Management is a systematic process of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and

controlling. As managers, people carry out the managerial functions of planning,

organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling.

Management can be viewed as the heart of an organisation because it spreads

motivation, encouragement, empowerment, development, guidance, education and so
much more to workers within the organisation who work together effectively towards
achieving a common objective.

The 'Classical' management functions appeared at the turn of the century (Carroll and
Gillian, 1984) and the 'Human Relations' viewpoint came about in the 1920's and 30's.

Classical Management

Jeliniek (2005), referred to Classical management as the result of the early attempts to
formalize principles for a growing number of professional managers. Frederick Winslow
Taylor (1856 – 1915) and Henri Fayol (1841 – 1925) are considered two of the
forefathers of classical management (Parker and Ritson, 2005; Parker and Lewis,
1995). Different management approaches have been devised from the 18th Century.
The Classical Approach to management which is the first theory of focus, highlights the
productivity and efficiency of work, the major classical approaches include Scientific
Management, Bureaucratic Management and Administrative Management.

Scientific management is the focus on the scientific study of work methods to

improve worker efficiency.Taylor is viewed as one of the chief contributors to the
scientific branch of classical management. The scientific management school of
thought reflected an engineer's ideology of work.

Taylor, while working as chief engineer for Midvale Steel, noticed a phenomenon
known as soldiering, (Bartol et al, 2006). Bartol et al (2006) describe soldiering as
“deliberately working at less than full capacity”. Taylor (1985) believed that by
applying a science of management based on four principles he could decrease
soldiering.

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Taylors four principles of scientific management are:Scientifically study each part of a
task and develop the best method for performing it.Carefully select workers and train
them to perform a task using the scientifically developed method.Cooperate fully with
workers to ensure they use the proper method. See appendix A for more details of
these principles utilized by Scientific Management Cole (2016).

Divide work and responsibility so management is responsible for planning work

methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing work.

Bureaucratic management encourages the view that an organisation needs to act

rationally and not on the subjective whims of managers or owners (Perrow, 1972). It
focuses on written procedures and formal rules (Holt, 1999, p. 137). This approach to
management draws largely on the work of German sociologist Max Weber (Bartol et al,
2006). Weber's work emphasized the need for clear passages of communication, clear
specifications of authority and responsibility and clear knowledge of whom is
responsible to who (Perrow, 1972).

Administrative management focuses on how managers can better coordinate an

organisation's internal activities (Bartol et al, 2006). Henri Fayol is the most widely
recognised contributor to administrative management (Breeze 1981; Breeze and Miner
1980; Crainer 2003). Henri Fayol identified five major functions of management:
planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and controlling (Crainer, 2003).

He is best known for his 14 principles of management (Bartol et al, 2006). Parker and
Ritson (2005, p177) point out that, though Fayol never advocated his 14 principles as
an all-encompassing solution to any problem regardless of circumstance, many authors
present his principles as inflexible. As is shown above Classical management promotes
the view of people as production mechanisms who can be made to work more
efficiently through scientific study (scientific approach). It encourages the use of
formal rules and written procedures bureaucratic approach) and also focuses on 'all
purpose' management functions and principles for any situation (administrative
approach). The Classical management view point is mechanistic; authority based,

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highly structured and promotes management-by-exception. It completely disregards
human behaviour and the effect it can have on efficiency. Human Relations In contrast
to the Classical viewpoint, the human relations or behavioural viewpoint focused on the
need to understand the effect of different factors on human behaviour (Bartol et al,
2006). It is based on research of human beings needs, perceptions and feelings
(Heyel, 1939).

Human Relations Management

The viewpoint of Human relations encourages an organisation to be seen as a “social

system with interactions, communications, alliances and conflicts” (Holt, 1999, p137).
The human relations movement developed from research done by early behaviourists,
such as Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo (Bartol et al, 2006).
This is the most well-known and important of these studies is the Hawthorne studies
(Gautschi, 1989). The Hawthorne studies were conducted at the Hawthorne plant of
the Western Electric Company. The studies tested the effect different factors such as
lighting on workers had on efficiency.

The results of the studies were not as expected and researchers discovered the
Hawthorne Effect. Heery and Noon (2001, p151) describe the Hawthorne effect as the
concept that subjects of experiments respond positively to being singled out as a
special group worthy of study. The results of the Hawthorne Studies caused the focus
of management study to change greatly and generated enough interest in the social
aspect of organisations to spark the Human Relations movement (Bartol et al, 2006;
Perrier 1972). Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor were two major theorists to
contribute to the Human Relations movement.

Maslow developed a theory of motivation based on three assumptions of human

needs. Using this he created a hierarchy of needs, introducing the concept that
workers have needs beyond the basic drive for money to put a roof over their head
(Bartol et al, 2006). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. (Maslow, 1970) Douglas McGregor
developed the Theory X versus Theory Y approach to behavioural management.

