THE TWO REALMS: | SECTION VI : THE LAST PHASE The struggle for supremacy in secular affairs, ac- companied by internal disputes in both realms of government, continued in the 13th and 14th centuries. Innocent IV, Pope (1243-54), in his struggle against Frederick II, claimed su- preme power as Pope, as Vicar of Christ having power over infidels as well as Christians. He supported his argument with the forged Donation of Constantine that had given the whole of the Western Empire to the Pope, claiming that this merely recognized the existing situation. The bitter fight between Boniface VIII, Pope (1294— 1303), and Philip IV of France, over church property and taxation as well as ultimate authority, led in 1302 to the papal bull Unam Sanctam, arguing that “for every human creature it is absolutely necessary for salvation to be subject to the Roman Pontiff.” Similar conclusions, based on different ar- guments, were stated by Egidius Romanus, Giles of Rome and James of Viterbo. Yet Boniface lost the fight; the Papacy left Rome for the “‘Babylonish captivity” at Avignon in 1305. The Position of the ecclesiastical realm in the struggle had been immeasurably weakened. Ong the writers advocating the claim of the state to Pendence, and sometimes even control over the Church, Were Dante, Marsiglio of Padua, and William of Ockham. hi 8reat Florentine poet Dante (1265-1321) argued on ¢ Monarchia against the Papal claim to control seculal Were guides to these ends, and that both received their “thority from God. Emphasizing the importance of secular+ POLITICAL THEORIES Tue GRE 5 of the Emperor in every ag SPT the need for universal yee 0 as Want a universal ruler, the Empor the li dent both of the Pope and the Church’ who would be indepen political treatise of this group of wri” st significant cis of Marsiglio of Padua (129” exsvas the Deft" PACY the individuality and Syee 1343), His starting Prefore the need to maintain peace aay siveness of man, Civil society was dependent on my Oe community. ne order in the corm ction and contributing to the common Sarrying out theit ite dif 1m religior good, Secular rule was gute ache tues ee be discussed as SePesternal acts were subject to control, inner Wlio of Padua was primarily interested in the “ruling Marsh executive, directing organ of the “human leg. jee ihe whole political community). But he stressed the Re) me law to obtain community approval, by the people or “its weightier parts” This part did not necessarily need to be a majority, for quality was to be taken into account as well a quantity, It was this community approval that made law valid and gave it effective coercive power. The prince was con- trolled by the legislative power of which he was the servant. In a similar fashion, Marsiglio proposed that the ultimate cclesiastical authority should be “the whole body of the faithful including both clerics and laymen,” again exercised through the ruling part. The role of the Pope, therefore, was 2 Subordinate one. It was the General Council, elected by the faithful and convoked by the secular authority, which was the tira) body of the Churc! , having power over the Pope 4 ultimate decision over all spiritual questions. Lhe netteat to Se all this as modern democratic theory. Yet the arg this of law an fuments Of Marsislio that the people is the source Ockham | Papacy was taken by William ticipate, chro 1349). The whole Se tnionity> would Pe @ Council, Boechy of elected organizations. in i Ockham stater cAUSe Of the careful and fair way pposing views without conclude Id haya Position, it is not clear whet, of BaaY® Pad ultimate authority. BU ley hi # in his struggle against Pope J° fi Join © 8 independe ower: ( Nee of the temporal P THe Two REALMS: THE Last Piiase 17 Aquinas the 13th century, the works of Aristotle, which h fonpotten by all except Arabic scholars, reappeared in Wencen Europe, giving impetus to the idea of a secular commarn At first the Church was opposed to Aristotelianism, especially in its Averroistic form—from the influence of the Arab, Aver- The feconciliation of Greek philosophy with Christianit the great contribution to political philosophy maie Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Born of an influential aa! tious family, kinsman of the Emperor, member of the Dane jean order, friend of the Pope, Aquinas is the most systemure political philosopher of medieval Catholicism, even though his political writings are secondary to his theological discussion, Augustine and the Church Fathers had held that govers, mental institutions were the result of sin and necessary to mitigate its consequences. Aristotle's starting point was that man was a social animal, and that the state was a natural Phenomenon. The compromise of Aquinas was to admit the element of sin, but to agree that political organization was Ratural to man, and necessary for his proper development. Ultimately, all