Untitled

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - - - i
CHAPTER 1: SETS OF REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES - - - 1
1.1 Set of real numbers - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Symbol of quantification - - - - - - - 1
1.3 Inequalities - - - - - - - - -
10
1.3.1 Order Relations - - - - -- - - - - 10
1.3.2 Interval notations - - - - - - - - 10
1.3.3 Linear and combined inequalities in one variable - - - - 12
1.3.4 Absolute value equations and inequalities - - - - - 15
1.3.5 Rational and quadratic inequalities - - - - - - 20
Written Exercise 1 - - - - - - - - - 22
CHAPTER 2: RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS - - - - - - 24
2.1 The Cartesian Coordinate System - - - - - - 24
2.2 Relations - - - - - - - - - 24
2.3 Functions - - - - - - - - - 25
2.4 Graphing - - - - - - - - - 25
2.5 Algebra of functions - - - - - - - - 28
CHAPTER 3: POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS - - - - - - 33
3.1 Definition of polynomial functions - - - - - - 33
3.2 Linear functions - - - - - - - - 35
3.3 Quadratic functions - - - - - - - 44
3.4 Cubic functions - - - - - - - - 48
3.5 Polynomial functions of higher degree - - - - - - 49
CHAPTER 4: RATIONAL FUNCTIONS - - - - - 52
4.1 Definition of Rational Functions - - - - - - 52
4.2 Definition of asymptotes - - - - - - - 52
4.3 Graphing rational function - - - - - - - 52
4.4 Partial fractions decomposition - - - - - - - 53
CHAPTER 5: PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS - - - - - - 56
5.1 General piecewise function - - - - - - - 56
5.2 Absolute value function - - - - - - - 56
5.3 Greatest integer functions - - - - - - - 58
CHAPTER 6: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS - - - 60
6.1 Exponential functions - - - - - - - - 60
6.2 Solving exponential equations - - - - - - - 60
6.3 One-to-one and inverse functions - - - - - - 60
6.4 Logarithmic functions - - - - - - - - 61
6.5 Exponential – Logarithmic conversion (and vice versa) - - - - 61
6.6 Laws of Logarithms - - - - - - - 62
6.7 Solving logarithmic equation - - - - - - - 64
CHAPTER 7: QUADRATIC RELATION - - - - - - 67
7.1 Conic sections - - - - - - - - - 67
INTRODUCTION
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that deals with variable quantities. This
version of Pre-calculus for non - science majors represents a substantial step
in student accessibility.
Each chapter of this handout begins with definitions and notations which are
followed by worked examples to help the students understand the various
topics and to prepare them attempt the exercises. The primary objectives of
this handout is to give students substantial experience in modeling and
solving real–world problems and to enable them compete with other
students at their level in any part of the universe.
The care in printing, particularly the spacing between words and phrases,
has been employed with maximum effect to facilitate the quick recognition
of sentences and the solutions to example problems. Exercises are provided
at the end of each chapter to test students’ ability on how well they have
understood the topics. Student problems are there to serve as practice
problems.
Pre – Calculus – An Integrated Approach is mainly designed for students

who major in Accounting, Management, Economics and other social sciences
such as Agriculture and Enviromental Science.
I hope that this edition of pre-calculus will be of an immense benefit to both

students and instructors who may desire to use it.
Best wishes,
-i-
Chapter 1: Sets of Real Numbers and Inequalities
1.1 Set of real numbers
A set is a well- defined collection of objects of the same kind. For example, the set
of vowels in the English alphabets, i.e. {a, e, i, o, u}. A set is denoted or represented
by an upper case letter. The components or objects of a set are called elements or
members of the set. The symbol for membership is “Є“(epsilon).
Example: x Є A x is a member of set A.
xЄB x is not a member of set B.
Ways of describing sets
1. Statement method – a method in which we give word description of the members
of the set or define a property of the set.
Example: the set of colors of the rainbow
2. Rooster (Listing) method – is a method in which we list the members of the set by
using pairs of braces and separating the members by comma.
Example: A = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet}.
3. Set builder notation
Format: A = {x/x satisfies certain properties}.
Example: A = {x/x is a color of the rainbow}
Empty set and universal set
Empty set is a set that has no member or element. It is called a null set. { } or ɸ.
Universal set is the set of all elements under consideration. It is denoted by the
symbol “U”
1.2 Set Relationships
I. Equality
Two sets P and Q are said to be equal (ie P = Q), if and only if they have the same
elements. For example: If P = set of vowels in the word “Sunday” and Q = {a,u},
then P = Q
II. Equivalence
Two sets A and Bare said to be equivalent (ie A B) if and only if they have the
same number of element, not necessarily the same kinds.
Example: If A = { a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1,2,3,4,5}, then A is equivalent to B.
III. Subsets and unit set
If all the elements of a set P belong to a set Q, then P is said to be a subset of Q
written as P Q (also read as P is contained in Q). Equivalently, we can write
Q P which means Q is a superset of P. The symbols and mean “subset of”
and “superset of” respectively.
Note that: i. every set is a subset of itself
ii. the empty set is a subset of every set.
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For example, if P = {2, 4, 6} and Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} then P Q.
For every set with n elements, the total number of subset is given by f(n) = 2n.
IV. Proper subset
A is said to be a proper subset of B, denoted A B, if and only if every in A is also
in B, but A ≠ B.
Examples: If A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {6, 4. 2} then A B.
In general, the number of proper subset that can be constructed from a set with n
element is given by
f(n) = 2n – 1.
Where n is the number of elements in the set.
A unit set is a set which has one element. For examples P = (3), Q = {5), R = {7}, S
= {0}
Worked examples
1. Find the number of subsets that can be formed from set P = {a, b, c}.
Solution: f(n) = 2n {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}
f(3) = 23
f(3) = 8
2. How many proper subsets are there in a set with a) 6 members? b) 10
elements?
Solution: a) f(n) = 2n – 1 b) f(n) = 2n
f(6) = 26 – 1 f(10) = 210 – 1
f(6) = 64 – 1 f(10) = 1024 – 1
f(6) = 63 f(10) = 1023
Sets operations
The three (3) operations on sets are
1. Union (∪ )
2. Intersection (∩)
3. Complement ( ‘ )
I. Union of two sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted A∪ B is the set formed by putting the two
sets together. In particular, the union of sets A and B is the set of elements that
belong to either A or B or both. A B means “A union B”. The symbol “∪ “ means
“union”.
Example: If A = {1, 3, 5, 6,7} and B = {3, 5, 6, 7, 9}, then A∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9}
II. Intersection of two sets
The intersection of two subsets A and B of the universal set U (denoted A ∩ B) is
the set of all elements that belong to both A and B. Thus A ∩ B = {x/x Є A and x
Є B}.
For example, If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {3 4, 5, 6, 7}, then A ∩ B = {3, 4, 5}
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The Venn diagram
A set can be represented by any closed figure, such as a rectangle, circle, triangle,
etc. The diagram representing sets are called Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are
therefore pictorial representation of sets. John Venn, an English logician, was the
one who formulated the Venn diagram in the 9th century.
A∪ B, if A∪ B = U A∩B
For example, If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then

A∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and A ∩ B = {4, 5}
A∪ B A∩B
A B A B
1 2 3 4 5 1 4 67
6 7 8 2 3 5 8
III. Complement of a set

If A is a subset of the universal set, U, then the complement of A (denoted A’ is a
set of members which belong to the universal set U, but do not belong to A.
Generally, the complement of a set is equal to elements in the universal set minus
elements in the set. For example, suppose the universal set, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
and A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then the complement of A, which is A’ = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Thus the
shaded region in the Venn diagram below represents A’.
1 3
A
2 4
6 8 7
5 A’
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Properties of the complement of a set
1. The complement of the complement of a set is the set itself.
For example, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, A, then A’ = {1, 3,
5, 7}. Again taking the complement of A’, we have (A’)’ = A.
2. The complement of the universal set is an empty set. Complement of U is the
set which does not have any member. Thus U’ = ɸ.
3. The complement of an empty set is the universal set under consideration.
Thus ɸ’ = U
Properties of set operations
i. Commutative property
A∪ B = B∪ A
A∩ B = B ∩ A
Given that two sets A = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7} and B = {2, 3, 4, 6}, find A∪ B and B∪ A.
Also find A ∩ B and B ∩ A.
Solution: A∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7} and B∪ A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7}. Thus A∪ B = B∪ A.
A ∩ B = {2, 4, 6} and B ∩ A = {2, 4, 6}. Thus A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
Therefore union and intersection of sets are commutative.
ii. Associative property
(A∪ B)∪ C = A∪ (B∪ C)
(A ∩ B)∩C = A ∩ (B∩C)
Given that three sets A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3, 5} and C = {1, 3, 5}. Find a) A∪
B and B∪ C, b) (A∪ B)∪ C and A∪ (B∪ C).
Solution: a) A∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B∪ C = {1, 3, 5}.
b) (A∪ B)∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 5} and A∪ (B∪ C) = {1,2, 3, 5}.
Thus (A∪ B)∪ C = A∪ (B∪ C)
Note that A ∩ B= {1, 2, 3} and B ∩ C ={1, 3, 5}, (A ∩ B)∩C = {1, 3} and
A ∩ (B∩C) = {1, 3}
Thus (A ∩ B)∩C = A ∩ (B∩C)
Therefore union and intersection of sets are associative.
iii. Distributive property
A∪ (B ∩C) = (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C)
A∩ (B∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Let A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7} and C = {3, 4, 5}. Find the following:
1. B∪ C and A∩ (B∪ C)
2. A ∩ B and A ∩ C
3. (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
4. (A∪ B) and (A∪ C)
5. (A∪ B) ∩(A∪ C)
6. A∪ (B ∩C)
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Solutions: 1. B∪ C = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7} and A = {2, 3, 4}, thus A∩ (B∪ C) = {3, 4}
2. A ∩ B = {3} and A ∩ C = {3, 4}
3. (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {3, 4}
4. A∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7} and A∪ C = {2, 3, 4, 5}
5. (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C) = {2, 3, 4, 5}
6. B ∩C = {3, 5} and A = {2, 3, 4}, thus A∪ ( B ∩C) = {2, 3, 4, 5}
A∪ (B ∩C) = (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C) = {2, 3, 4, 5} and
A∩ (B∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B) = {3, 4}
Illustrating properties of set operations using Venn diagram

The relationship A∪ (B ∩C) = (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C) can be verified using the Venn
diagram below:
The operations in these diagrams are shaded in stages so as to get a clear idea of
what is happening. The operation represented by the shaded portion is indicated
below each diagram:
A B A B
C C
B ∩C A∪ (B ∩C)
A B A B
C C
A∪ B A∪ C
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
The relationship A∩ (B∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) can be verified using the Venn
diagram on page 6:
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The operations in these diagrams are shaded in stages so as to get a clear idea of
what is happening. The operation represented by the shaded portion is indicated
below each diagram:
A B A B
C C
B∪ C A∩ (B∪C )
A B A B
C C
A∩B A∩C
A B
C
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Description and identification of regions of Venn diagrams

Two intersecting sets
If U is the universal set and A and B are two intersecting subsets of the universal
set, then the figure below shows to illustrate or represent the sets A and B in a Venn
diagram.
U
A B
1 2 3
4
There are four regions.

Region 1 is A ∩ B’ (elements that belong to set A only)
Region 2 is A ∩ B (elements that belong to both set A and set B)
Region 3 is A’ ∩ B (elements that belong to set B only)
Region 4 is (A∪ B)’ (elements that belong to neither set A nor set B)
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The various regions for two intersecting sets are shown below.
U U
A B A B
A ∩ B’ A’ ∩ B
U U
A B A B
A∩B A’ ∩ B’ or (A∪B)’
De’ Morgan’s laws
De’ Morgan’s laws are two results involving union, intersection and complement
of two intersecting sets. They are
1. (A∪B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
2. (A ∩ B)’ = A’∪ B’
Law 1 is verified using the diagrams below
A B
A∪B (A∪B)’
A’ B’
A’ ∩ B’
Law 2 is verified using the diagrams on page 8.
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(A ∩ B)’ A’ B’
A’∪B’
Brief Historical Note
George Ferdinand Ludwig Philip Cantor is credited for being the father of modern
set theory. He was born on March 3, 1845 at St. Petersburg in Russia.
Set of numbers
Consider the six (6) sets of numbers listed below:
1. Natural numbers (N) – the set of counting numbers.
N = {1,2,3,4,……………………..}
2. Whole numbers (W) – set of counting numbers including zero.
W = {0,1,2,3,…………………….}
3. Integers (Z) – set of all positive and negative numbers including zero.
Z = {…… -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3……..}
4. Rational numbers (Q) – are ratio of integers of the form a/b, b≠0.
Q = {x/x = a/b, a Є Z, b Є Z, b≠0}
5. Irrational numbers (H) – numbers with decimal representations that are non-
terminating and non-repeating.
Examples: ∏ = 3.141592654…., e = 2.71828, etc. Thus Q∩H = ɸ
6. Real number (R) – a set of rational and irrational numbers combined.
R = {x/x Є(Q ∪ H)}
Worked examples
1. Given that A is a set of whole numbers between 0 and 6, and B is a set of
integers greater than – 3 but less than 3. Find A∪B and A ∩ B.
Solution: Rewrite the sets using the listing method.
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
Thus A∪ B = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A ∩ B = { 0, 1, 2}.
2. Let U be a universal set that contains all natural numbers between 8 and 20
and A and B be subset of U. If A = {multiples of 3 between 8 and 18} and
B= {even numbers between 11 and 19}.
a) List the elements of U, A, and B. b) Represent U, A, and B on a Venn
diagram. c) Find A n B and A’ n B’
-8-
Solutions: a) U = {9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19}
A = {9, 12, 15}, and B = {12, 14, 16, 18}.
b) U= {9, 10, 11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19}
A 10 11 B c) A ∩ B = {12}
13 A’ = {10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19}
9 12 14 B’ = {9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
15 16 18 A’ ∩ B’ = {10, 11, 13, 17, 19}
17 19
3. If A = {prime numbers less than 30}, B = {odd numbers between 8 and 24}
and C = {multiples of 3 between 10 and 30}, find a) B ∪ C. b) A∩ B c) A ∩C
d) B ∩C e) A∩ (B∪ C ) f) Show that A∩ (B∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Solution: Rewrite the sets using the rooster method.
A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29}
B = {9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23}
C = {12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27}
a) B∪ C = {9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 27}
b) A ∩ B = {11, 13, 17, 19, 23}.
c) A ∩C = { }
d) B ∩C = {15, 21}
e) A∩ (B∪ C ) = {11, 13, 17, 19, 23}
f) A ∩ B = {11, 13, 17, 19, 23} and A ∩C = { }, thus (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = A ∩ B
since A ∩ C is an empty set.
Therefore, we can clearly see that
A∩ (B∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {11, 13, 17, 19, 23}
4. Let U be a universal set that contains all natural numbers between 12 and 21
and A and B be subset of U. If A ={multiples of 2 between 12 and 19} and
B={positive integers between 15 and 19}.
i. List the elements of U, A, and B.
ii. Represent U, A, and B on a Venn diagram.
iii. Find A’ ∩ B’
iv. Find (A∪B)’
v. What can you say about (A∪B)’ and A’ ∩ B’?
vi. Find A’∪ B’
vii. What can you say about (A∩ B)’ and A’∪ B’?
Solutions: i) U = {13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {14, 16, 18}, and B = {16, 17, 18}.
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ii) U= {13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A 15 B
13
14 16 17
18
20 19
iii) A’ = {13, 15, 17, 19, 20} and B’ = {13, 14, 15, 19 20}
Thus A’ ∩ B’ = {13, 15, 19, 20}
iv) A∪ B = {14, 16, 17, 18}. Thus (A∪B)’ = {13, 15, 19, 20}
v) (A∪B)’ and A’ ∩ B’ are equal, ie: (A∪B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
vi) A’∪ B’ = {13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20}
vii) A ∩ B = {16, 18}, therefore (A ∩ B)’ = {13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20}. We can conclude
that (A∩ B)’ = A’∪ B’
1.3 Inequalities
1.3.1 Order relations
For two numbers, the smaller must be on the left of the larger number.
For example:
a b
I. a<b a is on the left of b.
II. b>a b is on the right of a.
Inequality is the mathematical statement that uses the symbols <, >, or ≠ as a
connective.
1.3.2 Interval notations

