Project report

On
CORIOLIS FORCE

SUBMITTING DISSERTATION TO
GOVT. SCIENCE COLLEGE, CHATRAPUR
FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF BSC DEGREE IN PHYSICS

RAKESH KUMAR ACHARJYA

6TH SEMESTER, ROLL NO – BS18-218
EXAMINATION ROLL NO- 041802PH037

UNDER SUPERVISION OF
MR. PRADYUMNA MADHEI
HOD. IN PHYSICS

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
GOVT. SCIENCE COLLEGE, CHATRAPUR
AFFILATED TO KHALIKOTE UNIVERSITY, BERHAMPUR
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the review work incorporated in this project entitled

‘‘INTERFERENCE’’ Bonafede review work carried by NAKSHATRAMALA

PADHI in the Department of Physics, Govt. Science College, Chatrapur, Odisha under

my supervision and the same has submitted for evaluation of DSE-4 as partial

fulfilment of 6th semester, Khallikote University, Berhampur.

PRADYUMNA MADHEI

1
 DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that the project work entitled ‘‘INTEREFERENCE’’ is the

detailed review work carried by me independently under the guidance and supervision

of Pradyumna Madhei submitted as partial fulfilment of Discipline Specific Elective-

4, 6th semester 2021 in physics, Khallikote University, Berhampur and has not been

submitted anywhere else before.

NAKSHATRAMALA PADHI
Roll No: 041802PH022

2
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take the pleasant opportunity to release the feelings of deep sense of sincere gratitude

and indebtedness imprisoned in the core of my heart to my esteemed guide Pradyumna

Madhei, Head of Department of Physics for his untiring guidance, inspiration and

continuous supervision without which this project work could not have brought to a

reality.

I am also very much grateful to Sri Santosh Behera, Sri Buduram Singh and Sri

Suresh Behera for encouragement, valuable suggestion and guidance or completion of

this project work.

Nakshatramala Padhi

3
CONTENT
❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ HISTORY
❖
❖

4
INTRODUCTION
In physics, the Coriolis force is an inertial or fictitious force[1] that
acts on objects that are in motion within a frame of reference that
rotates with respect to an inertial frame. In a reference frame with
clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of the
object. In one with anticlockwise (or counterclockwise) rotation, the
force acts to the right. Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis
force is called the Coriolis effect. Though recognized previously by
others, the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared
in an 1835 paper by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, in
connection with the theory of water wheels. Early in the 20th
century, the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with
meteorology.

Newton's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in an

inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference. When Newton's laws
In the inertial frame of reference
are transformed to a rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis and
(upper part of the picture), the
centrifugal accelerations appear. When applied to massive objects, black ball moves in a straight line.
the respective forces are proportional to the masses of them. The However, the observer (red dot)
Coriolis force is proportional to the rotation rate and the centrifugal who is standing in the
force is proportional to the square of the rotation rate. The Coriolis rotating/non-inertial frame of
reference (lower part of the
force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and to the
picture) sees the object as
velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to the
following a curved path due to the
object's speed in the rotating frame (more precisely, to the Coriolis and centrifugal forces
component of its velocity that is perpendicular to the axis of present in this frame.
rotation). The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction
and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the
rotating frame. These additional forces are termed inertial forces, fictitious forces or pseudo forces.[2]
They "allow" the application of Newton's laws to a rotating system. They are correction factors that do
not exist in a non-accelerating or inertial reference frame.[3]

In popular (non-technical) usage of the term "Coriolis effect", the rotating reference frame implied is
almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis
force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation per day, so for motions
of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared with other forces; its effects
generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time,
such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean. Such motions are
constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is
generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the
right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate
about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator.[4] Rather than flowing
directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and

5
currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction
south of it. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in
meteorology).

For an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force, consider an object, constrained to follow
the Earth's surface and moving northward in the northern hemisphere. Viewed from outer space, the
object does not appear to go due north, but has an eastward motion (it rotates around toward the right
along with the surface of the Earth). The further north it travels, the smaller the "diameter of its parallel"
(the minimum distance from the surface point to the axis of rotation, which is in a plane orthogonal to the
axis), and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface. As the object moves north, to higher latitudes,
it has a tendency to maintain the eastward speed it started with (rather than slowing down to match the
reduced eastward speed of local objects on the Earth's surface), so it veers east (i.e. to the right of its
initial motion).[5][6]

Though not obvious from this example, which considers northward motion, the horizontal deflection
occurs equally for objects moving eastward or westward (or in any other direction).[7]

The theory that the effect influences draining water to rotate anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere
and clockwise in the southern hemisphere has been repeatedly disproven by modern-day
scientists.[8][9][10]

6
Contents
History
Formula
Causes
Length scales and the Rossby number
Simple cases
Cannon on turntable
Trajectory in the inertial frame
Accelerations
Components of acceleration
Producing accelerations
Tossed ball on a rotating carousel
Bounced ball
Applied to the Earth
Intuitive explanation
Rotating sphere
Meteorology
Flow around a low-pressure area
Inertial circles
Other terrestrial effects
Eötvös effect
Intuitive example
Draining in bathtubs and toilets
Ballistic trajectories
Visualization of the Coriolis effect
Coriolis effects in other areas
Coriolis flow meter
Molecular physics
Gyroscopic precession
Insect flight
Lagrangian point stability
References
Further reading
Physics and meteorology
Historical