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Douglas' theory X and Theory Y refer to the assumptions that managers hold about
their workers (Bennis, and Stephens, 2000). Kermally (2005) describes McGregor's
theories as:

Theory X assumes

People inherently dislike work. As a consequence, they have to be threatened (using

disciplinary actions) before they work hard and also they have to be controlled.

The average person prefers to be directed and is not keen on taking any responsibility.
He or she is interested in focusing on meeting security needs.

Theory Y assumes

It is natural for human beings to put effort into work.Control and punishment are not
the only ways to make people work. A person will direct himself or herself if they are
committed to the organisational objectives and the job is satisfying.The average
person will take responsibility if there were proper conditions.

Employees like to be creative and use their imagination to solve problems. Maslow's
Hierarchy of needs and McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y help managers to better
understand and develop a view of workers' nature, their behaviour and how to interact
with them. These theories along with the Hawthorne studies and research done by
other behaviourists emphasise the view of workers as social people with varied needs.
The focus of the Human Relations management viewpoint is on how to best deal with
these needs and behaviours to help increase efficiency.

From the beginning of time, different management principles have exist and continue
to evolve today. If there was a plan to accomplish something great, there were
principles of management surrounding it for it to successfully be completed.The
classical and human relations management views are still relevant in management
today as it was in the 1880’s. With the use of more contemporary viewpoints such as
systems theory and contingency theory we can combine the strengths of each theory,

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and create a better guideline for future managers.These same principles are applied in
industries such as the manufacturing industry.

Four Theories Of Management And Their Contribution To The Modern

Management

Bureaucratic theory

Bureaucratic Management Theory is one of the several management theories in place.

This theory was put across by a German sociologist and political economist known as
Max Weber (study.com, 2017). The theory puts emphasis on the fact that various
elements within an organization play a key role in achieving its objectives and its day
to day obligations. It has two important parts which include structuring an organization
into a hierarchy then secondly, the organization is steered by rational-legal decision-
making rules that are clearly stipulated.

Bureaucracy Management Theory contribution to modern management

The theory has several advantages to the organizations that have implemented it. First
and foremost, bureaucracy offers centralized authority that is helpful in organizing
activities.
Champions for bureaucracy indicate that it brings about a chain of command and
regarding that, there will be clear outlined tasks of workers working in every
department. This way the management will have an easy task of monitoring their
juniors.

Another plus for this kind of management is that it supports the hiring of specialized
officials. Bureaucrats believe in hiring personnel with educational background and
expertise in their field of profession. By doing so, these non-elective members will be
able to maximize their knowledge and apply their skills.

With procedures and regulations to be followed bureaucracy has no room for favors
among employees. There is a systematic process involved and various requirements to

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be met to get an approval. This also shows that the management system exhibits high
levels of openness (R, 2017).

Bureaucratic management brings forth the sense of teamwork in an organization. This

kind of management is a way of leading and managing large numbers of people that
carry out tasks cohesively in unison to achieve an organization set targets.

It is, therefore, evident that teamwork fosters creativity and learning among staff
members. When people work together, brainstorming of ideas and creativity is
exhibited. Working in a team builds trust among teammates resulting to strong
relationships among themselves. Employees may be from different backgrounds, hence
the need to learn conflict resolution is quick and to apply it if the need arises.

Contingency theory to management

Contingency approach advocates that managerial actions and organisational design
must be appropriate to the given situation and a particular action is valid only under
certain conditions. It advocates that the managers should develop situation sensitivity
and practical selectivity.

It emphasises the multivariate nature of organisations and attempts to understand

how organisations operate under varying conditions and in specific circumstances.
Contingency views are ultimately directed toward suggesting organisational designs
and managerial actions most appropriate for specific situations.

Contributions of Contingency theory to modern management

 It empowers management to create specific, integrated solutions to solve
workplace issues and meet the project goals of clients. This can provide highly
specialized task completion, as long as managers and supervisors assign the
right mix of qualified employees.

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 Management embrace the contingency approach because it helps them
realistically relate to individuals, groups, and organisations, and moreover, it
sends a clear message to managers in today’s global economy. Strategic
management provide contingency theories with potential value for marketers.
 Managers can be flexible and adapt the management style to the situation at
hand and encourages management to view organisational behaviour within a
situational context.
 It involves identifying commonly recurring settings and observing how different
structures, strategies and behavioural processes fare in each setting. It offers
an alternative technique for generating marketing theory.
 It enables management to change employee roles to meet the individual needs
of a given project quickly. The highly-tailored nature of project assignments also
increases the chances a company will have the right people in place to complete
a job to the satisfaction of the client.
 Contingency approach is an extension of the systems approach. The basic
theme of contingency approach is that organisations have to cope with different
situations in different ways. There is no single best way of managing applicable
to all situations. In order to be effective, the internal functioning of an
organisation must be consistent with the demands of the external environment.
The managers must keep the functioning of an organisation in harmony with
the needs of its members and the external forces.
 Contingency approach highlights the multivariate nature of organisations and
explains how organisations operate under varying conditions. With its help,
managers can design structures which are highly appropriate to the respective
situations.
 If an organisation is operating in a stable environment, it can have a
mechanistic structure characterised by high degree of differentiation,
centralisation of authority, rigid hierarchical relationships, rules and regulations,
etc.