Interval is a subset of the real number line. There are two (2) types of interval.
I. Bounded interval
Name Notation Inequality Graph
Closed interval [a,b] a≤x≤b [ ]
a b
Open interval (a,b) a<x<b ( )
a b
Half open interval [a,b) a≤x<b [ )
a b
Half closed interval (a,b] a<x≤b ( ]
a b
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II. Unbounded interval
Notation Inequality Graph
[a,∞) x≥a [
a
(a,∞) x>a (
a
(-∞,b] x≤b ]
b
(-∞,b) x<b )
b
(-∞,∞) R
Worked examples I – Graphing intervals and inequalities

1. Express each of the following in interval notation and graph
a) -2 < x < 5
b) -3 ≤ x ≤ 9
c) -1 < x ≤ 5 n 2 < x < 6
d) x ≤ -5
e) x ≥ 5
f) -3 < x ≤ 8
Solutions: a) -2 < x < 5 = (-2,5) ( )
-2 5
b) -3 ≤ x ≤ 9 = [-3,9] [ ]
-3 9
c) -1 < x ≤ 5 n 2 < x < 6
l l l l
-1 2 5 6
-1 < x ≤ 5 n 2 < x < 6 = 2 < x ≤ 5 = (2, 5]
l l l l
-1 2 5 6
d) x ≤ -5 = (-∞, -5]
]
-5
e) x ≥ 5 = [5, ∞)
[
5
f) -3 < x ≤ 8 = (-3, 8]
( ]
-3 8
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-9-
Worked examples II – Graphing Union and Intersections of intervals
1. Given that A = [-4,1), B = (-1,3) and C = [2,∞), graph the indicated sets and
write as a single interval, if possible.
a) A ∪ B and A ∩ B
b) B ∪ C and B ∩C
Solutions:
a) [ l ) l l A = [-4,1)
-4 -1 1 2 3
l ( l l ) B = (-1, 3)
-4 -1 1 2 3
[ l l l ) A u B = [-4,3)
-4 -1 1 2 3
l ( ) l l A n B = (-1, 1)
-4 -1 1 2 3
b) l ( l l ) B = (-1, 3)
-4 -1 1 2 3
l l l [ l C = [2, ∞)
-4 -1 1 2 3
l ( l l l B u C = (-1, ∞)
-4 -1 1 2 3
l l l [ ) B n C = [2, 3)
-4 -1 1 2 3
2. If X = [-1,2], Y+= (1,5) and Z = (3,7), graph the indicated sets and write as a
=
single interval, if possible. (Student problem)
a) X ∪ Y and X ∩ Y
b) Y ∪ Z and Y ∩ Z
1.3.3 Linear and combined inequalities in one variable

An inequality of the form ax + b < c, where a, b, and c are real numbers is called
inequality in one variable. These are inequalities whose variable is of the first
degree. Their solution sets are in interval notation.
True (-∞,∞)
Note: Condition of solution sets
False { } or ɸ
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Worked examples
I. Solving a linear inequality
1. Solve and graph 3x + 1 < 7
Solution:
3x + 1 < 7
3x < 7 – 1 by transposing
3x < 6
3x < 6 divide both sides of the inequality by 3
3 3
x < 2 or (-∞,2) )
2
2. Solve and graph x + 2 < x – 3
x+2<x–3
x–x<–3–2 Combine like terms
0<–5 False statement
Solution set: { } or ɸ
3. Solve and graph 2(2x + 3) – 10 < 6(x – 2)
Solution:
2(2x + 3) – 10 < 6(x – 2) Remove parentheses
4x + 6 – 10 < 6x – 12 Combine like terms
4x – 4 < 6x – 12 Add 4 to both sides
4x – 4 + 4 < 6x – 12 + 4
4x < 6x – 8
4x – 6x < – 8
– 2x < – 8 Divide both sides by – 2. Note that order
– 2x < – 8 reverses since – 2 is negative.
–2 –2
x > 4 or (4,∞) (
4
4. Solve and graph 3x – 2(2x – 7) ≤ 2(3 + x) – 4
Solution:
3x – 2(2x – 7) ≤ 2(3 + x) – 4
3x – 4x + 14 ≤ 6 + 2x – 4 Remove parentheses
– x + 14 ≤ 2x + 2 Combine like terms
– x – 2x ≤ 2 – 14
– 3x ≤ – 12 Divide both sides by – 3. Note that order
– 3x ≤ – 12 reverses since the coefficient of x is negative.
–3 –3 [
x ≥ 4 or [4,∞) 4
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5. Solve and graph 5x – 3(x – 3) ≥ 3(4 + x) – 7
Solution:
5x – 3(x – 3) ≥ 3(4 + x) – 7
5x – 3x + 9 ≥ 12 + 3x – 7 Remove parentheses
2x + 9 ≥ 3x + 5 Combine like terms
2 x – 3x ≥ 4 – 9
– x≥–5 Divide both sides by – 1. Note that order
x≤ 5 reverses since the coefficient of x is negative.
x ≤ 5 or (-∞, 5]
]
5
6. Solve and graph x + 2 > x – 3
Solution:
x+2>x–3
x–x>–3–2 Combine like terms
0>–5 True statement
Solution set: real number line
7. Solve and graph 3(x – 1) ≥ 5(x + 2) – 5. (Student problem)
II. Solving a linear inequality involving fraction

