ms asa SECTION IE HELLENISM AND ROMAN STOICISM Hellenism In 338 s.c. Athenian pride was humbled by defeat ‘at Chaeronea at the hands of Philip. Greece paid the penalty re to unite, and became part of the Macedonian “The glory of the city-state vanished when the polis became little more than a municipality in a far-flung empic. ‘century later, Greece became pat of expanding Rome. “Theories of politics appropriate to the city-state were no longer applicable in this Hellenistic period. Yet Greek inf ence remained strong and the empire tried to Hellenize itself through Greek books and teachers. The Greek language was used in business, Its artistic products, its buildings, baths theaters, were paid the compliment of imitation. There was also an increased interest in the mystery religions, the Orphic. with its basis in the sin of man, and the Eleusinian, wit ritual of death and resurrection paralleling the agricultur cycle, and offering a refuge in a future life. This is a perio’ 00, in which the concept of divine right, of semi-divine Kine» ‘emerges from the influence of Eastern despotic tradition. ‘The polis was no longer the end of political organization, With a large empire, including within it a variety of natioy and different laws, the possibility of a universal law emerse? Moreover, the welfare of the individual was no longer in tricably bound up with that of his city. There was no ona tion to participate politically, nor belief that individual fulfillment required such participation, $ ‘The two leading philosophies developed in this period ™* Epicureanism and Stoicism. HELLENISM AND ROMAN SroIcisM 103 Epicureanism ‘The concepts of Epicureanism are largely known to us through Lucretius, rather than Epicurus, The latter, born an ‘Athenian citizen in Samos in'341, founded his school tn his arden, a symbol of retirement from the world, ia 300 and in270 Be. For the Epicurean, the universe was chaotic and anarchic, composed of atoms and the void. All knowledge was acquired by sense perception; observation was therefore essential (0 Understanding. ‘There were an infinite number of worlds, formed by the chance combination of stom in infinite space. ‘The gods, unconcerned about human affairs lived in the void between ihe diferent worlds. They were not to be regarded sly oF feared, only to be envied. imsclf was made up of body and soul. Death was not to be feared. There was no such thing as immortality: after death, atoms of the soul were scatered. The aim of life there- fore was pleasure, the pursuit of which brought happiness, the final end. The injunction to follow nature. meant, sec plea- fire. Everything was desirable insofar as it Ted t0 pleasure, but above al, the sim was absence of pain and the achieve: iment of peace of mind. This would be obtained personally by self-contfol, the mastery and limitation of desires as fat a8 Possible to those that were strictly necesary. Also, it implied Timitation of social relaionships—"live unknown-—refusal to be involved in family or politcal affairs, skepticism toward Feligion, which the Epicureans considered largely superstition. ‘Yet atthe same time, the Epicurean theis was not simply fone of pleasure and pain—an idea that became singularly inluential--but also one of the voluntary creation of society and of law. Society was nota natural phenomenon, but rather 4 deliberate creation aimed at bringing order out of chaos. Tndeed, pleasure was augmented by the presence of law, pro- vision for punishment and preservation of order. It was this Stress on the opportunity for man to make his own environ- tment that led Marx to choose Epicutus as one of two writers ‘on whom to do his doctoral dissertation. Stoicism “Stoicism” is derived from “stoa” or porch, where Zeno, originally a Phoenician, began teaching about 300 s.c. The theory started from the premise of a natural order of the universe, which included the process of change, and which104 ‘Tue Great POLITICA THEORIES was a the same time divine, Man, a part of this divine org, ws ble of understanding it and its laws through ee eeeeierceoer ec and knowledge was obtained through reason. The golden sf was "follow nature," live consistently with nature, obey We Universal law of nature. , Happiness was the result of internal harmony. Nothing cought to disturb one's peace of mind. Man, living thrount feason, ought to suppress emotions like fear, lust or anxjt” to reach the desired state of apathia, ot inner tranquillity." ‘But if Hellenistic Stoicism stressed self-control of the ing vidual, it/also had far-reaching social implications. The stay was no longer the end through which man reached his full, ‘ment. Since all men possessed reason, since the law of nature applied to all, a universal society with cosmopolitan citizen, ship existed. The natural Jaw theory, touched on by Soph. cles, entered political theory permanently, with the Stoic be. lief that there was a natural law capable of being understood by man and providing a basis for political organization, No matter what the laws of their individual states might be, ‘men were all members of a universal brothethood, for they al Possessed equally a