7
History
Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his assistant Francesco
Maria Grimaldi described the effect in connection with artillery in the
1651 Almagestum Novum, writing that rotation of the Earth should cause
a cannonball fired to the north to deflect to the east.[11] In 1674 Claude
François Milliet Dechales described in his Cursus seu Mundus
Mathematicus how the rotation of the Earth should cause a deflection in
the trajectories of both falling bodies and projectiles aimed toward one of
the planet's poles. Riccioli, Grimaldi, and Dechales all described the
effect as part of an argument against the heliocentric system of
Copernicus. In other words, they argued that the Earth's rotation should
create the effect, and so failure to detect the effect was evidence for an
immobile Earth.[12] The Coriolis acceleration equation was derived by
Image from Cursus seu
Euler in 1749,[13][14] and the effect was described in the tidal equations
Mundus Mathematicus
of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778.[15] (1674) of C.F.M. Dechales,
showing how a cannonball
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield should deflect to the right of
of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels.[16] That paper its target on a rotating Earth,
considered the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame because the rightward
of reference. Coriolis divided these supplementary forces into two motion of the ball is faster
categories. The second category contained a force that arises from the than that of the tower.

cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the

projection of a particle's velocity into a plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation. Coriolis
referred to this force as the "compound centrifugal force" due to its analogies with the centrifugal force
already considered in category one.[17][18] The effect was known in the early 20th century as the
"acceleration of Coriolis",[19] and by 1920 as "Coriolis force".[20]

8
In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the
mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the
prevailing westerly winds.[21]

The understanding of the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the

Earth affects airflow was partial at first.[22] Late in the 19th century, the
full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure-gradient force and
deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars
was understood.[23]
Image from Cursus seu
Mundus Mathematicus
Formula (1674) of C.F.M. Dechales,
showing how a ball should
In Newtonian mechanics, the equation of motion for an object in an fall from a tower on a
inertial reference frame is rotating Earth. The ball is
released from F. The top of
the tower moves faster than
its base, so while the ball
where is the vector sum of the physical forces acting on the object, falls, the base of the tower
is the mass of the object, and is the acceleration of the object relative to moves to I, but the ball,
the inertial reference frame. which has the eastward
speed of the tower's top,
Transforming this equation to a reference frame about a fixed axis outruns the tower's base
through the origin with rotation vector having variable rotation rate, and lands further to the east
the equation takes the form at L.

where

is the vector sum of the physical forces acting on the object relative to the rotating
reference frame
is the rotation vector, with magnitude , of the rotating reference frame relative to the
inertial frame
is the velocity relative to the rotating reference frame
is the position vector of the object relative to the rotating reference frame
is the acceleration relative to the rotating reference frame

The fictitious forces as they are perceived in the rotating frame act as additional forces that contribute to
the apparent acceleration just like the real external forces.[24][25] The fictitious force terms of the
equation are, reading from left to right:[26]

Euler force
Coriolis force
centrifugal force
Notice the Euler and centrifugal forces depend on the position vector of the object, while the Coriolis
force depends on the object's velocity as measured in the rotating reference frame. As expected, for a
non-rotating inertial frame of reference the Coriolis force and all other fictitious forces
[27] 9
disappear. The forces also disappear for zero mass .
As the Coriolis force is proportional to a cross product of two vectors, it is perpendicular to both vectors,
in this case the object's velocity and the frame's rotation vector. It therefore follows that:

if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis force is zero. (For example, on
Earth, this situation occurs for a body on the equator moving north or south relative to
Earth's surface.)
if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the Coriolis force is in the direction of local
rotation. (For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body on the equator falling
downward, as in the Dechales illustration above, where the falling ball travels further to the
east than does the tower.)
if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the Coriolis force is against the direction of
local rotation. (In the tower example, a ball launched upward would move toward the west.)
if the velocity is in the direction of rotation, the Coriolis force is outward from the axis. (For
example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body on the equator moving east relative to
Earth's surface. It would move upward as seen by an observer on the surface. This effect
(see Eötvös effect below) was discussed by Galileo Galilei in 1632 and by Riccioli in
1651.[28])
if the velocity is against the direction of rotation, the Coriolis force is inward to the axis. (On
Earth, this situation occurs for a body on the equator moving west, which would deflect
downward as seen by an observer.)

Causes
The Coriolis force exists only when one uses a rotating reference frame. In the rotating frame it behaves
exactly like a real force (that is to say, it causes acceleration and has real effects). However, the Coriolis
force is a consequence of inertia,[29] and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, as is the
case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces, for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's
second law in a rotating system, the Coriolis force is mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a
non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For example, consider two children on opposite sides of a
spinning roundabout (Merry-go-round), who are throwing a ball to each other. From the children's point
of view, this ball's path is curved sideways by the Coriolis force. Suppose the roundabout spins
anticlockwise when viewed from above. From the thrower's perspective, the deflection is to the right.[30]
From the non-thrower's perspective, deflection is to the left (for a mathematical formulation see
Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces). In meteorology, a rotating frame (the Earth) with its
Coriolis force provides a more natural framework for explanation of air movements than a non-rotating
inertial frame without Coriolis forces.[31] In long-range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation
are based on the Coriolis force.[32] These examples are described in more detail below.

The acceleration entering the Coriolis force arises from two sources of change in velocity that result from
rotation: the first is the change of the velocity of an object in time. The same velocity (in an inertial frame
of reference where the normal laws of physics apply) is seen as different velocities at different times in a
rotating frame of reference. The apparent acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity of the
reference frame (the rate at which the coordinate axes change direction), and to the component of
velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This gives a term . The
minus sign arises from the traditional definition of the cross product (right-hand rule), and from the sign
convention for angular velocity vectors.

10
The second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating frame of reference, with a
constant angular velocity, have different linear velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of reference,
velocity is higher the further away the position is from the center of rotation). For an object to move in a
straight line, it must accelerate so that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the
velocities of the frame of reference. The force is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines
the relative speed of two different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the component of the
velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation (which determines how quickly it
moves between those points). This also gives a term .