1. Solve and graph x – 3 + 6 ≥ 2 + 4x
4 3
Solution:
x – 3 + 6 ≥ 2 + 4x Multiply the inequality by 12, the LCD
4 3
12 x – 3 + 6 ≥ 2 + 4x
4 3
3(x – 3) + 72 ≥ 24 + 16x
3x – 9 + 72 ≥ 24 + 16x Combine like terms
3x – 16x ≥ 24 – 63
– 13x ≥ – 39
– 13x ≥ – 39 Divide both sides by – 13. Note that order
– 13 – 13 reverses since the coefficient of x is negative.
x ≤ 3 or (-∞,3] ]
3
8. Solve and graph 2x – x – 3 ≤ 2x – 3 (x + 2) (Student problem)
5 2 3 10
9. Solve and graph 4x – 3 + 8 < 6 + 3x (Student problem)
3 2
-14-
Solving a double or combined inequality
When solving double or combined inequality, we proceed as before except we
isolate the variable in the middle with a coefficient of 1.
Note that “U” means disjunction (or / ≥) and “n” means conjunction or
combination (and / ≤).
Worked examples
1. Solve and graph – 5 ≤ 4 – 9x < 31.
Method I Method II
– 5 ≤ 4 – 9x < 31 – 5 ≤ 4 – 9x < 31
– 5 – 4 ≤ 4 – 4 – 9x < 31 – 4 – 5 ≤ 4 – 9x and 4 – 9x < 31
– 9 ≤ – 9x < 27 – 5 - 4 ≤ – 9x and – 9x < 31 – 4
– 9 ≤ – 9x < 27 – 9 ≤ – 9x and – 9x < 27
–9 –9 –9 – 9 ≤ – 9x and – 9x < 27
1 ≥ x > – 3 or – 3 < x ≤ 1 –9 –9 –9 –9
1≤x and x>–3
or – 3 < x ≤ 1
2. Solve and graph the following inequalities (Student problems)
a) 1 < 2x – 3 ≤ 4 c) x < 2x + 1 < 3x – 6
b) 3 ≤ 1 – 2x ≤ 7 d) 2 < 2x + 4 < - 4
1.3.4 Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities
We can express the distance between two points on a real number line using the
concept of absolute value. Consequently, absolute values often appear in equations
and inequalities that are associated with distance.
Relating absolute value and distance
We begin with a geometric definition of absolute value. If a is the coordinate of a
point on a real number line, then the distance from the origin to a is represented by
a , and is referred to as the absolute value of a. Thus 4 = 4, since the point with
coordinate 4 is four units from the origin, and -5 = 5, since the point with
coordinate -5 is five units from the origin as shown in the figure below.
-5 = 5 4 =4
l l l l l l l l l l
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Symbolically, and more formally, we can algebraically define absolute value as
follows:
x, if x≥0
Algebraic definition: x =
-x, if x<0
Note that – x is positive if x is negative.
-15-
Both the geometric and algebraic definitions of absolute value are useful, as you
will see in the succeeding topics.
The absolute value of a number is the undirected distance of the number from the
origin. Remember that the absolute value of a number is never negative.
Absolute value equations
In general, x – a = b represents the set of points on the number line that lie b
units from a.
Describe the following sets using absolute value equation. (Student problems)
1. A set of points that lie 4 units from 1.
2. A set of points that lie 3 units from -½.
3. A set of points that lie 2 units from 10.
Properties of absolute value equation:

For b > 0
1. x = b is equivalent to x = b or x = – b
2. mx + a = b is equivalent to mx + a = b or mx + a = -b
Worked examples
1. Solve and graph the solution set of x – 1 = 3
Solution:
x – 1 = 3 is equivalent to x–1=3 or x–1=–3
x = 3 + 1 or x=1–3
x=4 or x=–2
Solution set [–2, 4]
–2 4
2. Solve and graph the solution set of 2x – 1 = 5
2x – 1 = 3 is equivalent to 2x – 1 = 3 or 2x – 1 = – 3
2x = 3 + 1 or 2x = 1 – 3
2x = 4 or 2x = – 2
2 2 2 2
x=2 x= –1
Solution set [–1, 2]
–1 2
3. Solve and graph the solution set of the following absolute value equations:
(Student problems)
a) 3x + 5 = 4
b) 2x – 1 = 8
-16-
Absolute value problem with two cases
1. Solve x + 4 = 3x – 8
Solution: lx + 4l = 3x – 8 is equivalent to x + 4 = 3x – 8 and – (x + 4) = 3x – 8.
x + 4 ≥ 0 or x ≥ – 4 x + 4 < 0 or x < – 4
x + 4 = 3x – 8 and – (x + 4) = 3x – 8
x – 3x = – 8 – 4 – x – 4 = 3x – 8
–2x = – 12 – x – 3x = – 8 + 4
–2x = – 12 –4x = – 4
–2 –2 –4 –4
x=6 x=1
x = 6 is a solution since 6 is among the possible values of x.
x = 1 is not a solution since 1 is not among the possible values of x.
2. Solve 3x – 4 = x + 6. (Student problem)
Absolute value inequalities
Properties of the absolute value inequalities:
For b > 0
1. E < b is equivalent to –b < E< b .
2. E > b is equivalent to E < -b or E > b
where E is a mathematical expression and b is a positive real number.
For b > 0
1. mx + a < b is equivalent to –b < mx + a < b

2. mx + a > b is equivalent to mx + a < -b of mx + a > b
where mx + a is a mathematical expression and b is a positive real number.
Worked examples
1. Solve 2x – 1 < 3 and write solutions in both inequality and interval notation
and graph.
Solution:
2x – 1 < 3 is equivalent to -3 < 2x – 1 < 3
Method I Method II
– 3 < 2x – 1 < 3 – 3 < 2x – 1 < 3
– 3 + 1 < 2x – 1 + 1 < 3 + 1 – 3 < 2x – 1 and 2x – 1 < 3
– 2 < 2x < 4 – 3 + 1 < 2x and 2x < 3 + 1
– 2 < 2x < 4 – 2 < 2x and 2x < 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
– 1 < x < 2 (– 1, 2) –1<x x<2
–1<x<2
( )
-1 2
-17-
2. Solve 1 – 2x ≤ 7and write solutions in both inequality and interval notation
and graph.
Solution:
1 – 2x ≤ 7is equivalent to -7 ≤ 1 – 2x ≤ 7
Method I Method II
– 7 ≤ 1 – 2x ≤ 7 – 7 ≤ 1 – 2x ≤ 7
– 7– 1 ≤ 1 – 2x – 1 < 7 – 1 – 7 ≤ 1 – 2x and 1 – 2x ≤ 7
– 8 ≤ – 2x ≤ 6 – 7 – 1 ≤ – 2x and –2x ≤ 7 – 1
– 2 –2 2 – 8 < – 2x and –2x ≤ 6
4 ≥ x≥3 –2 –2 –2 –2
3≤x≤4 [3, 4] 4≥x x≥3
3≤x≤4
[ ]
3 4
3. Solve 2x + 1 ≥ 5 and write solutions in both inequality ant interval notation