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Human relations theory

Mayo introduced the Human Relations School of thought, which focused on managers
taking more of an interest in the workers, treating them as people who have
worthwhile opinions and realising that workers enjoy interacting together. His theory
most closely fits in with a paternalistic style of management.

Contributions to modern management

Some aspects of human relations management can be applied to the modern

workplace. There are a few positive actions businesses can take to improve employee
performance.

1. Treat work naturally. Try to encourage employees to treat work just as

naturally as they would resting or playing. After all, this is one of the central
points of human relationship management. They are exercising their skills in a
professional environment. The more that employees can treat work as a natural
state, the easier this will become.
2. Share the big picture. Try to share the overall theme and big picture of the
job with employees. Everyone wants to feel valued, and they want to know that
their work is contributing to larger successes. When employees can see how
they fit into the big picture, they will be more motivated.
3. Give employees more power. Everyone wants to feel independent, and
nobody wants to feel like someone is constantly looking over their shoulder.
Therefore, push employees to innovate and make independent decisions when
appropriate.
4. Train employees and develop their skills accordingly. Employees who
feel like the company is investing in them are more likely to perform better. As
they grow, increase their freedom and responsibilities as well.
5. Reward success. Recognize employees when they do well. Nobody wants to
feel like their work is being ignored. Therefore, reward employees and success

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 and ensure they know their hard work is being noticed. This will encourage
others to work hard to achieve company goals as well.

Scientific Management Theory Contributions to Management

Productivity
One of scientific management's greatest accomplishments is increasing productivity. By
studying the activities of workers, scientific management discovered methods to make
every worker more efficient. Time and motion studies and other workplace studies
analyzed work operations and discovered the most effective and efficient ways to
perform jobs. By discovering how to maximize the efforts of everyone in a company,
profitability could increase, making organizations better able to compete in the global
marketplace.

Offshore markets
The development of offshore markets is one of the most significant developments that
scientific management has produced in the 21st century. As a result of its rigorous
analysis of labor techniques, many functions that once were accomplished in the
United States are now performed overseas. Scientific management measured the most
effective and cost efficient manners to produce goods and services. Frequently,
because of the high labor costs in America, companies moved production of goods and
provision of certain services to India, China, Korea and other countries, where labor
costs and taxes are much lower.
Total Quality
Total quality is a direct result of scientific management. Many principles of quality
improvement and the Six Sigma method of quality management trace their origins to
scientific management. The philosophies of continuous improvement, constantly
seeking better ways to improve quality, are also directly related to scientific
management. Japanese management, which led to the quality movement, traces many
of its principles to scientific management. The automotive industry and the military
have also greatly improved the quality of their products and services by stressing
quality improvement techniques.
Division Of Work
Dividing work between workers and supervisors is another direct result of scientific
management. Breaking a job into parts and making the work as systematic as possible
have produced greater results and standardization. The project management process
of today, used by most companies to manage large projects, is directly related to the
principles of scientific management. Supervisors also benefit from scientific
management through the systematic performance management processes used in

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most corporations today. The typical organizational chart for organizations is also a
product of scientific management principles.

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Reference List:

Bartol, K. ,Tein, M. , Matthews, G. , Ritson, P. and Scott-Ladd, B. (2006)Management

Foundations: A Pacific Rim Focus , McGraw-Hill: Sydney.

Bennis, W. ; Stephens D. C. 2000, Douglas McGregor, Revisited: Managing the Human

Side of the Enterprise, New York: John Wiley & Sons

Breeze, J. D. 1981, Henri Fayol's Basic Tools of Administration, Academy of

Management Proceedings, 1981 p101-105

Breeze, J. D. and Miner Jr. , F. C. 1980, Henri Fayol: A New Definition of

"Administration", Academy of Management Proceedings, 1980, p110-113

Carroll, S. J. and Gillen, D. J. 1987, Are the Classical Management Functions Useful in
Describing Managerial Work? , Academy of Management Review. 1987, Vol. 12, No. 1,
38-51

Crainer, S. 2003, One Hundred Years of Management, Business Strategy Review, 2003,
Volume 14 Issue 2, pp 41-49

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