Length scales and the Rossby number

The time, space and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis force.
Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its Rossby number, which is the ratio of
the velocity, U, of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, , and the length scale,
L, of the motion:

The Rossby number is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces. A small Rossby number indicates a system
is strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number indicates a system in which inertial
forces dominate. For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, in low-pressure systems it is
low, and in oceanic systems it is around 1. As a result, in tornadoes the Coriolis force is negligible, and
balance is between pressure and centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems, centrifugal force is
negligible and balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces. In the oceans all three forces are
comparable.[33]

An atmospheric system moving at U = 10 m/s (22 mph) occupying a spatial distance of L = 1,000 km
(621 mi), has a Rossby number of approximately 0.1.

A baseball pitcher may throw the ball at U = 45 m/s (100 mph) for a distance of L = 18.3 m (60 ft). The
Rossby number in this case would be 32,000.

Baseball players don't care about which hemisphere they're playing in. However, an unguided missile
obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but can travel far enough and be in the air long enough to
experience the effect of Coriolis force. Long-range shells in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to,
but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted. (Those fired in the Southern Hemisphere
landed to the left.) In fact, it was this effect that first got the attention of Coriolis himself.[34][35][36]

Simple cases

Cannon on turntable
The animation at the top of this article is a classic illustration of Coriolis force. Another visualization of
the Coriolis and centrifugal forces is this animation clip (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49JwbrXcPj
c).

11
Given the radius R of the turntable in that animation,
the rate of angular rotation ω, and the speed of the
cannonball (assumed constant) v, the correct angle θ
to aim so as to hit the target at the edge of the
turntable can be calculated.

The inertial frame of reference provides one way to

handle the question: calculate the time to
interception, which is tf = R / v . Then, the turntable
revolves an angle ω tf in this time. If the cannon is
pointed an angle θ = ω tf = ω R / v, then the
cannonball arrives at the periphery at position
number 3 at the same time as the target.
No discussion of Coriolis force can arrive at this
solution as simply, so the reason to treat this problem
is to demonstrate Coriolis formalism in an easily
visualized situation.
Cannon at the center of a rotating turntable. To hit
the target located at position 1 on the perimeter at
time t = 0 s, the cannon must be aimed ahead of
the target at angle θ. That way, by the time the
cannonball reaches position 3 on the periphery, the
target is also at that position. In an inertial frame of
reference, the cannonball travels a straight radial
path to the target (curve yA). However, in the frame
of the turntable, the path is arched (curve yB), as
also shown in the figure.

Trajectory in the inertial frame

The trajectory in the inertial frame (denoted A) is a
straight line radial path at angle θ. The position of
the cannonball in (x, y) coordinates at time t is:

In the turntable frame (denoted B), the x- y axes

rotate at angular rate ω, so the trajectory becomes:
and three examples of this result are plotted in the
figure.
Accelerations
Components of acceleration
To determine the components of acceleration, a
general expression is used from the article fictitious
force:
Successful trajectory of cannonball as seen from
the turntable for three angles of launch θ. Plotted
points are for the same equally spaced times steps
on each curve. Cannonball speed v is held
constant and angular rate of rotation ω is varied to
achieve a successful "hit" for selected θ. For
example, for a radius of 1 m and a cannonball
speed of 1 m/s, the time of flight tf = 1 s, and ωtf =
θ → ω and θ have the same numerical value if θ is
expressed in radians. The wider spacing of the
plotted points as the target is approached show the
speed of the cannonball is accelerating as seen on
the turntable, due to fictitious Coriolis and
centrifugal forces.

in which the term in -2 Ω × vB is the Coriolis acceleration and the term in -Ω × (Ω × rB) is the
centrifugal acceleration. The results are (let α = θ − ωt):
12
 Acceleration components at an earlier time (top)
and at arrival time at the target (bottom)

Coriolis acceleration, centrifugal acceleration and

net acceleration vectors at three selected points on
the trajectory as seen on the turntable.

Producing accelerations
Producing a centrifugal acceleration:

Also:

13
producing a Coriolis acceleration:

These accelerations are shown in the diagrams for a particular example.

It is seen that the Coriolis acceleration not only cancels the centrifugal acceleration, but together they
provide a net "centripetal", radially inward component of acceleration (that is, directed toward the center
of rotation):[37]

and an additional component of acceleration perpendicular to rB(t):

The "centripetal" component of acceleration resembles that for circular motion at radius rB, while the
perpendicular component is dependent on the constant radial velocity v and is directed to the right of the
velocity. The situation could be described as a circular motion combined with an "apparent Coriolis
acceleration" of 2ωv. However, this is a rough labelling: a careful designation of the true centripetal force
refers to a local reference frame that employs the directions normal and tangential to the path, not
coordinates referred to the axis of rotation.

These results also can be obtained directly by two time differentiations of rB(t). Agreement of the two
approaches demonstrates that one could start from the general expression for fictitious acceleration above
and derive the trajectories shown here. However, working from the acceleration to the trajectory is more
complicated than the reverse procedure used here, which is made possible in this example by knowing
the answer in advance.

As a result of this analysis an important point appears: all the fictitious accelerations must be included to
obtain the correct trajectory. In particular, besides the Coriolis acceleration, the centrifugal force plays an
essential role. It is easy to get the impression from verbal discussions of the cannonball problem, which
focus on displaying the Coriolis effect particularly, that the Coriolis force is the only factor that must be
considered,[38] but that is not so.[39] A turntable for which the Coriolis force is the only factor is the
parabolic turntable. A somewhat more complex situation is the idealized example of flight routes over
long distances, where the centrifugal force of the path and aeronautical lift are countered by gravitational
attraction.[40][41]

Tossed ball on a rotating carousel

14
The figure illustrates a ball tossed from 12:00 o'clock
toward the center of a counter-clockwise rotating
carousel. On the left, the ball is seen by a stationary
observer above the carousel, and the ball travels in a
straight line to the center, while the ball-thrower
rotates counter-clockwise with the carousel. On the
right the ball is seen by an observer rotating with the
carousel, so the ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00
o'clock. The figure shows how the trajectory of the
ball as seen by the rotating observer can be A carousel is rotating counter-clockwise. Left
panel: a ball is tossed by a thrower at 12:00 o'clock
constructed.
and travels in a straight line to the center of the
carousel. While it travels, the thrower circles in a
On the left, two arrows locate the ball relative to the
counter-clockwise direction. Right panel: The ball's
ball-thrower. One of these arrows is from the thrower motion as seen by the thrower, who now remains
to the center of the carousel (providing the ball- at 12:00 o'clock, because there is no rotation from
thrower's line of sight), and the other points from the their viewpoint.
center of the carousel to the ball. (This arrow gets
shorter as the ball approaches the center.) A shifted
version of the two arrows is shown dotted.

