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AE Lab Manual For Eee
AE Lab Manual For Eee
AE Lab Manual For Eee
Aim: 1. To plot the Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode under forward and
reverse bias conditions.
2. Digital Ammeter((0-200)μA/(0-200)mA) )
3. Digital Voltmeter(0-20v)
2. Resistor 1KΩ
3. Diode
Circuit Diagram:
i)FORWARD BIAS:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
THEORY:-
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are
curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is
zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the
circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is
connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier
is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential
barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit.
The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected to –ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the
junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current
(reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse
bias current due to minority charge carriers.
PROCEDURE:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Forward bias:
Reverse bias:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
V-I CHARACTERISTICS:
Calculations:
RESULT: The V-I Characteristics of the PN junction diode are plotted for the both Forward and
Reverse Bias conditions and calculated static and dynamic resistance in forward bias condition.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Aim: To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor of Full-wave bridge
rectifier circuit with and without filter.
Equipments Required:
CRO
Transformer
BNC Probes
Diodes IN4007
Circuit Diagrams:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half
cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge.
The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1 and D3 conducts whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL .
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D2 and D4 conducts whereas
diodes D1 and D3 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Procedure:
With filter:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected waveforms:
Tabular forms:
With filter:
Result: Observed the input and output waveforms and calculated the ripple factor of full wave
bridge rectifier with and with out filter.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Equipments required:
1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 22KΩ - 1 no.
2.2KΩ - 1 no.
10KΩ - 1 no.
1KΩ - 1 no.
Circuit diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
Procedure:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected graph:
Result: The CE amplifier is studied and frequency response is plotted. Band width is found to be
___________ .
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Equipments required:
1. Bread board
1KΩ - 1 no.
470Ω - 1 no.
Circuit Diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
In Common Base Amplifier Circuit Base terminal is common to both the input and output
terminals. In this Circuit input is applied between emitter and base and the output is taken from
collector and the base.
As we know, the emitter current is greater than any other current in the transistor, being
the sum of base and collector currents i.e. IE= IB+ IC In the CE and CC amplifier configurations,
the signal source was connected to the base lead of the transistor, thus handling the least current
possible.
Because the input current exceeds all other currents in the circuit, including the output
current, the current gain of this amplifier is actually less than 1 (notice how Rload is connected to
the collector, thus carrying slightly less current than the signal source). In other words, it
attenuates current rather than amplifying it.
Procedure:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected graph:
Result: The CB amplifier is studied and frequency response is plotted. Band width is found to be
___________ .
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Aim: To study CS amplifier and to find the frequency response, band width.
Equipments required:
1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 100KΩ - 1 no.
1.5KΩ - 1 no.
1KΩ - 2 no.
Circuit diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
Procedure:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected graph:
Result: The CS amplifier is studied and frequency response is plotted. Band width is found to be
___________ .
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Aim: To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in Common
Base Configuration and to find the h – parameters from the characteristics.
Apparatus:
3 Resistors 1K 1
4 DC Ammeters (0-200mA) 2
Circuit Diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Procedure:
Model graph:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Tabular Forms:
Input Characteristics:
VCB =
VCB = 0V VCB = 1V 2V
S.No
VEB VEB
VEB (V) IE (mA) (V) IE (mA) (V) IE (mA)
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Output Characteristics:
IE = 1 mA IE = 3 mA IE = 5 mA
S.No
VCB VCB
VCB (V) IC (mA) (V) IC (mA) (V) IC (mA)
Calculation of hib:
Mark two points on the Input characteristics for constant VCB. Let the coordinates of
these two points be(VEB1, I E1) and (VEB2, I E2)
VEB2 -VEB1
h ib = -------------------------
IE2-I E1
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Calculation of hrb:
Draw a horizontal line at some constant IE value on the input characteristics. Find
VCB2, VCB1, VEB2, VEB1
VEB2 - VEB1
hrb = -----------------;
VCB2 - VCB1
Calculation of hfb:
Draw a vertical line on the Output characteristics at some constant VCB value. Find
Ic2, Ic1 and IE2, IE1 .
IC2 - IC1
hfb = ------------ ;
IE2 - IE1
Calculation of hob:
On the Output characteristics for a constant value of IE mark two points with
coordinates (VCB2 , IC2) and (VCB1 , IC1) .
