KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE (Sponsored by VODITHALA EDUCATION SOCIETY, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to NTU, Hyderabad, T.S. & Accredited by NAAC B**) SINGAPUR, HUZURABAD, KARIMNAGAR, TELANGANA, INDIA — 505468 APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES DIVISION OF PHYSICS Name of the student. Hall ticket Number. Branch, Sec. Academic yearExperiment No: TORSIONAL PENDULUM Aim: To understand the least square method by torsional pendulum experiment and determine the rigidity modulus of the material of a given wire. Apparatu: Solid metallic cylinders with a pointer, Experimental wire about 2m length, Stopwatch, Screw gauge, Meter scale. Introduction: ‘This experiment is related with the topic of elasticity. Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a body offers resistance to any deforming force and regains its original condition when the deforming force is removed. All bodies can be deformed by the action of the external forces. Bodies which can completely rains their original condition of shape and size on removal of deforming forces are said to be perfectly elastic. The restoring or recovering forces per unit area set up inside the body is called the stress. If the internal force is developed perpendicular to the surface of the body is called normal stress. The change produced in the body due to change in dimension of a body under a system of forces in equilibrium is called strain. The maximum value of the stress within which a body completely regains i original condition of shape & size when the deforming forces are removed is known as the elastic limit, Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit the stress developed is directly proportional to the strain, The ratio of stress to the strain a constant and is known as modulus of elasticity of the material of the body. Corresponding to the three types of stain, there are three kinds of modulus of elasticity. They are Young’s modulus (Y), Bulk modulus (K) & Rigidity modulus (n). the rigidity modulus is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the angle of shear. Due to the rigidity modulus the material undergoes change in shape only due to the applied force and there is no change in size ot volume of the material. Theory & Formula: A body suspended by a thread or wire which twists first in one direction and then in the reverse direction, in the horizontal plane is called a torsional pendulum, The torsional pendulum consists of a circular dise suspended by a long wire of uniform thickness. The thickness of the disc is small compare to its diameter. The upper end of the wire is suspended from a ri id support by means of a chuck fixed to a wall. The lower end of the wire is gripped in a chuck fixed at the center of the disc. The disc is of metal and hangs in a horizontal position. ‘The disc turned through a small angle and released and it makes to twist the wire because of the twist developed inside the wire the disc will be making oscillations inhorizontal plane about the wire as its axis of rotation these oscillations are called torsional oscillations. wreeg TEM The resulting motion is rotatory simple harmonic motion with the time period (T) given by, T= w(t. Here I is the moment of inertia of the suspended body about the wire as axis and C (ly is the torsional couple per unit twist of the wire ie nat 26 Substituting in (1) we get ean 7 nar 2 8a, l a Here = length of the wire = Radius of the wire 11 = Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is drawn between T? versus. (is a straight line passing through the origin A grapl eevee 8x1 the slope of the straight line is equal to the “4— . By using the slope, we can calculate Al the rigidity modulus of the given wire with the following equation. 8x1, 1 dyne/em? 14 slope Procedure: 1, The experimental wire about 80cm length is clamped in a rigid support at the upper end through a chuck nut. The other end is clamped in another chuck nut on a solid ‘metal cylinder. The length of the wire between the upper and lower chuck nuts is noted with the help of a meter scale.2. Now twi the wire by turning the solid cylinder through a small angle in a horizontal plane without displacing its center of gravity and release. The system starts executing torsional oscillations about the wire as axis, 3. The torsional oscillations are counted with the pointer as reference and time for 20 oscillations is noted using a stopwatch. This enables to calculate time period (T), 4, Now increase the length of the wire by 10cm. Find the corresponding time of oscillations and time period. 5. Measure the diameter of the wire in two mutually perpendicular directions at different points of the wire along its length by using screw gauge. Take three observations and tabulate them, 6. Find the radius of the metal cylinder (R) by measuring its circumference. 7. Find the mass of the metal cylinder (M) by physical balance. 