political authority came from God, but there Wete many possible intermediaries between God and political Tegimes, and purposes, such as the securing of justice, that Sovernment should seek to fulfill. snnauinas accepted the Aristotelian thesis of happiness as the fad of man and the importance of the temporal world. But the principal end of man was still the supernatural, the salva- Hon of his soul and future eternal blessedness. Future life was More significant than earthly existence; the Church as the a On concerned with this future life was superior to, Subjesreclitecting guide of, secular power, as the body was ae to the soul. Yet, the state was still important. Not only tional fasstY® OFder, but it also performed a positive, educa- function. ‘Aquinas’ discussion of law revolved around four different ¢ Bternal law governed the entire universe, including an- Chabled ne, im@nimate objects as well as man. Natural law se Possessing reason to understand and conform to tailed yarheprtuman law entailed the making of concrete; fre Taw wae able rules in accordance with natural law. Diving binding. “NC ultimate will of God. Law was rational an there is an implicit restriction on the extent of ‘al authority was binding only if it was in oe fatural law, divine law and the common good o!qs Guest POLITICAL THEORIES = ae it did not comform, governme, the whole communi Ut nt be resisted. If the tyrant tyrannical, 2m*— was permissible, and then only iblic authority. It was this cautioy, iby an aristocratic group that led Lorg i st Whig.” Ponto cal gins eT ceclesiastical power was alvayy ‘Though the Pat gypremacy of the Pope acknowledged, emphasized ed the autonomy of the state, and the natural. Aquinas adniesf political institutions. His emphasis on the eae in the good life and the common good as the yect of human law and the end of the state, meant greater jest OF Petar values. His discussion of law meant suppor Bist e'power ofthe whole community or its representatives Ara dipussion was another illustration of the rapidly increas. ine revival of Roman aw which was. challenging the ac teptance of custom as the basis for rules. Ideas of Representation Not only were there disputes and a struggle for supremacy between regnum and sacerdotium; there were also divisions ‘and struggles within each realm. In the latter, the Pope had ong emerged from mere pre-eminence in the Church to the dominant authority. In the former, royal power expanded # distinct nations began to develop out of the original trial pings: This expansion and move toward stronger ce tralized authority was accompanied by the development of embryonic civil service. In England, Henry II had used # tive system and judges to issue a series of eon a as common pvr Eh into the country at the end 0 those Grong nee: lye for Philip the Fair had advo face VIII, es Which led him to victory over Pope Mo. forward that gone, Tealms the argument had been T munity, whieh maganeal Power was derived from the «The secular rape init the ruler. ie Jects not bound by fendeeinBly had to take account of fy, Porations. The fie, {Sul ties, by townsmen, guilds a°4 ve ‘aken in the 13th oP ae representative SYS! and writs eatutY: The extracts in this, 3° he Bradual move in tye S424 bY the English kings illust?@™ duals outs€ Of the century from mere one i their delegation with “full a"¢c pio, Potestas. In England, France 3 g. 2 ‘Tue Two REALMS: Tue Last Puase 179 ‘uorie constitutional principles were in the formative stage hsevelopment. By this process, the king grew more es ful, gained assent for his policies, which could be effectively famied out, and got access to money. But those consulted toate able t0 present petitions to him—soon he would have to War and settle grievances before taxation would be approved “in the ecclesiastical realm, a similar double process was ‘occurring. On one hand, increased papal power was advocated by the theory of fullness of power, plenitudo potestati, mak- ing the Pope an absolute monarch. On the other hand, papal ‘supremacy was challenged by the claims of the bishops, and incteasingly by the College of Cardinals. The bishops, exercis- ing canon law, objected to the attempts of the Papacy to establish uniform ecclesiastical law, and sometimes might support the Emperor in his fight against the Pope. In the College of Cardinals there were frequent complaints from the fith century on that the Cardinals were being bypassed in ecclesiastical affairs. Canon lawyers increasingly put forward the view that the Pope was limited by existing canon law. This general position was supported by all 14th century Antipapalists and developed by the 15th century Conciliar Writers. The disputed papal election of 1378, beginning the Great Schism which lasted until 1417, weakened the position 6f the Papacy. The Church Councils, in 1409 at Pisa and in 1415 at Constance, attempted a reorganization of