IC2 - IC1
hob = --------------- ;
VCB2 -V CB1
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Aim: To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in Common
Emitter Configuration and to find the h – parameters from the characteristics.
Apparatus:
3 Resistors 120K 1
Circuit Diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Procedure:
3. Set VCE = 1 volt by varying VCC and vary the VBB smoothly with fine control such that
base current IB varies in steps of 5μA from zero upto 200μA, and note down the
corresponding voltage VBE for each step in the tabular form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCE =2 volts and 3 volts.
Model Graphs:
2. Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on the y-axis and VCE on x-axis.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Tabular Forms:
Input Characteristics:
1 0 0 0
2 5 5 5
3 10 10 10
4 20 20 20
5 40 40 40
6 60 60 60
7 80 80 80
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Output Characteristics:
IB = 20 μA IB = 40 μA IB = 60 μA
S.No
Calculation of h-parameters:
Calculation of hie:
Mark two points on the Input characteristics for constant VCE. Let the coordinates of
these two points be (VBE1, IB1) and (VBE2, IB2).
VBE2 - VBE1
hie = -------------
- ;
IB2 - IB1
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Calculation of hre:
Draw a horizontal line at some constant IB value on the Input characteristics. Find
VCE2, VCE1, VBE2, VBE1
VBE2 - VBE1
hrb = ---------------;
VCB2 - VCB1
Calculation of hfe:
Draw a vertical line on the out put characteristics at some constant VCE value. Find
IB2 - IB1
Calculation of hoe:
On the Output characteristics for a constant value of IB mark two points with
coordinates (VCE2 , IC2) and (VCE1 , IC1) .
IC2 - IC1
hob = --------------- ;
VCE2 - CE1
Results:
The input and out put characteristics are drawn on the graphs and the h parameters are
calculated .hie= --------- ohms. hre= -----------hoe= -------- mhos. hfe = -----------
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Aim: To design and study Inverting and Non-inverting amplifiers using OP-AMP IC741.
CRO (20MHz)
IC 741-------------1 no.
CRO probes
Connecting wires.
Circuit Diagram:
1) Inverting Amplifier:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
2) Non-Inverting Amplifier:
Theory:
An inverting amplifier using op amp is a type of amplifier using op amp where the output
waveform will be phase opposite to the input waveform. The input waveform will be amplifier
by the factor Av (voltage gain of the amplifier) in magnitude and its phase will be inverted. In
the inverting amplifier circuit the signal to be amplified is applied to the inverting input of the op
amp through the input resistance R1. Rf is the feedback resistor. Rf and Rin together determine
the gain of the amplifier. Inverting operational amplifier gain can be expressed using the
equation Av = – Rf/R1. Negative sign implies that the output signal is negated.
The input and output waveforms of an inverting amplifier using opamp is shown below. The
graph is drawn assuming that the gain (Av) of the amplifier is 2 and the input signal is a sine
wave. It is clear from the graph that the output is twice in magnitude when compared to the input
(Vout = Av x Vin) and phase opposite to the input.
Practical inverting amplifier using 741.
A simple practical inverting amplifier using 741 IC is shown below. uA 741 is a high
performance and of course the most popular operational amplifier. It can be used in a verity of
applications like integrator,differentiator, voltage follower, amplifier etc. uA 741 has a wide
supply voltage range (+/-22V DC) and has a high open loop gain. The IC has an integrated
compensation network for improving stability and has short circuit protection. Signal to be
amplified is applied to the inverting pi (pin2) of the IC. Non inverting pin (pin3) is connected to
ground. R1 is the input resistor and Rf is the feedback resistor. Rf and R1 together sets the gain
of the amplifier. With the used values of R1 and Rf the gain will be 10 (Av = -Rf/R1 = 10K/1K =
10). RL is the load resistor and the amplified signal will be available across it. POT R2 can be
used for nullifying the output offset voltage. If you are planning to assemble the circuit, the
power supply must be well regulated and filtered. Noise from the power supply can adversely
affect the performance of the circuit. When assembling on PCB it is recommended to mount the
IC on the board using an IC base.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
In the inverting amplifier only one input is applied and that is to the inverting input (V2)
terminal. The Non inverting input terminal (V1) is grounded. Since, V1=0 V& V2=Vin , Vo=
-A Vin
The negative sign indicates the output voltage is 1800 out of phase with respect to the input and
amplified by gain A.