and graph.
Solution:
2x + 1 ≥ 5 is equivalent to 2x + 1 ≤ – 5 or 2x + 1 ≥ 5
2x + 1 ≤ – 5 or 2x + 1 ≥ 5
2x ≤ – 5 – 1 2x ≥ 5 – 1
2x ≤ – 6 2x ≥ 4
2x ≤ – 6 2x ≥ 4
2 2 2 2
x≤–3 x≥2 (-∞, – 3] ∪ [2, ∞)
] [
-3 2
4. Solve and write solutions in both inequality and interval notation and
graph. 3x + 1 ≥ 5
Solution:
3x + 1 ≤ – 5 or 3x + 1 ≥ 5
3x ≤ – 5 – 1 3x ≥ 5 – 1
3x ≤ – 6 3x ≥ 4
3x ≤ – 6 3x ≥ 4
3 3 3 3
x≤–2 x ≥ 4/3 (-∞, – 2] ∪ [4/3 , ∞)
] [
–2 – 1 0 1 2
-18-
-18-
5. Solve 2x + 3 ≥ 9 and write solutions in both inequality ant interval
notation and graph.
Solution:
2x + 3 ≤ – 9 or 2x + 3 ≥ 9
2x ≤ – 9 – 3 2x ≥ 9 – 3
2x ≤ – 12 2x ≥ 6
2x ≤ – 12 2x ≥ 6
2 2 2 2
x≤–6 x≥3 (-∞, – 6] ∪ [3, ∞)
] [
-6 3
Expressing inequalities in absolute value forms
In general, if c < x < d, then x – a < b, where a = c + d and b = d – c
2 2
Worked examples
8. Express -4 < x < 2 in the form x – a < b.
Solution: c = – 4 and d = 2
a=c+d b= d–c
2 2
a=–4+2 b= –4–2
2 2
a=–1 b=3 therefore x – a < b x – (– 1) < 3
= x+1 <3
9. Write -2 ≤ x ≤ 8 in the form x – a ≤ b.
Solution: c = – 2 and d = 8
a=c+d b= d–c
2 2
a=–2+8 b= –2–8
2 2
a=3 b=5 therefore x – a ≤ b x–3 ≤5
8. If -5<x<-2, write 2 – x in term of an inequality.
2
Solution: – 5 < x < – 2 ----------- square all sides of the inequality

25 < x2 < 4 ------------- multiply by – 1
–25 < – x2 < – 16 --------- add 2 to all sides of the inequality
2 – 25 < 2 – x2 < 2 – 16
– 23 < 2 – x2 < – 14
-19-
1.3.5 Rational and Quadratic inequalities (in one variable)
We wish to find the solution set of the following:
i. ax2 + bx + c < 0
ii. ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0
iii. ax2 + bx + c > 0
iv. ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0
These inequalities are in standard form.
Steps for solving quadratic inequalities are
i. write the inequality in standard form,
ii. factorize
iii. find the zeros of the equation
iv. use the sign graph to test the zero of the equation
v. use the graph to identify the interval on the x axis that satisfies the original
inequality.
Worked examples
1. Solve and graph x2 – x ≤ 6.
Solution: x2 – x ≤ 6
Step 1: x2 – x – 6 ≤ 0 (write in standard form)
Step 2: (x – 3)(x + 2) ≤ 0 Factorize
Step 3: (x – 3)(x + 2) = 0 Find the zeros of the equation
x – 3 = 0, x + 2 = 0
x = 3, x=–2
Step 4:
–2 3
Step 5: [ ]
–2 3
The interval [-2, 3] satisfies the inequality x2 – x ≤ 6.
2. Solve and graph 4 – 3 ≥1
x+1 x+2
Solution: 4 – 3 ≥ 1 (x + 1)(x + 2)
x+1 x+2
Step 1: 4(x + 2) – 3(x + 1) ≥ (x + 1)(x + 2) (write in standard form)

4x + 8 – 3x – 3 ≥ x2 + 3x + 2
x + 5 ≥ x2 + 3x + 2
– x2 – 2x + 3 ≥ 0 or x2 + 2x – 3 ≤ 0
Step 2: x2 + 2x – 3 ≤ 0 Factorize
(x – 1)(x + 3) ≤ 0
(x – 1)(x + 3) = 0
-20-
(x – 1)(x + 3) ≤ 0
Step 3: (x – 1)(x + 3) = 0 Find the zeros of the equation
x – 1 = 0, x + 3 = 0
x = 1, x=–3
Step 4:
–3 1
Step 5:
–3 1
3. Solve and graph the solution set of x3 + 4x2 < 0
x2 – 4
p(x) x3 + 4x2
Solution: Let f(x) = =
q(x) x2 – 4
p(x) = x3 + 4x2 = x2(x + 4)
x2 = 0, x + 4 = 0
x = 0, x=–4 The zeros are 0 and – 4
–4 0
q(x) = x2 – 4 = (x – 2)(x + 2)
` x – 2 = 0, x + 2 = 0
x = 2, x=–2 The zeros are 2 and – 2
–2 2
If you test at x = 0, the result 0 < 0 is not true. Thus the solution of x3 + 4x2 < 0 is
x2 – 4
(–∞, – 4) ∪ (–2, 0) ∪ (0, 2)
–4 –3 –2 0 2
1. Solve and graph 2x2
– 7x ≥ 4
Solution: 2x – 7x ≥ 4
2
Step 1: 2x2 – 7x – 4 ≥ 0 (write in standard form)

Step 2: (2x + 1)(x – 4) ≥ 0 Factorize
Step 3: (2x +1)(x – 4)= 0 Find the zeros of the equation
2x + 1 = 0, x–4=0
2x = – 1 , x=4
x= –½ –½ 4
] [
–½ 4
-21-
The intervals (- ∞, – ½] ∪ [4, ∞) satisfy the inequality 2x2 – 7x ≥ 4.
Solve and graph the following inequalities. (Student problems)
1. x2 – 5x ≥ – 6
2. x2 – 4x – 5 < 0
3. x3 – 4x ≥ 0
4. 1 3
≥
x–2 x
x2 – 1
5. 2 ≥0
x –9
Written Exercise 1
1. Given that U is a universal set that contains all whole numbers less than 10
and A and B are subset of U. Suppose A = {all factors of 18}, B={natural
numbers greater than 2 but less than 8} and C = { multiples of 2 less than 9}.
a) List the elements of U, A, B and C.
b) Represent U, A, B, and C on a Venn diagram.
c) Find B∪C and A ∩ (B∪C)
d) Find (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
What can you say about A∩ (B∪ C ) and (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)?
e) Find A∪B and A ∪ C
f) Find (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C)
g) What can you say about A∪ (B ∩C) = (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪ C)?
2. Solve and graph each of the following inequalities.