On the right is shown this same dotted pair of arrows, but now the pair are rigidly rotated so the arrow
corresponding to the line of sight of the ball-thrower toward the center of the carousel is aligned with
12:00 o'clock. The other arrow of the pair locates the ball relative to the center of the carousel, providing
the position of the ball as seen by the rotating observer. By following this procedure for several positions,
the trajectory in the rotating frame of reference is established as shown by the curved path in the right-
hand panel.

The ball travels in the air, and there is no net force upon it. To the stationary observer, the ball follows a
straight-line path, so there is no problem squaring this trajectory with zero net force. However, the
rotating observer sees a curved path. Kinematics insists that a force (pushing to the right of the
instantaneous direction of travel for a counter-clockwise rotation) must be present to cause this curvature,
so the rotating observer is forced to invoke a combination of centrifugal and Coriolis forces to provide
the net force required to cause the curved trajectory.

Bounced ball
The figure describes a more complex situation where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces off the edge
of the carousel and then returns to the tosser, who catches the ball. The effect of Coriolis force on its
trajectory is shown again as seen by two observers: an observer (referred to as the "camera") that rotates
with the carousel, and an inertial observer. The figure shows a bird's-eye view based upon the same ball
speed on forward and return paths. Within each circle, plotted dots show the same time points. In the left
panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) and the rail both are
at fixed locations, and the ball makes a very considerable arc on its travel toward the rail, and takes a
more direct route on the way back. From the ball tosser's viewpoint, the ball seems to return more
quickly than it went (because the tosser is rotating toward the ball on the return flight).

15
On the carousel, instead of tossing the ball straight at
a rail to bounce back, the tosser must throw the ball
toward the right of the target and the ball then seems
to the camera to bear continuously to the left of its
direction of travel to hit the rail (left because the
carousel is turning clockwise). The ball appears to
bear to the left from direction of travel on both
inward and return trajectories. The curved path
demands this observer to recognize a leftward net
force on the ball. (This force is "fictitious" because it Bird's-eye view of carousel. The carousel rotates
disappears for a stationary observer, as is discussed clockwise. Two viewpoints are illustrated: that of
the camera at the center of rotation rotating with
shortly.) For some angles of launch, a path has
the carousel (left panel) and that of the inertial
portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, (stationary) observer (right panel). Both observers
and Coriolis force is primarily responsible for the agree at any given time just how far the ball is from
apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is the center of the carousel, but not on its
radial from the center of rotation, and causes little orientation. Time intervals are 1/10 of time from
deflection on these segments). When a path curves launch to bounce.

away from radial, however, centrifugal force

contributes significantly to deflection.

The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel).
In the right panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball
bounces from is at position one (1). From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions one (1), two (2), three
(3) are occupied in sequence. At position 2 the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3 the ball returns to the
tosser. Straight-line paths are followed because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no
net force is applied.

Applied to the Earth

The concept "Coriolis force" is specially suitable for the description of motion of atmosphere (i.e. winds)
over the surface of the Earth. The Earth (like all rotating celestial bodies) has taken the shape of an oblate
spheroid, such that the gravitational force is slightly off-set towards the Earth axis as illustrated in the
figure.

For a mass point at rest on the Earth surface the horizontal

component of the gravitation counteracts the "centrifugal force"
preventing it to slide away towards the equator. This means that
the vector term of the "equation of motion" above

is directed straight down, orthogonal to the surface of the Earth.

The force affecting the motion of air "sliding" over the Earth
surface is therefore (only) the horizontal component of the
Coriolis term

Balance between gravitational and

centrifugal force on the Earth surface
16
This component is orthogonal to the velocity over the Earth surface and is given by the expression

where

is the spin rate of the Earth

is the latitude, positive in northern hemisphere and negative in the southern hemisphere

In the northern hemisphere where the sign is positive this force/acceleration, as viewed from above, is to
the right of the direction of motion, in the southern hemisphere where the sign is negative this
force/acceleration is to the left of the direction of motion

Intuitive explanation
As the Earth rotates about its axis, everything attached to it, including the atmosphere, turns with it
(imperceptibly to our senses). An object that is moving without being dragged along with the surface
rotation or atmosphere such as an object in ballistic flight or an independent air mass within the
atmosphere, travels in a straight motion over the turning Earth. From our rotating perspective on the
planet, the direction of motion of an object in ballistic flight changes as it moves, bending in the opposite
direction to our actual motion.

When viewed from a stationary point in space directly above the north pole, any land feature in the
Northern Hemisphere turns anticlockwise—and, fixing our gaze on that location, any other location in
that hemisphere rotates around it the same way. The traced ground path of a freely moving body in
ballistic flight traveling from one point to another therefore bends the opposite way, clockwise, which is
conventionally labeled as "right," where it will be if the direction of motion is considered "ahead," and
"down" is defined naturally.

Rotating sphere
Consider a location with latitude φ on a sphere that is rotating
around the north-south axis.[42] A local coordinate system is set
up with the x axis horizontally due east, the y axis horizontally
due north and the z axis vertically upwards. The rotation vector,
velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration expressed in this
local coordinate system (listing components in the order east (e),
north (n) and upward (u)) are:

Coordinate system at latitude φ with

x-axis east, y-axis north and z-axis
upward (that is, radially outward from
center of sphere).