8. Using the appropriate formula for moment of inertia of the cylinder, I is calculated. Table: Length Time for 20 Time SNo | ofvwire | osiations titty [period T= |. Trial-1 Trial-2 a ‘ (fem +o tls) ‘th(s) 20 a) uf al oo ‘To find moment of inertia (I): ‘The moment of inertia about its axi ‘Mass of the disc M = 900 gm Circumference of the disc 2nR = cm. Radius of the disc R=__em. Moment of inertia I gm em? Radius (r) of the wire = cm. Least Square Method Least-square method is the curve that best fits a set of observations with a minimum, sum of squared residuals or errors. It is a statistical method used to find the line of best fitof the form of an equation such as y ix +b to the given data. The curve of the equation is called the regi jon line. The ultimate goal of this method is to reduce this difference between the observed response and the response predicted by the regression line that is to reduce the sum of the squares of errors as much as possible. Less residual means that the model fits better. Let us assume that the given points of data are (x1, y1), (2, Y2), (X3, ¥3)s +++ (ns Yo) in which all x’s are independent variables, while all y’s are dependent ones, This method is used to find a linear line of the form y = mx +b, where y and x are variables, m is the slope, and b is the y-intercept. The formula to calculate slope m and the value of b is given by: (ndxy — x dy) ny? — (Dx) » - 28 By = Txdw) ae oe Here, n is the number of data points. Following are the steps to calculate the least square using the above formulas. 1, Draw a table with two columns as ¢ and T? values then find £7? and £?, Find Y £, YT*, Y£T?, and Yf?. 3. Calculate the values of slope m and intercept b using the above formula. 4 . Substitute the values of m and b in the equation y = mx +b to get the best fit values. Table: S.No. [x=? yer xy x=? | Fitvalues =T=mx+b 1 2 3 4 3 6 n= [ze= LeT= rea Find the value of m by using the formula, (ayer? = Yeyt?) nye? = (ye)? Find the value of b by using the formula,Coe’ sr? - yeyer’y nye? — (pe) Graph: Ifa graph is drawn by taking the length fon x axis and T? (after fitting) on y axis, it will be a straight line passing through the origin as shown in figure. Result: The rigidity modulus of the given wire = dyne/em? Viva: 1. Define Rigidity modulus? What are the units of rigidity modulus? Define Time Period? Define Moment of Inertia I? What are the units of I in CGS and MKS system? ‘What is the meaning in calling this a pendulum? ‘What is torsional pendulum? ‘What is simple harmonic motion? eer anrwn Which type of harmonic motion is involved in this experiment? 10. Difference between simple pendulum and torsional pendulum? 11, What are the other elastie modulii? 12. What is Young’s modulus? 13, What is the relation between different modulii of elasticity? 14, What is the least count for screw gauge? 15, What is the principle for least count? 16. Two wires made up of the same material one is thick the other one is thin. Which wire has greater rigidity modulus, explain? 17. State whether the rigidity modulus of wire depends on the material of disc? 18, What are the applications of this experiment?Experiment No: B.H CURVE Aim: To study the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material in the presence of a magnetic field H and to plot the hysteresis (B vs H) curve. Apparatus: Deflection Magnetometer, A wooden bench with sliding magnetizing coil (S) and a Compensating Coil (C), Battery eliminator, Rheostat, & Commutator. ‘Theory: A ferromagnetic material whose atoms behave like magnetic dipoles produced by the spins of unpaired electrons. Domains form in the interior of the material with in which the dipoles align in a given direction but the domains themselves randomly oriented. In the presence of an external magnetic field the different domain moments tends to align producing a net magnetization in the direction of the magnetic field. The variation of the toa characteris magnet ic curve called ation M as the magnetic field B varied gives the hysteresis loop. Wooden bench Solenoid (S) Magnetometer Compensating coil (C) Battery _—Rheostat eliminator Circuit Diagram A ferromagnetic rod is magnetized by placing it in the magnetic field of a solenoid (S). The magnetized rod causes a deflection (6) in a magnetometer. The deflection is recorded as the current in the solenoid (I) is varied over a range of positive and negative values.‘The graph is drawn between Tan @ (B) and current I (H), which is similar to the graph shown in fig. As the magnetic field H is increased the magnetic induction of the sample increases as more and more domains align along the direction of the magnetic field. With further increase in H the magnetic induction B reaches to a maximum value (point a). If the current, I (filed H) is decreased the magnetic induction B decreases, When the current is made zero (point b) the magnetic Induction B however does not fall to zero. At this point the material has a residual magnetization and behaves like a permanent magnet. To make the magnetization zero (point c) requires a non-zero current in the reverse direction. As Tis increased in the reverse direction, B reaches to a maximum negative value (point d). Further increase in the current brings the magnetic induction to zero (point f) and eventually to maximum value (point a). +Hy B,; Remanence He; Cor Procedure: - 1, Complete the wiring of the apparatus according to the circuit. Remove all magnets /magnetizing materials form the vicinity. Bp Arrange the magnetometer scale along the East-West line, Set the aluminum pointer to read 0-0. 4, Positioning of the compensating coil (C): Pass current (say 1 A) through the coils S & C. Vary the position of C along the wooden arm until the deflection of the needle is zero. The magnetic field of the solenoid (S) is then nullified (at the position of magnetometer) by the magnetic field of C. Now the current in the solenoid is switched off, 5. Without placing the specimen in the solenoid, close the circuit increase the current up to 1 A in steps of 0.1 A. Also adjust the compensating coil such that the deflection in DM is 0-0 (readings at the ends of the pointer) for all values of the current. 