a) 2x – 5 < 11 and 3x + 2 ≤ 20
b) x2 – x -6 > 0
c) 3m – 2(2m – 7) ≤ 2(3+m) – 4
d) 3y – [7 – (2 – y)] ≥ y + 8
3. Solve each absolute value inequality and graph the solution set where
possible.
a) 3 5x - 6 - 7 ≥ 2
b) 6 – 2x – 6 > 4
4. Solve and graph 3 – 2 ≥1
x+1 x+3
5. Solve and graph 3x + 5 = 4
6. In the problems below, what value of x each hold?
a) x – 2 = 2x – 7
b) 3x + 5 = 2x + 6
c) 7 – 2x = 5 – x
d) 2x + 7 – 6 – 3x = 8
-22-
9. Express the following inequalities in the form x – a < b.
a) –5 < x < 7
b) 3 < x < 9
c) –3 < x < 11
10. Solve the following inequalities and sketch the solution on the real number
line.
a) –8 ≤ – (3x + 5) < 13
b) 0 < x – 2 < 2
4
c) –4 < 2x – 3 < 4
3
10. Solve and graph the solution of the following rational inequalities:
a) 2x – 7 ≤ 3
x-5
4 1
b) >
x +5 2x +3
-23-
Chapter 2: Relations and Functions
2.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
Consider the diagram below:
x
0
The horizontal line is usually called the x – axis and the vertical line, usually y is
called the y – axis. The point 0, is the origin. The axes divide the plane into four
regions called quadrants.
Y-axis (ordinate)
Quadrant II Quadrant II
x<0, y>0 x>0, y>0
X-axis (abscissa)
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
x<0, y<0 x>0, y<0
Ordered pair is a pair of numbers whose order matters. For example (2,3) ≠ (3,2)
Plotting is the process of locating a point corresponding to ordered pair in the
Cartesian plane.
Graphing is the picture representing the point corresponding to the ordered pair.
This one-to-one corresponding is called the Cartesian coordinate system, named
in honor of French mathematician Rene’ Descartes’ (1596 – 1650).
Exercise I: State the quadrant in which each point is located.
1. (4,-2)
2. (-3,-5)
3. (4,2)
4. (-5,3)
2.2 Relations
A relation is any subset of R x R. Alternatively, any set of ordered pair is a relation.
For example r = {(1,2), (1,3), (2,4)}
-24-
2.2.1 Domain and range
The set of all first components, usually x, is called the domain of the relation. The
set of all second components, usually y, is called the range of the relation.
Exercise II: Find the domain and range of each relation.
1. A = {(0,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,2)}
2. B = {(-2,-1), (-1,0), (0,1), (1,2)
2.3 Function: A special relation
A function is a correspondence between two sets, the domain and the range, such
that for each value in the domain there corresponds exactly one value in the range.
Exercise III: State whether the following relation is a function or not a function.
1. A = {(0,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,2)}
2. B = {(-2,-1), (-1,0), (0,1), (1,2)
3. F = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (5,6)}
4. R = {(1,2), (3,4), (4,3), (3,7)}
5. K = {(2,4), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6)}
2.3.1. Functions specified by equation
Conditions: i) If the power (exponent) on y is even for an equation, then the
equation is not a function. Example: x2+y2=25
Exercise IV: State whether the following equation is a function or not a function.
1. x = y2
2. y = x2
3. y = x3
4. x = y3 + 4
5. y2 = x + 5
2.4 Functions specified by graph
To know whether a relation’s graph is a function, we use the vertical line test. If a
vertical line is drawn through a graph and intersects the graph at more than one
point, then the relation’s graph is not a function.
Exercise V: Determine whether each of the following graphs is a function or not a

function.
1. y 2. y
x x
-25-
3. y 4. y
x x
2.4.1 Categories of functions

I. Polynomial function: y = p(x), NB: P(x) = anxn+an-1xn-1+………….. +a0, where
n is an integer, n≥0 and ai is a real number.
Domain(y) ={x/xЄR}
Range (y): solve for x in term of y and examine.
II. Rational function:
y = N(x) where D(x) ≠ 0
D(x)
Domain(y) ={xER/ D(x) ≠ 0}
III. Even root function
y = n P(x), where n is an even positive number.
Domain(y) ={xER/ P(x) ≥ 0}
NB: If the index of the radical is odd, then the domain is all real numbers.
Sample problems – Finding domains and range of functions
Find the domain and range of the following functions:
1. r = {(x.y)/ y = 3x – 2}
2. y = 1
x–1
3. y = 1
x2 + 4
4. y = x – 2
2.4.2 Function notation

We will use letter to name functions and to provide a very important and
convenient notation for defining functions. This convenient notation is called
functional notation. For if f is the name of the function defined by the equation
y = 2x + 1, then instead of the more formal representations,
f: y = 2x + 1 (Correspondence) or
f:{(x,y)/ y = 2x + 1} (Set of ordered pair)
-26-
-26-
we simply write
f(x) = 2x + 1 (Function notation)
The symbol “f(x)” read as “f of x”, “f at x” or the value of f at x”.
Worked Examples – Evaluating functions
1. Find f(4), f(4 + h), and f(4) + f(h) for f(x) = 4
2–x
Solutions: f(4) = 4 = 4 = – 2
2–4 –2
f(4 + h) = 4 = 4 = – 4
2 – (4 + h) 2–4–h h+2
f(4) + f(h) = – 2 + 4
2–h
f(4) + f(h) = – 2(2 – h) + 4 – 4 + 2h + 4 = 2h
2–h 2–h 2–h
2. If f(x) = x +3x, find f(-2), f(1 + h), and f(2 + h).
2
Solutions: f(-2) = (-2)2 + 3(-2) = 4 – 6 = -2

f(1 + h) = (1 + h)2 + 3(1 + h) = 1 + 2h + h2 + 3 + 3h = h2 + 5h + 4
f(2 + h) = (2 + h)2 + 3(2 + h) = 4 + 4h + h2 + 6 + 3h = h2 + 7h + 10
1. Suppose f(x) 4 – 3x – x2, find f(x2), f(4 – x) and f(1/x) (Student problem)
In addition to evaluating functions at specific number, it is important to be able to

evaluate functions at expressions that involve one or more variables. For example
the difference quotient
f(x + h) – f(x)
h
x and x + h in the domain of f, h ≠ 0 is studied extensively in a calculus course.
Worked example – Evaluating and simplifying difference quotient