Procedure:
2) Setup the circuit on the bread board and check the connections.
5) Observe input and output on the two channels of the oscilloscope simultaneouly.
6) Note down and draw the input and output waveforms on the graph.
7) Verify the input and output waveforms are out of phase for Inverting amplifier and in phase
for Non inverting amplifier.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected Waveforms:
1) Inverting Amplifier:
RESULT: Hence verified and drawn the operation and respective waveforms of inverting and
non-inverting amplifier.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
1) Adder:
2) Subtractor:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
1) Adder:
Op-Amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals
such as circuit is called a summing amplifier or summer. We can obtain either inverting or non-
inverting summer. The circuit diagrams shows a two input inverting summing amplifier. It has
two input voltages V1and V2, two input resistors R1, R2 and a feedback resistor Rf. Assuming
that op-amp is in ideal conditions and input bias current is assumed to be zero, there is no voltage
drop across the resistor Rcomp and hence the non-inverting input terminal is at ground potential.
By taking nodal equations,
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉0
+ + = 0 − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 =– [( ) 𝑉1 + ( ) 𝑉2 ] − − − − − −(2)
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐴𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑓 = 1 𝐾Ω
𝑉0 = − (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
Hence the output is inverted sum of inputs.
2) Subtractor:
A basic differential amplifier can be used as a sub tractor. It has two input signals V1 and
V2 and two input resistances R1 and R2 and a feedback resistor Rf. The input signals scaled to
the desired values by selecting appropriate values for the external resistors. From the figure, the
output voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of ‘1’ is
𝑅
𝑉0 = − (𝑉 − 𝑉1 ) − − − − − −(3)
𝑅𝑓 2
𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − − − − − − − − − (4)
Procedure:
1) Adder:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply dc voltages at each input terminal for V1 and V2 from the dc supply and check the
output voltage Vo at the output terminal.
4. Tabulate 3 different sets of readings by repeating the above step.
5. Compare practical Vo with the theoretical output voltage Vo =V1+V2.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
2) Subtractor:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply dc voltages at each input terminal for V1 and V2 from the dc supply and check the
output voltage Vo at the output terminal.
4. Tabulate 3 different sets of readings by repeating the above step.
5. Compare practical Vo with the theoretical output voltage Vo =V2-V1.
Observation Tables:
1) Adder:
2) Subtractor:
Result:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Circuit Diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
A circuit in which the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage is called an
integrator.
In the practical integrator to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor RF is
connected across the feedback capacitor CF. Thus, RF limits the low-frequency gain and hence
minimizes the variations in the output voltage.
The frequency response of the integrator is shown in the fig. fb is the frequency at which
the gain is 0 dB and is given by fb = 1/2 R1Cf.
In this fig. there is some relative operating frequency, and for frequencies from f to fa the
gain RF/R1 is constant. However, after fa the gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade. In other
words, between fa and fb the circuit of fig. acts as an integrator. The gain limiting frequency fa is
given by
fa=1/2𝜋RfCf
Normally fa<fb. From the above equation, we can calculate Rf by assuming fa& Cf.
This is very important frequency. It tells us where the useful integration range starts.
If fin <fa - circuit acts like a simple inverting amplifier and no integration results,
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
In the circuit diagram of Integrator, the values are calculated by assuming fa as 50 Hz.
Hence the input frequency is to be taken as 500Hz to get 99% accuracy results. Integrator has
wide applications in
Procedure:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply sine wave at the input terminals of the circuit using function Generator.
4. Connect channel-1 of CRO at the input terminals and channel-2 at the output terminals.
5. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a cosine wave (90o phase shifted from
the sine wave input) and note down the position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
6. Now apply the square wave as input signal.
7. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a triangular wave and note down the
position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
8. Plot the output voltages corresponding to sine and square wave inputs.
Expected Waveforms:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Observation Table:
Result:
For a given square wave and sine wave, output waveforms for integrator is observed the
output phase is leading by--------with respect to the input and the output phase is lagging by------
--with respect to the input.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Circuit Diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
As the name suggests, the circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation,
i.e. the output voltage is the derivative of the input voltage. Vo = - RfC1
Both the stability and the high-frequency noise problems can be corrected by the addition
of two components: R1 and Cf, as shown in the circuit diagram. This circuit is a practical
differentiator. The input signal will be differentiated properly if the time period T of the input
signal is larger than or equal to RfC1. That is, T>= RfC1Differentiator can be designed by
implementing the following steps.
