularity functions in

circuit analysis are the unit step, impulse (or
delta), and ramp functions. t
Fig.1:The unit step function
41 42
If the abrupt change occurs at t = t0(where t0>0) If the change occurs at t = - t0(where t0<0)
instead of t = 0, the unit step functions becomes; instead of t=0, the unit step functions becomes;

u(t - t0) = (2.25) u(t + t0) = (2.26)

u(t - t0) u(t + t0)

1
1

u(t) is delayed by t0 seconds u(t) is advanced by t0 seconds

t0 t - t0 0 t
Fig.2 :The unit step function Fig. 3: The unit step advanced by to
43 44

We use the step function to represent an abrupt

change in voltage or current, t=0
eg. changes occurs in the circuits of control a a
systems and digital computers.
+ +
V0u(t) -
Vo -
v(t) = (2.27)
b b

v(t) = V0 u(t – t0) (a) Voltage source of V0u(t) (b) Its equivalent circuit

Figure 4
If t0=0 🡺 v(t) = V0 u(t)
In Fig. 4 (b), terminals a-b are short-circuited (v=0)
for t<0 and that v=V0 appears at the terminals for
t>0.
45 46

t=0 i
a a
▪ The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit
impulse function, ,which we write as
I0u(t) Io

b b (2.28)
(a) Current source of I0u(t) (b) Its equivalent circuit

Figure 5 1

Similarly, in Fig. 5 (b) terminals a-b are open-

circuited (i=0) for t<0 and that i=I0 flows for t>0. 0 t
Fig. 6:The unit impulse function
47 48
 Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the
Unit impulse may be expressed mathematically as unit ramp function, r(t), we write

r(t)
(2.29) 1

Strength of impulse function=10

(2.30) 0 1 t
Fig.8: The unit ramp function
t
-2 -1 0 1 2 3

Fig. 7: Three impulse function The unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t
and has a unit slope for positive values of t
49 50

For the delayed unit ramp function, For the advanced unit ramp function,

r(t-t0) r(t+t0)
1

1
(2.31) (2.32)

0 t0 t0+1 t -t0 -t0+1 0 t

Fig. 9: The unit ramp Fig. 10: The unit ramp
function delayed by t0 function advanced by t0

51 52

Summary
▪ Three singularity functions (impulse, step and
ramp) are related by differentiation as:

(2.33)
2.5
▪ Or by integration as
Step Response RC
(2.34)
Circuit
53
 v(0-) = voltage across
capacitor just before

2.5 Step Response RC Circuit switching

v(0+) = voltage immediately
after switching
● Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0
▪ When the dc source of an RC circuit is Since the
capacitor
voltage cannot
suddenly applied, the voltage or current ● Applying KCL, change
instantaneously
source can be modeled as a step function
and the response is known as a step
response, as in Figure 1. or
▪ The step response of a circuit is its behavior
when the excitation is the step function,
which may be a voltage or a current source. ● Where u(t) is the unit-step function

Fig. 1: Step response of RC circuit

55 56

▪ The expression of step response of RC circuit is ▪ If the capacitor is assumed not

given as: charged initially, therefore V0 = 0,

• Which can be written alternatively as:

*reference book pg 274

This is known as the complete • This is the complete step response of

response
or (total response) of the RC
circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage
source, assuming
the capacitor is initially charged.
the RC circuit when the capacitor is
initially uncharged.
Fig. 2: Step response of an RC circuit with Fig. 3: Step response of an RC circuit with
initially charged capacitor initially uncharged capacitor

57 58

▪ The current through the capacitor is obtained

from i(t) = C dv/dt, we get;

▪ for t > 0

Final value Initial value Source-free

Fig. 3: Step response of an RC circuit with at t -> ∞ at t = 0 Response
initially uncharged capacitor – current
response
Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response
(stored energy) (independent source)

= V0e–t/τ + Vs(1–e–t/τ)

59 60
 Example 4
Three steps to find out the step response of an
RC circuit: ▪ Find the capacitor voltage for t >0 and t <0
1. The initial capacitor voltage, v(0). for the circuit below.
2. The final capacitor voltage, v(∞) — DC voltage
across C.
3. The time constant, τ. t =0 2Ω
3Ω
+
Therefore, step response form in general is: 12 V 4V 3F v
-

Note: This equation applies only to step response, that is when the
input excitation is constant.
61 62

Solution Example 5
t =0 2Ω The switch in the figure below has been in position a for a
3Ω long time. At t =0, the switch moves to b.
+
12 V 4V v Determine i(t) for all t >0.
3F
-
6Ω
a
t =0 i
b

30 V 12 V 3Ω 2F

63 64

Solution
6Ω
a
t =0 i
b
30 V 12 V 3Ω 2F

2.6
Step Response RL
Circuit
65
 2.6 Step Response of RL Circuit ▪ Consider the RL circuit in Figure 4
🡺 our goal is to find the inductor current, i
▪ The step response of a circuit is its as the circuit response
behavior when the excitation is the step
function, which may be a voltage or a R t=0 R
i
current source. i
+ +
+
- Vs L v(t) +
- Vsu(t) L v(t)
- -

(a) (b)

Figure 4: An RL circuit with step input voltage

67 68

▪ The forced response is the value of the current a long

▪ Let the response to be the sum of the natural current and time after the switch in Figure 4(a) is closed.
the forced current,
▪ We know that the natural response essentially dies
i = in + if -----------------(16) out after five time constants.

▪ We know that the natural response is always a decaying ▪ At that time, the inductor becomes a short circuit , and
exponential, that is the voltage across it is zero.

▪ The entire source voltage Vs appears across R.

Thus, the forced response is,
where A is a constant to be determined.

69 70

v(t)

0 t
Figure 5: Total
response of the RL
circuit with initial
inductor current I0

71 72
 ▪ The response in Eq.(21) may be written as ▪ Again, if the switching takes place at time t=t0 instead of
t=0,Eq (12) becomes

where i(0) and i(∞) are the initial and final values of i.
▪ If I0 =0, then
Thus, to find the step response of an RL circuit requires
three things:

1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t=0+

(obtained for the given circuit for t<0)

2. The final inductor current i( ).

(obtained for the given circuit for t>0)

3. The time constant . This is the step response of the RL circuit

(obtained for the given circuit for t>0) with no initial inductor current.
73 74

▪ Figure 6 shows the step response in Eq.24 and 25

▪ The voltage across the inductor is obtained from
Eq.24 using v=L di/dt. i(t)
(a) v(t) (b)

▪ We get Vs/R Vs

0 t 0 t

Figure 3. Step response of an RL circuit with no initial inductor

current
(a) current response (b) voltage response

75 76

Solution
Example 6 (1 st response RL cct )
10Ω
For the circuit below find i(t) for t >0. t =0 i

20 V
5H
40Ω
10Ω i
t =0

20 V
5H

40Ω

77 78
 Solution
Example 7 (1 st response RL cct )
Obtain the inductor current for both t <0 and t>0
for the circuit below.

12Ω 4Ω

2A 4Ω
t =0
3.5 H

79 80

Summary
Summary…
▪The steady- state response
▪ The step response is the response of the circuit
- behavior of the circuit after an independent source to a sudden application of a dc current or
has been applied for a long time voltage.
▪ The step response may be written as
▪The transient response
- component of the complete response that dies with ▪ Or more generally
time
Total response ▪ Or we may write it as
instantaneous value
steady-state response + transient response
81 82

Exercise 1 Exercise 2
(Sadiku pg. 277)

Answer:

84