When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small, and the vertical
component of the Coriolis acceleration is small compared with the acceleration due to gravity. For such
17
cases, only the horizontal (east and north) components matter. The restriction of the above to the
horizontal plane is (setting vu = 0):

where is called the Coriolis parameter.

By setting vn = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive φ and ω) a movement due east results in
an acceleration due south. Similarly, setting ve = 0, it is seen that a movement due north results in an
acceleration due east. In general, observed horizontally, looking along the direction of the movement
causing the acceleration, the acceleration always is turned 90° to the right and of the same size regardless
of the horizontal orientation.

As a different case, consider equatorial motion setting φ = 0°. In this case, Ω is parallel to the north or n-
axis, and:

Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an
upward acceleration known as the Eötvös effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due
west.

Meteorology
Perhaps the most important impact of the Coriolis effect is in the
large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In
meteorology and oceanography, it is convenient to postulate a
rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is stationary. In
accommodation of that provisional postulation, the centrifugal
and Coriolis forces are introduced. Their relative importance is
determined by the applicable Rossby numbers. Tornadoes have
high Rossby numbers, so, while tornado-associated centrifugal
forces are quite substantial, Coriolis forces associated with
tornadoes are for practical purposes negligible.[43] This low-pressure system over
Iceland spins counterclockwise due
Because surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of to balance between the Coriolis force
wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the and the pressure gradient force.
movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well. Many of the
ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure
areas called gyres. Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by
the Coriolis effect is what creates the spiralling pattern in these gyres. The spiralling wind pattern helps
the hurricane form. The stronger the force from the Coriolis effect, the faster the wind spins and picks up
additional energy, increasing the strength of the hurricane.[44]

Air within high-pressure systems rotates in a direction such that the Coriolis force is directed radially
inwards, and nearly balanced by the outwardly radial pressure gradient. As a result, air travels clockwise
18
around high pressure in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Air
around low-pressure rotates in the opposite direction, so that the
Coriolis force is directed radially outward and nearly balances an
inwardly radial pressure gradient.[45]

Flow around a low-pressure area

If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air tends to flow
in towards it, but is deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the
Coriolis force. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself
creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. Because the
Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between the
pressure-gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and Schematic representation of flow
the Coriolis force acting away from the center of the low around a low-pressure area in the
Northern Hemisphere. The Rossby
pressure.
number is low, so the centrifugal
force is virtually negligible. The
Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the
pressure-gradient force is
atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the pressure represented by blue arrows, the
gradient. This is known as geostrophic flow.[46] On a non- Coriolis acceleration (always
rotating planet, fluid would flow along the straightest possible perpendicular to the velocity) by red
line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients. The geostrophic arrows
balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial motions"
(see below), which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger
by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be.

This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is

called Buys-Ballot's law. In the atmosphere, the pattern of flow is
called a cyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of
movement around a low-pressure area is anticlockwise. In the
Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise
because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there.[47] At
high altitudes, outward-spreading air rotates in the opposite
direction.[48] Cyclones rarely form along the equator due to the
weak Coriolis effect present in this region.[49]
Schematic representation of inertial
circles of air masses in the absence
Inertial circles of other forces, calculated for a wind
speed of approximately 50 to 70 m/s
An air or water mass moving with speed subject only to the (110 to 160 mph).
Coriolis force travels in a circular trajectory called an 'inertial
circle'. Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of
the particle, it moves with a constant speed around a circle whose radius is given by:

where is the Coriolis parameter , introduced above (where is the latitude). The time taken
for the mass to complete a full circle is therefore . The Coriolis parameter typically has a mid-
−4 −1
latitude value of about 10 s ; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of 10 m/s (22 mph) the radius is
100 km (62 mi), with a period of about 17 hours. For an ocean current with a typical speed of 10 cm/s
19
(0.22 mph), the radius of an inertial circle is 1 km (0.6 mi). These
inertial circles are clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (where
trajectories are bent to the right) and anticlockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.

If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then is constant

and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating planet,
varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact
circles. Since the parameter varies as the sine of the latitude,
the radius of the oscillations associated with a given speed are
smallest at the poles (latitude = ±90°), and increase toward the
equator.[50] Cloud formations in a famous image
of Earth from Apollo 17, makes
similar circulation directly visible
Other terrestrial effects
The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale oceanic and
atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of robust features like jet streams and western boundary
currents. Such features are in geostrophic balance, meaning that the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces
balance each other. Coriolis acceleration is also responsible for the propagation of many types of waves
in the ocean and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves. It is also instrumental in the so-
called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean flow pattern called
the Sverdrup balance.

Eötvös effect
The practical impact of the "Coriolis effect" is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component
produced by horizontal motion.

There are other components of the Coriolis effect. Westward-travelling objects are deflected downwards
(feel heavier), while Eastward-travelling objects are deflected upwards (feel lighter).[51] This is known as
the Eötvös effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by the
Eötvös effect is similar to the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity
and pressure suggest that it is unimportant in the hydrostatic equilibrium. However, in the atmosphere,
winds are associated with small deviations of pressure from the hydrostatic equilibrium. In the tropical
atmosphere, the order of magnitude of the pressure deviations is so small that the contribution of the
Eötvös effect to the pressure deviations is considerable.[52]

In addition, objects travelling upwards (i.e., out) or downwards (i.e., in) are deflected to the west or east
respectively. This effect is also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of
limited extent and duration, the size of the effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect. For
example, idealized numerical modeling studies suggest that this effect can directly affect tropical large-
scale wind field by roughly 10% given long-duration (2 weeks or more) heating or cooling in the
atmosphere.[53][54] Moreover, in the case of large changes of momentum, such as a spacecraft being
launched into orbit, the effect becomes significant. The fastest and most fuel-efficient path to orbit is a
launch from the equator that curves to a directly eastward heading.