the Church. argument at Constance that “the General Council has authority immediately from Christ” has been called “probably Most revolutionary official document in the history of the that Bou of Conciliar writers included two important thinkers, Gerson (1363-1429), Chancellor of the University tapas: and Nicholas of Cusa. They argued that the Church fier than the Pope was the ultimate ecclesiastical authority, that the Pope was only the minister, not the monarch. A Teatail was the only authority that could validly interpret the Blin Of the Church. For Gerson, the Council, “the assem fine t®8ether and unified structure” of the Church had ute was'® Possession of the truth. For Nicholas, the emphasis ©n consent: “Since all men are by nature free, every tament ... . is derived solely from the common agreement Insent of the subjects.” The group had gone conc wutther than the anti-papalists of the previous centucin ape ® Conciliar supremacy over the Pope. Although fs hag QuBHt back and won at the Council of Basle, its P een reduced.- tanks The Need for Unity and Peace tain what temporal monarchy j Temporal monarchy, or bau in eae i extending over all people in time, thats? ‘over all things that are measured by time. Three main me 4 “concerning it require discussion. First, we may "sr whether it is necessary for the well-being of the world; second whether the Roman people were right in taking it upon them, “selves and third, whether its authority derives directly from ‘God or from some minister or ee of God. ss Tf there exists a purpose for human society, then thi "purpose will be the basic principle by which to festihe alls _ of the arguments that follow. For it would be irrational to ‘believe that one society has one purpose and another society another and that there is no single purpose common to all. We must now determine what is the purpose of human .28 a whole. Having determined this, more than half ‘done, as the Philosopher (Aristotle) tells us in tis Eihics, In order to see the point more cleatly sbserve that just as Nature fashions the thumb for nie hand for another, the arm for ye e fartfe man for one different from all these, ‘ne purpose the individual, for another the the village, for another the city, for # m, and finally, for an ultimate purpose, bY which is Nature, the Eternal God brint totality. some distinct function for which ined, a function which neither neither a village nor a city, nor * Power to perf |, So the Not simple existence, for that is sb, nce in combination, for that '5 tig ate existence, for that is fv" H cxistence, for that is participated. or "Ale Possible intellect, or caP2¢I hough angelic beings possess iP ished by potentiality, as i8 gent in a limited sense, and the! Uninterrupted act of under THE Two REALMs: TuE Last PHASE 18 1 would otherwise not be eternal. It ig evj hat the specific characteristic of humanity ehh therefore arcnion power ‘of intellect. 'y is a distinctive id since this capacity as a whol ee action at one time through one man or hey esformed ofthe groups described above, there must be a me yay ove mankind to exercise the power of primal matter, Wont ti s0, we should be granting the existence of unacwart Mt fentiality, which is impossible. wba ©... The proper function of the huma i fegate, isto actualize continually the entire cancion possible intellect, primarily in speculation, then, through ne extension and for its sake, in action. And since it is true tha, Whatever modifies a part modifies the whole, and that the nt dividual man seated in quiet grows perfect in knowledge ancl wisdom, it is plain that amid the calm and tranquillity So puase the human race accomplishes most freely and easily its given work, How nearly divine is this function is revealed in the Words: “Thou hast made him a little lower than the angels.” Whence it is manifest that universal peace is the b things which are ordai ines aire things which are ordained for happiness. came fst question was whether a single, temporal gov- Meceant, M25 mecessary for the well-being of the world. Its nd any Can be gainsaid with no force of reason or authority, Maiicor e ea by the most powerful and patent argu- Philoropeer DICH the first is taken on the testimony of the serts ther cinin his Politics. There this venerable authority as- at when several things are ordained for one end, one of ton of ra teBulate or rule, and the others submit to regula- ‘ace is on - +. We are now agreed that the whole human Tefore, ice for one end, as already shown, It is meet, ‘wis that the leader and lord be one, and that he be ia hy or Emperor. Thus it becomes obvious that Empise Potentially represent others by a certain OS fompoe Ney: For even as a bishop and his chapter a Ty Teptesents ail ooo, church, because that group P\ Way al gp® Metropolitan and his suffragans const _ “*ureh, and a patriarch and the metropolitans co itute a provin- stitute