share of the stock of reason. Stoicism therefore implied equality, certainly between the sexes, and in the spiritual sphere. And it provided a beginning for inter- state relations as a means of settling disputes. The belief in a universal brotherhood is only the political aspect of the view that the universe is a unity, pervaded by reason. This view, in turn, is the rationalization of the perplexity of man, seeking security and certainty in the face of a mighty empire. Roman Stoicism Stoicism was formulated by the Hellenists, but it adopted by the Romans who merged some of their conserva tive, chauvinistic characteristics with it. It provided (re sid jn theory, often belied in practice, They ¢™ paiaiiea in particular, the emotional telfrastraint, the a {0 give vent to pity or grief, the display of courage, especial in the face of death, the heroie virtue—qualities that Shoke- ‘speare trayed so ificently i folumni execu por ‘magnif ily in his Vi i If the theory had radical implications for the Hellenists, was a quietistic philosophy for the Roman upper class ¥P° adopted it, perhaps as a rationalization of the need (0 I under, ‘oppressive rule in a period with little cultural, Phi HELLENISM AND RoMAN Srorcis 105 sophical or agricultural development. Stoiium for them imm- plied limitation rather than fulfliment. Happiness depended fn the absence of desires. Their advocacy of the Brotiorhoed Of man did not extend to abolition of avery eee n es sometimes led to amelioration of the lot of slaves- einen a cre, mt not wholesome "0 apply over? tale eee and to counter ev wir iT We 9, acs tec the capacity tine whoo a mob, to ennet hereon fetemer ses, o get clther for the paroose At caren for, to le lest apaciously. The inde tach, Tesi ean sax onlyn foot races and horse races bar fa inthe arena ofits. Wstrealiciained to Fortowero AI ite ts bondace Nag ime incetore habiate himelf this condition, compan Titi maonepeedgraprhtevergnod les war sc oration i sot hari thats, Sopasonate mi Creo ciacracmssanacigslchas UApvty-aved sees Sane obiema: hs ard can be softened, he narow wid, Yeu e heavy made lighter by the sill bearer. etna moreover mst not be st wandering fr afl ince ‘hey cannot be wholly confined, we may give them st site ar mumedine, Yemiy. What cannot be or cn BAIGE We we should leave alone, and follow what is reas inrcach of Nope, but th the knowledge that ae ‘Noe thould we envy men tn higher pce: wh tooks lofty i precpious. “Those agurn wom an uokind lt has placed in. an eqn cal postion wil be safer if they eliminate the pride from + Studion inberendy proud and. so far_as they! can, eH their fortune tothe Common level. = They may balance e thele perch mere securely if they prepare safeguards 10"? succesful descent by justice, gentleness merey, and geo nd Kindly adminisation, But the surest deliverance 08 these alternations of hope and despair fo Ax a imi © OH advancement; we should not leave the decision to Fortune But ourselves come toa hal far this side the reaches SU by precedent. The aspirations a man may entertain wil Fe the'mind alert bat because they are Timted they wil 01 him into uncharted and ambiguous reions va ‘Our nest point is avoidance of labor for empty ends 008 ‘of empty motivation, That is to say, we must not covet ¥h) ‘we cannot attain, or what, when we have attained it make us realize too late and shamefacedly the vanity of Gesires. In other words Tabor should not be vain tn Hrcontioiwtenaetnce ies PM eeealas cine dances Sibaieicis arty serene sooty eR ane en rena eso any ol nd an ie Se es wns aes Rents sisi tay Ses acest se naee teatiia eta tae nee ate Tid eft gf ein eat noe Seta hacteremre een thuclemarried lady... Every exertion mint have some rat (a a or oreo eres 1h ei ae ye ae ee cette areca nd their bemused. minds cannot, penctste the: exptines Peaicgieroens omega cate Pearaneertonice aetna see aca Beemer ee rere eet tcnace posnecieate ea beets eee rote ne el iene a reer nee edger acne ete ata ane oan ae ap eer ea oie Seep See ea eer Se Pitdarionrtecccereos ciety Gooake Merah att bey poten and fee of eto Nee ne ae ee dee Serene sc Ser tase Seiad ices teen tet etme eteee nna =} ISOMERS ut ro uaen ston ea Se eth ou temcmbar i acon Beecher rcrsncdty er ieee cae cap ta eciooco-ead Fe ee crit aaateetere Leeper ere ce a of wu Gat pop, ott gern Coy tt ee ol ie core it it produces iament iil110 ‘que Great POLITICAL THEORIES ee eae ws ma ne hol fe ea a find it recognizable. 4 the devotee of wisdom is ind ce = aye he wise ma put in his better part he is elsewhere; smn he eae to Fortune; upon it she may spend ion so wound to fence ough a roe, but wil emt ok me that subject £0 intr, my smyel My body able dome. Never shal this fh soul del in th eco assume a posture unworthy of a sme to fea, 27 gout of consideration for tht palty Foo an me ight hal sever my partnership with if to bear the loss of loved ones bravely, and all of them will happily survive you. This one training must one day be put toute. ‘Do not imagine that only great men have had the toughness to break through the trammels of human bondage. « «Men ff the meanest condition have made a mighty effort to break through to deliverance, and when they were not allowed to de at their dseetion or choose thee instruments for dying th) Snatched up whatever was ready to hand, and by thei own Strength transformed implements naturally harmless nt ‘weapons. .