1. If f(x) = x2 + 2x + 3, find f(x+h) – f(x)
h
Solution: f(x) = x + 2x + 3
2
f(x + h) = (x + h)2 + 2(x + h) + 3

f(x + h) – f(x) = (x + h)2 + 2(x + h) + 3 – [x2 + 2x + 3]
h h
= x2 + 2hx + h2 + 2x + 2h + 3 – x2 – 2x – 3
h
= h2 + 2hx + 2h
h
= h(h + 2x + 2)
h
-27-
h
f(x + h) – f(x) = h + 2x + 2
h
2. If f(x) = x2 + 3x + 7, find f(x+h) – f(x)
h
Solution: f(x) = x + 3x + 7
2
f(x + h) = (x + h)2 + 3(x + h) + 7

f(x + h) – f(x) = (x + h)2 + 3(x + h) + 7 – [x2 + 3x + 7]
h h
= x2 + 2hx + h2 + 3x + 3h + 7 – x2 – 3x – 7
h
= h2 + 2hx + 3h
h
= h(h + 2x + 3)
h
f(x + h) – f(x) = h + 3x + 2
h
Student problem
Find f(x+h) – f(x) if
h
1. f(x) = x2 – 3x +5
2. f(x) = 2x2 + 7x + 5
3. f(x) = x3 – 2x2 + 3x + 1
4. f(x) = 1 – x2
2.5 Algebra of functions
If f and g are functions, then the sum, difference, product, and quotient are the
functions defined by
i. (f+g)x = f(x) + g(x) Sum function
ii. (f - g)x = f(x) - g(x) Difference function
iii. (f.g)x = f(x).g(x) Product function
iv. (f/g) = f(x) , g(x) ≠ 0 Quotient function
g(x)
Each function is defined on the intersection of the domain of f and g, with the
exception that the values of x where g(x) = 0 must be excluded from the domain of
the quotient function.
Worked examples
1. Let f(x) = 4 – x and g(x) = 3 + x , find (f + g)x and (f – g)x, f.g(x) and f/g(x)
and find their domains.
Solutions:
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = 4 – x + 3+x
(f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x) = 4 – x – 3 + x
-28-
f/g(x) = f(x) = 4 – x = 4–x

g(x) 3+x 3+x
f.g(x) = f(x).g(x) = 4–x 3 + x = (4 – x)(3 + x) = 12 + x – x2
f/g(x) = f(x) = 4 – x = 4 – x
g(x) 3+x 3+x
Domains of f and g are
Domain of f : x ≤ 4 or (-∞, 4] ]
–3 4
Domain of g: x ≥ -3 or [-3, ∞) [
–3 4
The intersection of these domains is (-∞, 4] n [-3, ∞) = [-3, 4]
Thus the domain of f + g, f – g, and f.g is [-3, 4].
[ ]
–3 4
Since g(–3) = 0, x = –3 must be excluded from the domain of the quotient function.
Thus the domain of f: (–3, 4] ( ]
g –3 4
1. Let f(x) = x and g(x) = 10 – x find (f + g)x and (f – g)x, f.g(x) and f/g(x)
and find their domains. (Student problem)
2. Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x – 4. Find the function f/g and its domain.
x–1 x+2
Solution: x
f = x–1 = x(x + 2) ………………………. Equation 1
g x–4 (x – 1)(x – 4)
x+2
The function in equation 1 shows that 1 and 4 must be excluded from its domain
of f/g. Since g(–2) = 0, the domain of f/g is all real numbers x except –2, 1 and 4.
3. Let f(x) = 1 and g(x) = x – 5. Find the function f/g and its domain.
x+2 x (Student problem)
2.5 Composition of function
The composition of function f with function g is denoted by f o g and is defined by
(f o g)(x) = f(g(x))
Similarly, the composition of function g with function f is denoted by g o f and is
defined by
(g o f)(x) = g(f(x))
I. f o g = f(g(x)), read “f composite g or the composition of g in f.”
II. g o f = g(f(x)), read “g composite f or the composition of f in g.”
The domain of f o g is the set of all real numbers x in the domain of g such that
g(x) is in the domain of f.
-29-
Worked examples
1. If f(x) = 4 – x2 and g(x) = x, find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)).
Solution:
f(g(x)) = f( x ) = 4 – ( x )2
= 4 – x.
g(f(x)) = g(4 – x2) = 4 – x2
2. Suppose f(x) = x2+9 and g(x) = √x+1, find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)).
Solution:
f(g(x)) = f(√x+1) = (√x+1)2 + 9
=x+1+9
= x + 10
g(f(x)) = g(x2 + 9) = √x2 + 9 + 1
= √x2 + 10
3. Given that f(g(x)) = √2x2+4 and f(x) = √x+1, find g(x).
Solution: Substitute g into f.
f(g(x)) = f(g)
√2x2+4 = √g+1 Squaring both sides of the equation, we have
2x +4 = g+1
2
2x2+4 – 1 = g or g = 2x2 + 3
Thus g(x) = 2x2 + 3
4. Find f(x) if f(g(x)) = x and g(x) = x – 1.
2
Solution: Substitute f into g.
f(g(x)) = g(f)
x=f–1
2
f – 1 = 2x
f = 2x + 1
Thus f(x) = 2x + 1
5. If f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x – 2. Find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) (Student problem)

3
How are f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) related.
6. Given that f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = 4 – x2, find the following:

a) f(g(x))
b) g(f(x))
c) g(f(–2))
-30-
Solutions: a) f(g(x)) = f(4 – x2) since g(x) = 4 – x2
= 4 – x2 + 2
f(g(x)) = 6 – x2
b) g(f(x)) = g(x + 2) since f(x) = x + 2
g(f(x)) = 4 – (x + 2)2
= 4 – (x2 + 4x + 4) = 4 – x2 – 4x – 4
g(f(x)) = – x2 – 4x
c) g(f(–2)) = – (–2)2 – 4(–2) = – 4 + 8 = 4
Finding components of composite functions

Worked examples
1. Express the function h(x) = 1 as a composition of two functions.

(x – 2)2
1
Let f(g(x)) = h(x), g(x) = x – 2 as the inner function and f(x) = 2 be the outer
x
function.
Thus f(x) = x -2
h(x) = 1 = (x – 2)-2
(x – 2)2
= f(x – 2)
= f(g(x))
1 and g(x) = x – 2
f(x) =
x2
Written Exercise 2
1. Plot each set of points. Connect each point by straight lines and identify the
figure formed.
i) (-2,3),(-3,1),(2,0),(1,-2)
ii) (0,-1),(-3,-3),(3,-3)
iii) (-3,2),(-1,1),(-4,0),(-1,-3)
iv) (-2,2),(-2,-2),(2,-2),(2,2)
v) (-3,-3),(-1,-1),(3,-3),(1,-5)
2. Graph the function a) y = 2x – 3 b) y = -x2+1
3. For f(x) = x2 – 2x + 1, find a) 5f(-2) b) f (½) + f(1/3) c) f(x+h) – f(x)
h
4. Find the difference quotient f(x) – f(3) and simplify for the given function, f.
x–3
a) f(x) = x2 b) f(x) = x2 – 1 c) f(x) = 2x+1 d) f(x) = -x3+1
5. Suppose g(f(x)) = x and f(x) = 2x+1, find g(x).
-31-
Find the domain and range of the given function:
6. y = 2x+1
5–x
7. y = x+ 5
x–5
8. Suppose f(x) = x4 + 3x2, a) find f(h) and f(-h). b) How is f(h) and f(-h) related?
9. If f(x) = x2, find all values of x for which f(x+1) = f(2x).
10. If f(x) = x2 + 3x, find
a) [f(-2)]2
b) f(1+h)
c) f(3+h) – f(3)
h
d) f(x+h) – f(x)
h
e) [f(2) – f(3)]2
11. Verify that if f(x) = 1 and g(x) = 1 then (f o g)(x) = x

1 – 2x x x–2
12. Given that f(g(x) = and g(x) = 1 – x2 , find g(x).

x2
13. If f(g(x)) = h(x), find xtwo
2 + 1functions f(x) and g(x) such that h(x) =
1
x+2
14. If f(g(x)) = h(x), find two functions f(x) and g(x) such that h(x) = 9 – x
15. If f(x) = 2x + 1, find f(x + h) – f(x)
h
16. Evaluate the indicated function for f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x – 4.
a) (f + g)(2)
b) (f – g)(– 1)
c) (f + g)(r – 1)
d) (5) (Student problem)

f
g
17. If f(x) = and g(x) = x2, find
x
x+1
a) g(f(– 3))
b) f(g(2))
18. Express the function f(g(x)) = as a composition of two functions.