Intuitive example
20
Imagine a train that travels through a frictionless railway line along the equator. Assume that, when in
motion, it moves at the necessary speed to complete a trip around the world in one day (465 m/s). [55] The
Coriolis effect can be considered in three cases: when the train travels west, when it is at rest, and when it
travels east. In each case, the Coriolis effect can be calculated from the rotating frame of reference on
Earth first, and then checked against a fixed inertial frame. The image below illustrates the three cases as
viewed by an observer at rest in a (near) inertial frame from a fixed point above the North Pole along the
Earth's axis of rotation; the train is denoted by a few red pixels, fixed at the left side in the leftmost
picture, moving in the others

1. The train travels toward the west: In that case, it moves against the direction of rotation.
Therefore, on the Earth's rotating frame the Coriolis term is pointed inwards towards the
axis of rotation (down). This additional force downwards should cause the train to be
heavier while moving in that direction.
If one looks at this train from the fixed non-rotating frame on top of the center of the
Earth, at that speed it remains stationary as the Earth spins beneath it. Hence, the
only force acting on it is gravity and the reaction from the track. This force is greater
(by 0.34%)[55] than the force that the passengers and the train experience when at
rest (rotating along with Earth). This difference is what the Coriolis effect accounts for
in the rotating frame of reference.
2. The train comes to a stop: From the point of view on the Earth's rotating frame, the
velocity of the train is zero, thus the Coriolis force is also zero and the train and its
passengers recuperate their usual weight.
From the fixed inertial frame of reference above Earth, the train now rotates along with
the rest of the Earth. 0.34% of the force of gravity provides the centripetal force
needed to achieve the circular motion on that frame of reference. The remaining force,
as measured by a scale, makes the train and passengers "lighter" than in the previous
case.
3. The train travels east. In this case, because it moves in the direction of Earth's rotating
frame, the Coriolis term is directed outward from the axis of rotation (up). This upward
force makes the train seem lighter still than when at rest.

From the fixed inertial frame of reference above Earth, the train travelling east now
rotates at twice the rate as when it was at rest—so the amount of centripetal force
needed to cause that circular path increases leaving less force from gravity to act on
the track. This is what the Coriolis term accounts for on the previous paragraph.
As a final check one can imagine a frame of reference rotating along with the train.
Such frame would be rotating at twice the angular velocity as Earth's rotating frame.
The resulting centrifugal force component for that imaginary frame would be greater.
Since the train and its passengers are at rest, that would be the only component in
that frame explaining again why the train and the passengers are lighter than in the
previous two cases. 21
This also explains why high speed projectiles
that travel west are deflected down, and those
that travel east are deflected up. This vertical
component of the Coriolis effect is called the
Eötvös effect.[56]

The above example can be used to explain

why the Eötvös effect starts diminishing
when an object is travelling westward as its
tangential speed increases above Earth's
rotation (465 m/s). If the westward train in
the above example increases speed, part of
the force of gravity that pushes against the Graph of the force experienced by a 10-kilogram object as a
track accounts for the centripetal force function of its speed moving along Earth's equator (as
needed to keep it in circular motion on the measured within the rotating frame). (Positive force in the
graph is directed upward. Positive speed is directed
inertial frame. Once the train doubles its
eastward and negative speed is directed westward).
westward speed at 930 m/s that centripetal
force becomes equal to the force the train
experiences when it stops. From the inertial frame, in both cases it rotates at the same speed but in the
opposite directions. Thus, the force is the same cancelling completely the Eötvös effect. Any object that
moves westward at a speed above 930 m/s experiences an upward force instead. In the figure, the Eötvös
effect is illustrated for a 10 kilogram object on the train at different speeds. The parabolic shape is
because the centripetal force is proportional to the square of the tangential speed. On the inertial frame,
the bottom of the parabola is centered at the origin. The offset is because this argument uses the Earth's
rotating frame of reference. The graph shows that the Eötvös effect is not symmetrical, and that the
resulting downward force experienced by an object that travels west at high velocity is less than the
resulting upward force when it travels east at the same speed.

Draining in bathtubs and toilets

Contrary to popular misconception, bathtubs, toilets and other residential water receptacles do not drain
in opposite directions in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres because the magnitude of the Coriolis
force is negligible at this scale.[57][58][59][60] Forces determined by the initial conditions of the water (e.g.
the geometry of the drain, the geometry of the receptacle, pre-existing momentum of water, etc.) are
likely to be orders of magnitude greater than the Coriolis force and hence will determine the direction of
water rotation, if any. For example, identical toilets flushed in each hemisphere will drain in the same
direction, and this direction will be determined mostly by the shape of the toilet bowl.

The formation of a vortex over the plug hole may be explained by the conservation of angular
momentum: The radius of rotation decreases as water approaches the plug hole, so the rate of rotation
increases, for the same reason that an ice skater's rate of spin increases as they pull their arms in. Any
rotation around the plug hole that is initially present accelerates as water moves inward.

The Coriolis force still affects the direction of the flow of water, but only minutely. Only if the water is so
still that the effective rotation rate of the Earth is faster than that of the water relative to its container, and
if externally applied torques (such as might be caused by flow over an uneven bottom surface) are small
enough, the Coriolis effect may indeed determine the direction of the vortex. Without such careful
preparation, the Coriolis effect is likely to be much 22 smaller than various other influences on drain
direction[61] such as any residual rotation of the water[62] and the geometry of the container.[63] Despite
this, the idea that toilets and bathtubs drain differently in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres has
been popularized by several television programs and films, including Escape Plan, Wedding Crashers,
The Simpsons episode "Bart vs. Australia", Pole to Pole,[64][65] and The X-Files episode "Die Hand Die
Verletzt".[66] Several science broadcasts and publications, including at least one college-level physics
textbook, have also stated this.[67][68]