6. Insert the specimen rod so that its leading tip is at the edge of the solenoid. 7. Close the circuit by placing the keys in the commutator, so that the current flows in the given direction8. Vary the current (positive current) using the rheostat from 0 A to 1 A and back 1 Ato 0A in steps of 0.1 A and note the deflections in the magnetometer 0) & 02 for each setting of current. 9. Reverse the position of the commutator keys to pass the current (negative current) in reverse direction from 0 A to 1 A and back 1 A to 0 A in steps of 0.1. Note the deflections 03 & 0. 10. Reverse the position of the commutator keys and vary the current (positive current) from 0 A to 1 A in steps of 0.1. Again note the deflections 0; & 02, by this time the ferromagnetic domains in the magnetic material are operated upon by the external magnetic field through one complete cycle. 11. Plot a graph of Tan 0 versus I reproduces the features of B & H curve. Precautions: 1. When the specimen rod is first introduced in to the solenoid, there should be no deflection of the needle at this point, since the material is not yet magnetized. If the deflection is observed, the specimen rod should be demagnetized. 2. The current variation sequence has to be followed strictly any change or back tracking of measurement will lead to incorrect result. OBSERVATIONS: One Direction: By picking plugs in commutator When current is positive value — During During Decreasing Increasing S.No. | Current Deflection Deflection DA Tor [os | Mean 0 | '° | To, [o> | Mean o | @® 1 2 3 7 5 6 - 8 5 10 iOpposite Direction: By changing plugs in commutator ‘When current is negative value — During | | During Decreasing Increasing S.No. |Current | Deflection Deflection DA Tes [Or | Meano| "919; [Or | Mean 6 @° T 2 3 7 3 6 Bee 8 9 10 i When current is positive value — During Increasing S.No. |Current | Deflection OA Ter] @ | Mean 6 | n° T 2 7 4 a 6 i i 3 9 10 I Result: The B-H curve (hysteresis loop) of the given Ferro magnetic rod is drawn,Experiment No: PN Junction Diode Characteristics Aim: To study the V-I characteristics of PN Junetion diode. Apparatus: PN Junction diode, DC Regulated Power supply (0-1V and 0-10 V), Resistor (1 KQ), Voltmeter, Ammeter and Connecting wires. ‘Theory: A PN Junction Diode is one of the s mplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the electrical characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage. Instead it has an exponential current-voltage (I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described its oper: n by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law. It works under proper biasing conditions. Forward bias operation: The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to P side and —-ve terminal is connected to n side, then diode is said to be forward biased condition. In this condition the height of the potential barrier atthe junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p- side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously thereby decreasing the depleted region. This constitutes a forward current (majority carrier movement — diffusion current). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short circuited switch, Diode offers a very small resistance called forward resistance (few ohms) Reverse bias operation: If-ve terminal of the input supply is connected to p-side and +e terminal is connected to n-side, then the diode is said to be in reverse biased. In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes from P-side and electrons from N-s ide tend to move away from the junction there by increasing the depletion region, However, the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This current is negligible; the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch it offers a very high resistance called reverse resistance (few Kilo ohms). Static Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the direct current flowing forward bias condition is known as its DC forward resistance or Static Resistance. It is measured by taking the ratio of DC voltage across the diode to the DC current flowing through it at an operating point.Dynamic Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the changing current flow I forward bias condition is known as its AC Forward Resistance. It is measured by a ratio of change in voltage across the diode to the resulting change in current through it for an operating point P. Average Resistance: Same as dynamic resistance but measured between extremities. Cireuit Diagram: 1KQ_ mA Ww —@ =~ (0-10V) 1N4007 (0- 10V) Figure (1) PN junction diode in forward bias Figure (2) PN junction diode in reverse bias Procedure: Forward Bias: > Connect the diode in forward bias i.e., Anode is connected to positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply > In Forward Bias, Current (1) should be in mA position & similarly Voltage (V) should be in 1V > Now Switch ON the main supply & Vary the power supply with help of NOBE > For various values of forward voltage (V;) note down the corresponding values of forward current (Ij). Reversed Bias: > Connect the diode in Reversed bias i.e., Anode is connected to Negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to Positive of the power supply > In Reversed Bias Current (1) should be in wA position & similarly Voltage (V) should be in 10V > Now Switch ON the main supply & Vary the power supply with help of NOBE > For various values of reverse voltage (V,) note down the corresponding values of reverse current (I,).