1. Monostable Multivibrator
2. Signal wave shaping
3. Function Generators.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Procedure:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply sine wave at the input terminals of the circuit using function Generator.
4. Connect channel-1 of CRO at the input terminals and channel-2 at the output terminals.
5. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a cosine wave (90o phase shifted from
the sine wave input) and note down the position, the amplitude and the time period of Vi&Vo.
6. Now apply the square wave as input signal.
7. Observe the output of the circuit on the CRO which is a spike wave and note down the
position, the amplitude and the time period of Vin & Vo.
8. Plot the output voltages corresponding to sine and square wave inputs.
Expected Waveforms:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Observation Table:
Result:
For a given square wave and sine wave, output waveforms for integrator and
differentiator are observed the output phase is leading by--------with respect to the input and the
output phase is lagging by--------with respect to the input.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Equipments required:
1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 1KΩ - 2 no.s
320Ω - 1 no.
4.7KΩ - 1 no.
100Ω - 1 no.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
Procedure:
Expected graph:
Vo/p
AV= Vi/p
R R
Theoretical voltage gain Avf = R2 R3
1 5
Result: The current shunt feedback amplifier is studied and currents and voltage gains are
calculated.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Equipments required:
1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 22KΩ - 1 no.
2.2KΩ - 1 no.
10KΩ - 1 no.
1KΩ - 1 no.
4.7KΩ/10 KΩ - 3 no.s
3. Capacitors: 100µf - 1 no.
10 µf - 2 no.s
0.01µf/0.1 µf - 3 no.s
5. Connecting wires.
Circuit diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
An oscillator is a circuit which takes DC voltage or current and converts into useful Ac
voltage or current. It is different from the oscillator in the sense that amplifier takes AC and
amplifiers the given Ac signal where as the oscillator takes the DC input and converts it into AC,
there are the sinusoidal and non sinusoidal oscillators
Procedure:
Observations:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected graph:
1
Calculations: Frequency: F=2πRC√6
Result: RC Phase shift oscillator is studied. Theoretical and practical frequencies of RC phase
shift oscillator have been compared.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Equipment required:
Components required:
1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 22KΩ - 1 no.
2.2KΩ - 1 no.
10KΩ - 1 no.
1 KΩ - 1 no.
3. Capacitors: 10µF - 2 no.s
4. Transistor: BC107 - 1 no.
5. Connecting wires.
Circuit diagram:
Hartley Oscillator:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Colpitts Oscillator:
Theory:
Oscillator is a circuit which takes DC voltage or current and converts it into useful AC
voltage. Amplifier is different from the oscillator. In the oscillator DC is converted to AC. There
are two types of oscillators. They are sinusoidal oscillator and non sinusoidal oscillators.
Procedure:
Hartley Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Hartley Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Expected graph:
Calculations:
Hartley Oscillator:
1
F= , where Leq = L1 + L2
2π√LeqC
Colpitts Oscillator:
1 C .C
F=2π , where Ceq = (C 1+C2 )
√LCeq 1 2
Result: The Hartley and colpitt’s oscillator is studied and practical frequencies are compared
with theoretical frequencies.
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Equipments required:
Components required:
1. Bread board
2. Resistors: 147KΩ - 1 no.
510Ω - 1 no.
Circuit diagram:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
Theory:
This amplifier is called as “series fed” because the load RL is connected in series with
transistor output. It is also called as direct coupled amplifier.
Power amplifiers are mainly used to deliver more power to the load. To deliver more power
it requires large input signals, so generally power amplifiers are preceded by a series of voltage
amplifiers.
In class-A power amplifiers, Q-point is located in the middle of DC-load line. So output
current flows for complete cycle of input signal. Under zero signal condition, maximum power
dissipation occurs across the transistor. As the input signal amplitude increases power dissipation
reduces. The maximum theoretical efficiency is 25%.
Procedure:
Expected graph:
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ECE DEPARTMENT KITSS, HUZURABAD
2
𝑉𝑃−𝑃
AC output power = 8𝑅𝐿
P
Efficiency η%= (PAC ) x100
DC
Result: Class A power amplifier is studied and the efficiency is found to be__________.
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