Ballistic trajectories
The Coriolis force is important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range
artillery shells. The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during
World War I to bombard Paris from a range of about 120 km (75 mi). The Coriolis force minutely
changes the trajectory of a bullet, affecting accuracy at extremely long distances. It is adjusted for by
accurate long-distance shooters, such as snipers. At the latitude of Sacramento a 1000-yard shot would be
deflected 2.8 inches to the right. There is also a vertical component, explained in the Eötvös effect
section above, which causes westward shots to hit low, and eastward shots to hit high.[32][69]

The effects of the Coriolis force on ballistic trajectories should not be confused with the curvature of the
paths of missiles, satellites, and similar objects when the paths are plotted on two-dimensional (flat)
maps, such as the Mercator projection. The projections of the three-dimensional curved surface of the
Earth to a two-dimensional surface (the map) necessarily results in distorted features. The apparent
curvature of the path is a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth and would occur even in a non-
rotating frame.[70]

Visualization of the Coriolis effect

To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic turntable can be
used. On a flat turntable, the inertia of a co-rotating object forces
it off the edge. However, if the turntable surface has the correct
paraboloid (parabolic bowl) shape (see the figure) and rotates at
the corresponding rate, the force components shown in the figure
make the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface
exactly equal to the centripetal force necessary to keep the object
rotating at its velocity and radius of curvature (assuming no
friction). (See banked turn.) This carefully contoured surface Fluid assuming a parabolic shape as
allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation.[71][72] it is rotating

Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving
around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on
dynamic phenomena to show themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference frame
rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the turntable so as to co-rotate with the
turntable, with results as shown in the figure. In the left panel of the figure, which is the viewpoint of a
stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling the object toward the center
(bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the distance of the object from the center. A centripetal force of
this form causes the elliptical motion. In the right panel, which shows the viewpoint of the rotating
frame, the inward gravitational force in the rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is
balanced by the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame). With these two forces
balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced 23 force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating
 frame), and the
motion is an inertial
circle. Analysis and
observation of
circular motion in
the rotating frame is
a simplification
compared with Object moving frictionlessly over the
surface of a very shallow parabolic dish.
analysis and
The forces at play in the case of a The object has been released in such a
curved surface.
observation of way that it follows an elliptical trajectory.
Red: gravity elliptical motion in Left: The inertial point of view.
Green: the normal force the inertial frame. Right: The co-rotating point of view.
Blue: the net resultant centripetal
force.
Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute rather
than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis acceleration
produced is many times larger and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales than is the
Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth.

In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable.[73] The rotation has caused the planet
to settle on a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force
exactly balance each other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.)

The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a
Foucault pendulum.

Coriolis effects in other areas

Coriolis flow meter

A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the mass flow meter, an instrument that measures the mass
flow rate and density of a fluid flowing through a tube. The operating principle involves inducing a
vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes. The vibration, though not completely circular,
provides the rotating reference frame that gives rise to the Coriolis effect. While specific methods vary
according to the design of the flow meter, sensors monitor and analyze changes in frequency, phase shift,
and amplitude of the vibrating flow tubes. The changes observed represent the mass flow rate and density
of the fluid.[74]

Molecular physics
In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal
vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms
are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects are therefore
present, and make the atoms move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a
mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational levels, from which Coriolis coupling
constants can be determined.[75]

24
Gyroscopic precession
When an external torque is applied to a spinning gyroscope along an axis that is at right angles to the spin
axis, the rim velocity that is associated with the spin becomes radially directed in relation to the external
torque axis. This causes a Torque Induced force to act on the rim in such a way as to tilt the gyroscope at
right angles to the direction that the external torque would have tilted it. This tendency has the effect of
keeping spinning bodies in their rotational frame.

Insect flight
Flies (Diptera) and some moths (Lepidoptera) exploit the Coriolis effect in flight with specialized
appendages and organs that relay information about the angular velocity of their bodies.

Coriolis forces resulting from linear motion of these appendages are detected within the rotating frame of
reference of the insects' bodies. In the case of flies, their specialized appendages are dumbbell shaped
organs located just behind their wings called "halteres".[76]

The fly's halteres oscillate in a plane at the same beat frequency as the main wings so that any body
rotation results in lateral deviation of the halteres from their plane of motion.[77]

In moths, their antennae are known to be responsible for the sensing of Coriolis forces in the similar
manner as with the halteres in flies.[78] In both flies and moths, a collection of mechanosensors at the
base of the appendage are sensitive to deviations at the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the pitch
and roll planes, and at twice the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the yaw plane.[79][78]

Lagrangian point stability

In astronomy, Lagrangian points are five positions in the orbital plane of two large orbiting bodies where
a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies. The
first three Lagrangian points (L1, L2, L3) lie along the line connecting the two large bodies, while the last
two points (L4 and L5) each form an equilateral triangle with the two large bodies. The L4 and L5 points,
although they correspond to maxima of the effective potential in the coordinate frame that rotates with
the two large bodies, are stable due to the Coriolis effect.[80] The stability can result in orbits around just
L4 or L5, known as tadpole orbits, where trojans can be found. It can also result in orbits that encircle L3,
L4, and L5, known as horseshoe orbits.