‘Tabular column: Forward bias Reverse bias S.No ‘Ve (volts) Tp (mA) Ve (volts) Te (HA) Model Graph: ‘Voltage (V)Precautions: > vi While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage of the diode. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram, Result: Viva voce questions 24a AnD ‘The VI characteristics of PN junction diode is drawn, Cut in voltage = .........V . What is a Diode? What is Biasing? What are the different types of Biasing? . What are the applications of a p-n junction Diode? What are the materials used in the manufacture of a Diode’ . What is the precaution regarding applied voltage? Iw \crease the reverse voltage what happens to diode current? . What is mean by breakdown voltage?Experiment No: ‘Zener Diode Characteristics of Zener diode and find the Zener break down To plot Volt-Ampere characteristi voltage in reverse biased condition. Apparatus: Zenar diode, DC Regulated Power supply (0-10V variable), Resistor (1 KQ), Voltmeter, Ammeter, and Connecting wires. Theory: Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but they are specially designed to have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any reverse voltage applied to it. ‘The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward direction, that s Anode positive with respect to its Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current. However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction. This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current start to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage. The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved, this reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse voltages. The voltage point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, ( Vz ) and for zener diodes this voltage can range from less than one volt toa few hundred volts. ‘The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.Zenar Diode Symbol or cau ge Cathode w) Anode “ Circuit Diagram: 1KQ yma 1KQ. mA, W—} + + Ble G (uv) sev V. F010) zs rs 2 , @ Fig.1 Zener Diode in Foarward bias Fig.2 Zener Diode in Reverse bias Procedure: Forward Bias: > Connect the Zener diode in forward bias i.e., Anode is connected to positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply > In Forward Bias, Current (1) should be in 10mA position & similarly Voltage (V) should be in 1V > Now Switch ON the main supply & Vary the power supply with help of NOBE, > For various values of forward voltage (Vi) note down the corresponding values of forward current (I). Reversed Bias: > Connect the Zener diode in Reversed bias i.e., Anode is connected to Negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to Positive of the power supply > In Reversed Bias, Current (1) should be in SmA position & similarly Voltage (V) should be in 10V. Now Switch ON the m: v n supply & Vary the power supply with help of NOBE > For various values of reverse voltage (V;) note down the corresponding values of reverse current (I,).‘Tabular column: Forward bias Reverse bias S.No Vp (volts) Tp (mA) Ve (volts) Tk (mA)Model Graph: +Tr Forward, Current Reverse Bias Va (min) SSS SS 7 “Zener” Breakdown lune == = = 4 Reverse Constant Curront Zener Voltage “In Precautions: > While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage of the diode. > Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram. > Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram. Result: ‘The Zener diode characteristics have been plotted. > Cutin voltage Y > Break down voltage vExperiment No: Date: Bipolar Junction Transistor Characteristics Aim: To study the input and output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor in common emitter configuration Apparatus: Transistor = BC107; Input Resister Ru= 4.7 KQ; Output Resister Re= 1KQ ‘Van = Input Variable Power Supply (0-5V); Vec= Output Variable Power Supply (0-10V) ‘Vor = Input Voltmeter (0-1'V); Is = Input Ammeter (0-250uA) ‘Vce= Output Voltmeter (0-20V); Ie= Output Current (0-15mA) Cireuit Diagram: - le + Re A 1K era 5 9g a + + + Vse as VO) Nee Veo P ~ ~ (0-10) Procedure: Input Characteristics 1, Connect the transistor in CE configuration as per circuit diagram 2. Keep output voltage Vcr = OV by varying Vcc. 3. Varying Vp gradually, note down both, base current Ip and base ~ emitter voltage (Vie). 4, Repeat above procedure (step 3) for various values of Vee, Output Characteristics 1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram, 2. Keep the base current I = OWA by varying Vp. 3. Varying Vec gradually, note down both, collector-current (Ic) and collector- emitter voltage (Vce). 4, Repeat above procedure (step 3) for different values of In‘Tabular Column: Input characteristics: Ver=0V Vee =10V Ver =20V SLNo | Vor (volts) | Is (WA) | SLNo | Vee (volts) | Ts (WA) | SLNo | Vue (volts) | Ts (uA) Is =OpA In = 100nA Ts = 200pA SLNo | Vce (volts) [Ic (mA) | SLNo | Vee (volts) | Ic (mA) ‘Vee (volts) | Ic (mA)Model Graph: Te tyay Saturation Region Active Region tema] \, t voe(v) Cutoff Region Input Charateristies Output Charateristies 1, Plot the input characteristics by taking Veg on X-axis and Ip on Y-axis at constant Vee. 2. Plot the output characteristics by taking Vcr on X-axis and Ic on Y-axis at constant Ip Result: The input and output characteristics of the transistor in CE configuration is drawn,