-- Nothing stands in the way of a man who wane {o break loose and get away. Nature's corral is an open SPa= and when pressure reaches the allowable point a man) Go p diy he would wih 0 be st unencumbered ay pow, FN, 25k you, can you consistently Diogenes Dacdalt Which do you considers sager the mat thought up the saw, or the man who took his cup £0 wallet and smashed i as soon as he saw a boy drinking "6, ut of the hollow of his hand? And today which would Yo ‘count the wiser, the man who invents a process for spravink saffron from hidden pipes to an enormous height, WH HELLENISM AND RoMAN SToIcisM at cor empties decorative pools with a sudden rush of water. who Sis astorted ceiling coffers of dining halls 40 ingeniously that OG pattern follows close upon another and the root changes Grvoften ax the courses, or the man who demonstrates to Himself and others that Nature makes no harsh and difficult Gumands upon us, that we can live without the marble- ‘worker and engineer, that we can be clothed without the silk Wade: that we ean have the necessities we require if we are Content with what earth carrie on its surface? And if the fuman race would hearken to this sage it would realize that the cook is a8 superfluous as the soldier. The men whose Physical needs were simple were sages or very like sages. Necessities requite little care; it is luxury that costs Tabor. Follow Nature and you will not wish for artficers..- "The essential soul has an irrational factor and also a ra- tional. The irrational serves the rational and is the one ele. tment which is not referred to something else but refers all igs to itself. For the divine reason, too, is sovereign over all Wg and subordinate to none, and our reason possesses the Same quality beeause itis derived from the divine... . The happy life depends solely on our reason being perfect. Only peice reason. keeps. the soul from being submissive and Stands firm against Fortune; it assures self-suficiency in what- ver situation. It is the one good which can never be impinged upon. A man is happy when no circumstance can reduce him; he Keeps to the heights and uses no buttress but himself, for a man sustained by a bolster is liable to fal. If this is not so, then many factors outside ourselves will begin to have power lover us, But who wishes Fortune to be paramount, or what prudent man preens himself on what is not his? ‘What is the happy life? Self-sufficiency and abiding tran- quillity. This isthe gift of greatness of soul, the gift of con- Stancy which perseveres in a course judged right. How can these attitudes be attained? By surveying truth in its entirety, by safeguarding in every action order, measure, decorum, 3 will that is without malice and benign, focused undeviatingly Upon reason, at once amiable and admirable. ‘The wise man's Soul should have the quality of a god's. What can a man. Aesire if he possesses everything that is honorable? If the dishoncrable ean contribute 10 the optimum state, then the hhappy life will be comprised of elements other than honor- able. And what could be meaner or stupider than to weave the {800d of the rational soul out of irrational strands? - "= If the honorable alone does not satisfy you, then you ‘ust ‘desiderate either the repose which the Grecks call ‘aokhlesia (“undisturbedness") or else pleasure. But the first112 ‘THe Great PoLricat. THEORIES: sad in any case:'when the mind is at liberty t0 sy, SE ince tang denon ts Sete of nae ais tis 10 add the irational t0UMe rational, pe pod of cate: thi gable Would You count dishonorable fo the Metis supreme good consist of fasyt man beng Oe ie should be croned lf the rou aa of al ining speies, which fs Second ony i the noblest of 2 hong daient Im fdder should herd it Se Mma part Stith soul han two vision: one yi. ted Senbtious, headstrong, swayed by passion, and the ofc ited, ambos, Prevod to pleasure. The former, whieh Bao wort pete quay and at least more gases unbridled but Je Cphiesophers have. neglected and ha aa eee ee eevee ull abject- ark exenial to area ee erajpedcasodnedar ta"orders and nes happy le ey PMroon of the noblest of creatures 8 thing imate ih ad gnoble, 3 monstrous hybrid moreover, cont ‘eile aiitsoned and badly joined members. re ot Megat choppy ewe In accordance with na tuna what gn scerance with tare sey oo ture t04 cr uholenen obvious, The endowment according {O nature which comes (0 us at birth Teall not a good but te ception of food. As faras perception of good and eit ected, Sth are equally matures an infants m0. et SShable of me good than sates or some dumb animal Mand why isthe good not present in tree or dumb anal! Because reason is not Hence the good is not present ina Infant because it acks reason, I wil attain to the good en When it ataies to reason, There isthe irrational animal, te ot yet rational, and the imperfectly rational; in none of thee I the good presen, because the good comes