25
Notes
1. Frautschi, Steven C.; Olenick, Richard P.; Apostol, Tom M.; Goodstein, David L. (2007). The
Mechanical Universe: Mechanics and Heat, Advanced Edition (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=ZTnxQGJ1fHMC) (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-
521-71590-4. Extract of page 208 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTnxQGJ1fHMC&p
g=PA208)
2. Bhatia, V.B. (1997). Classical Mechanics: With introduction to Nonlinear Oscillations and
Chaos. Narosa Publishing House. p. 201. ISBN 978-81-7319-105-3.
3. The fact that inertial and not inertial frames of reference raise to different expressions of the
Newton's laws is the first hint of the crise of the non-relativistic physics: in non-inertial
frames, where the metrics is non-Euclidean and not flat, (spatial) curvilinear coordinates
must forcedly be used and fictitious forces like the Centrifugal force and Coriolis force
originate from the Christoffel symbols, so from the (purely spatial) curvature:
, where are the contravariant components of the force per unit mass,
and are the Christoffel symbols of the second kind, see, for instance: David, Kay,
Tensor Calculus (1988) McGraw-Hill Book Company ISBN 0-07-033484-6, Section 11.4 or:
Adler, R., Bazin, M., & Schiffer, M. Introduction to General Relativity (New York, 1965). In
any case this generalized "Newton's second law" must wait the general relativity to extend
metrics to spacetime to finally obtain the good time and space metric changes and the
tensor nature of the Newton's law through the force-power density tensor, that is derived
from the covariant divergence of the energy-momentum stress tensor.
4. "Coriolis Effect: Because the Earth turns – Teacher's guide" (http://www.ametsoc.org/amsed
u/proj_atm/modules/Coriolis.pdf) (PDF). Project ATMOSPHERE. American Meteorological
Society. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
5. Beckers, Benoit (2013). Solar Energy at Urban Scale (https://books.google.com/books?id=
GAOnjP4k7SQC). John Wiley & Sons. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-118-61436-5. Extract of page
116 (https://books.google.com/books?id=GAOnjP4k7SQC&pg=PT116)
6. Toossi, Reza (2009). Energy and the Environment: Resources, Technologies, and Impacts
(https://books.google.com/books?id=-cb2EyrWbg0C). Verve Publishers. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-
4276-1867-2. Extract of page 48 (https://books.google.com/books?id=-cb2EyrWbg0C&pg=P
A48)
7. "MIT: Flow in rotating environments" (https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth-atmospheric-and-pla
netary-sciences/12-090-introduction-to-fluid-motions-sediment-transport-and-current-genera ted-
sedimentary-structures-fall-2006/course-textbook/ch7.pdf) (PDF).
8. Shakur, Asif (2014). "Debunking Coriolis Force Myths". The Physics Teacher. 52 (8): 464–
465. Bibcode:2014PhTea..52..464S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhTea..52..464
S). doi:10.1119/1.4897580 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.4897580).
9. "Can somebody finally settle this question: Does water flowing down a drainspin in different
directions depending on which hemisphere you're in? And ifso, why?" (https://www.scientific
american.com/article/can-somebody-finally-sett/). Scientific American.
10. "Coriolis Force Effect on Drains" (https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/coriolis-effect/).
Snopes.com.

26
11. Graney, Christopher M. (2011). "Coriolis effect, two centuries before Coriolis". Physics
Today. 64 (8): 8. Bibcode:2011PhT....64h...8G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Ph
T....64h...8G). doi:10.1063/PT.3.1195 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.1195).
12. Graney, Christopher (24 November 2016). "The Coriolis Effect Further Described in the
Seventeenth Century". Physics Today. 70 (7): 12–13. arXiv:1611.07912 (https://arxiv.org/ab
s/1611.07912). Bibcode:2017PhT ... 70g..12G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Ph
T....70g..12G). doi:10.1063/PT.3.3610 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.3610).
13. Truesdell, Clifford. Essays in the History of Mechanics. Springer Science & Business Media,
2012., p. 225
14. Persson, A. "The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and
mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885." History of Meteorology 2 (2005): 1–24.
15. Cartwright, David Edgar (2000). Tides: A Scientific History (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=78bE5U7TVuIC&pg=PA74). Cambridge University Press. p. 74.
ISBN 9780521797467.
16. G-G Coriolis (1835). "Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps". J. De
l'Ecole Royale Polytechnique. 15: 144–154.
17. Dugas, René and J. R. Maddox (1988). A History of Mechanics (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=vPT-JubW-7QC&pg=PA374). Courier Dover Publications: p. 374. ISBN 0-486-
65632-2
18. Bartholomew Price (1862). A Treatise on Infinitesimal Calculus : Vol. IV. The dynamics of
material systems (https://books.google.com/?id=qrMA0R_0TPEC&pg=PA420). Oxford :
University Press. pp. 418–420.
19. Arthur Gordon Webster (1912). The Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid
Bodies (https://archive.org/details/dynamicsparticl04websgoog). B. G. Teubner. p. 320 (http
s://archive.org/details/dynamicsparticl04websgoog/page/n336). ISBN 978-1-113-14861-2.
20. Edwin b. Wilson (1920). James McKeen Cattell (ed.). "Space, Time, and Gravitation" (http
s://books.google.com/?id=xYUZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA226). The Scientific Monthly. 10: 226.
21. William Ferrel (November 1856). "An Essay on the Winds and the Currents of the Ocean" (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20131011124201/http://www.aos.princeton.edu/WWWPUBLIC/g
kv/history/ferrel-nashville56.pdf) (PDF). Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery. xi (4): 7–
19. Archived from the original (http://www.aos.princeton.edu/WWWPUBLIC/gkv/history/fe
rrel-nashville56.pdf) (PDF) on 11 October 2013. Retrieved on 1 January 2009.
22. Anders O. Persson. "The Coriolis Effect:Four centuries of conflict between common sense
and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140411174448/h
ttp://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf) (PDF). Swedish
Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. Archived from the original (http://www.meteohistor
y.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf) (PDF) on 11 April 2014. Retrieved
26 February 2006.
23. Gerkema, Theo; Gostiaux, Louis (2012). "A brief history of the Coriolis force". Europhysics
News. 43 (2): 16. Bibcode:2012ENews..43b..14G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012E
News..43b..14G). doi:10.1051/epn/2012202 (https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%2F2012202).
24. Mark P Silverman (2002). A universe of atoms, an atom in the universe (https://books.googl
e.com/?id=-Er5pIsYe_AC&pg=PA249) (2 ed.). Springer. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-387-95437-0.
25. Taylor (2005). p. 329.
26. Cornelius Lanczos (1986). The Variational Principles of Mechanics (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC&pg=PA103) (Reprint of Fourth Edition of 1970 ed.). Dover
Publications. Chapter 4, §5. ISBN 978-0-486-65067-8.

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