with reason. In the ational there cannot be good ever, in the not es ee eerie in the imperfectly rational cn be 20d gow, bet ner Ie bot ‘And what is this good? It is a free and upstanding mind which subjects other things to itself and itself to nothing: SO ar aces teaepoar Ce elngpeapabienotethiew good the paee rt IE inter ttyrerasec tite opera, Faas en, cre Sn mea eiapietecividonl easly sreope hectares a Heiney aly nee yo jive my af fal to any simple type of state, is. prot far a crerora ay il oe te robb tr ee a en cena ie Safety the political cquality, and the peace of the citizens, A a seer renner da ees Se pears reenact i ee Se eee omen ees teeta doen nena pr See eae ieietisrrericeser sre oot te oa ok Gnske ec Nature of Law ‘M. Law is the highest reason, implanted in Nature, which sommands what ought to be done and forbids the opposite ‘This reason, when firmly fixed and fully developed in. the hhuman mind, is Law. And so the most learned men believe that Law is intelligence, whose natural fuoction itis com: mand right conduct and forbid wrongdoing, They think that this quality has derived its name in Greek from the idea of granting {0 every man his owa, and in our language. I believe {thas been named from the idea of choosing. For as they have aitributed the idea of fairness to the word law, 30 we have134 ‘Tue Great Pouiricat THEORIES seletion, though both ideas proper ven i tat ore ant tink Ht be Ingen tae’ ongin of Justice is £0 be found the ore ii the mind and reason of the ite natural fore which Justice and Ioustice are measure. = Saw is nota product of human thought, nor is it ‘enactment of ut something eternal which rey 't? cnacmeat of PP conn im command and prohibit Rath primal and imate mind of Got whose rg Taw is te pina 04 oy compulsion or restraint. Wrcee lect all ngs he gods have given to the human race hy at Caw raied; for itis the reason and mind of yy teen a spplied to command and prohibition waiver SPP cules which, in varying forms and for the neeg of he iaomcnt, have been formulated for the guidance of Of he maornethe title of laws rather by favour than because ations Pally such For every law which rally deserves that they ate Tealy praiseworthy, as they prove by approximately name fioming, arguments. It 8_ agreed, of course, that Tavt te fetentad for the safety of citizens, the preservation of eres isa the tranquility and happiness of Buman life, and stat aoe who fist put statutes of this Kind in force con drat eheit people that it was their intention to write down weer pur nto eflect such rules as, once accepted and adopt, auld make possible for them an honourable and happy i Wallen such rules were drawn up and put in force, its Sica that men ealed them “laws.” From this point of view t Ean be readily understood that those who formulated wicked fod jst states for nations, thereby reaking thee Po iits and agreements, put ito effect anything but “laws.” I may thus be clear thatin the very definition of the term lay there inheres the idea and principle of choosing what i gine Sa ‘What of the many deadly, the many pesilentil stat which nations put in free? These. no” more deserve (0 te Called laws than the rules a band of robbers might pas. their assembly. For if ignorant and unsklful men ave 2 scribed deadly potions instead of healing drugs, these Cur possibly be called physicians’ prescriptions; neither io 8 iy Ean a statute of any sort be called a law, even thoul) halon, in spite of ls being a ruinous regulation, has 3° 1k. Therefore Law is the distinction between things JM unjust; made in agreement with that primal and most anor, of all things, Nature; and in conformity to Nature's ti, fre framed human laws punishing the wicked and of the good. Rome a above extracts are from the Laws, Boo meets the Laws, Book I, v and vi, ‘Right Reason and Nature a. MiesemrbcStacentteeceaee ees ANT eatyrectest sic hewn tcokay fortcrder? for ro- Nee nee thought and deed. oe ay TI eh we ten (am On Dat vs a ‘That animal which we call man, endowed with fore- sight and quick intelligence, complex, Keen, possessing mem- fry, full of reason and pridence, has been given a certain distinguished status by the supreme God who created him for hheis the only one among s0 many different kinds and varieties Of living beings who has a share in reason and thought, while 8 the est are deprived of But what move dvr, I wil ‘ot say in man only, but ia ali heaven and earth, than reason? ‘And reason, when itis {ull grown and perfected, is ight talled wisdom, Therefore, since there is nothing better than Feason, and since it exists both in man and God, the first ommon possession of man and God is reason. But those who have reason in common must also have right reason in com ‘mon. And since right reason is Law, we must believe that men hhave Lav also in common with the gods. Further, those who share Law must also share Justice; and so are to be regarded 8 members of the same commonwealth, a commonwealth of Which both gods and men are members. (This extract is from Laws, Book I, vii.) a There is in fact a true law—namely, right reason— Which is in aecordance with nature, applis to all men, and is