1
x+1
-32-
Chapter 3: Polynomial Functions
3.1 Definition of polynomial functions
If n is a nonnegative integer, a function that can be written in the form
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + a1x + a0, an ≠ 0
is called a polynomial function of degree n. The numbers an, an-1, … a1, a0 are called
the coefficients of P(x).
The degree of a term is the exponent of the variable in the terms.

Example: 5x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1
5x3 -------- the degree is 3
4x2 -------- the degree is 2
-3x -------- the degree is 1
1 -------- the degree is 0
The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of the term and is represented by
Pn(x) read as “the nth degree polynomial”.
Examples: 5 – x +2x2 – 3x2 + x4 – 12x5 – is a 5th degree polynomial or P5(x).
x12 – 4x10 – 5x8 + 7x5 + 2x3 – 5 is a 12th degree polynomial or P12(x).
Leading coefficient
The leading coefficient is the coefficient of the term with the highest degree.
Example: In the polynomial 5 – x +2x2 – 3x2 + x4 – 12x5, the leading coefficient is -
12 because -12 is the coefficient of the variable with the highest degree.
Exercise: Identify the leading coefficient and the degree of each polynomial:
1. 5 – 6x + 3x2 – x3 – 2x4
2. x7 – 3x5 + 2x3 – x + 9
3. 4x5 – 5x7 – x9 – 3x11
For two polynomials to be equal, their corresponding coefficients must be equal.
Worked examples
1. If P(x) = A(x+6) + B(x – 3) and Q(x) = 5x + 3, find the values of A and B such
that P(x) = Q(x).
Solution: P(x) = A(x+6) + B(x – 3) and Q(x) = 5x + 3
Ax + 6A + Bx – 3B = 5x + 3
(Ax + Bx) + (6A – 3B) = 5x + 3
(A + B)x + (6A – 3B) = 5x + 3
By equating corresponding coefficients, we have
A + B = 5 ----------- (1)
6A – 3B = 3 ----------- (2)
By substitution method, B = 5 – A
6A – 3B = 3
6A – 3(5 – A) = 3
6A – 15 + 3A = 3
-33-
9A = 18
9 9
A=2 B=5–A
B=5–2
B=3
2. Given that f(x) = C(x – 3) – D(x + 2) and g(x) = 4x + 3, find the values of C
and D such that f(x) = g(x).
Solution: f(x) = C(x – 3) – D(x + 2) and g(x) = 4x + 3
Cx – 3C – Dx – 2D = 4x + 3
(Cx – Dx) + ( – 3C – 2D) = 4x + 3
(C – D)x + ( – 3C – 2D) = 4x + 3
By equating corresponding coefficients, we have
C – D = 4 ----------- (1)
– 3C – 2D = 3 ----------- (2)
By substitution method, C = D + 4
– 3(D + 4) – 2D = 3
– 3D – 12 – 2D = 3
– 5D = 15
5 –5
D = –3 C=D+4
C=–3+4
C=1
3. If h(x) = A(x + 1) + B(x – 2x + 4) + C(x2 + x – 1) and k(x) = 7x2 + 5x – 1, find
2 2
the values of A, B and C such that h(x) = k(x).

Solution: By equating corresponding coefficients, we have
x2 : A+B+C=7 --------------- (1)
x:
1 –2B + C = 5 --------------- (2)
x : A + 4B – C = –1
0 --------------- (3)
By subtracting (3) from (1), we have –3B + 2C = 8 -------------- (4), now we have
–2B + C = 5 -------------- (2)

–3B + 2C = 8 -------------- (4)
Multiplying (2) by – 2 to eliminate C we have
4B – 2C = – 10
–3B + 2C = 8
B = –2
Solving for C, –2B + C = 5,
Thus C = 2B + 5 Solving for A, A+B+C=7
C = 2(–2) + 5 A = 7 – (– 2) – 1
C=1 A=8
A=7–B–C Solution: {8, -2, 1}
-34-
3.2 Linear Functions
An equation of the form Ax + By + c = 0 is called a linear equation, where A, B and
C are real numbers. For the linear equation Ax + By + c = 0
By = -Ax – C
B B B
y = -Ax – C
B B
Let m = -A/B and b = -C/B, then y = mx + b is a linear function whose graph is a
straight line. If y = mx, then the graph passes through the origin. Note that two
points can form a straight line.
Sample problems
1. Graph the following linear functions: a) x+2y = 1 b) 2x – 3y = 6. c) y = ½x + 3
d) f(x) = 2x + 1, for x≥2 e) f(x) = 1/3x – 1, for -2≤x<3.
3.2.1 Equation of a line
If A, B, and C are constants, with A and B not both 0, and x and y are variables,
then the graph of equation
Ax + By = C (standard form)
is a line. Any line in a rectangular coordinate system has an equation of this form.
Worked examples – Using intercepts to graph a line
1. Graph the equation 3x – 4y = 12. y
Solution: 3x – 4y = 12
x 0 4 3x – 4y = 12
y –3 0
l l l l l l l l l l x
(4,0)
(0, -3)
2. Graph the equation 4x + 3y = 12. (Student problem)

3.2.2 Slope of a line
Given that P1(x1,y1) is a point on the line y = mx + b then, y1 = mx1 + b ----- (1) and
if P2(x2,y2) is a point on the line y = mx + b then, y2 = mx2 + b ------- (2).
Subtracting equation (1) from (2), we have
y2 = mx2 + b y2 = mx2 + b
– (y1 = mx1 + b) – y1 = – mx1 – b
y2 – y1 = mx2 – mx1
y2 – y1 = (x2 – x1)m
m = y2 – y1 where x2 ≠ x1
x2 – x1
-35-
y
P2(x2,y2)
y2 – y1 (rise)
x
P1(x1,y1)
x2 – x1(run)
Thus m = vertical change (rise)
horizontal change (run)
Table 1: Geometric interpretations of slope

Line Slope Example
Rising as x moves from Positive
left to right, y values are
increasing.
Falling as x moves from Negative
left to right, y values are
decreasing.
Horizontal, y values Zero
are constant.
Vertical, x values are Not defined.
constant. (No slope)
Sample problems
1. Sketch a line through each pair of points and find the slope of each line.
a) (-3, -4), (3, 2)
b) (-2, 3), (1, -3)
c) (-4, 2), (3, 2)
d) (2, 4), (2, -3)
Worked examples
1. A line passes through the points P1(-3, -1) and P2(1, k) and has slope ¾.
Find the value of k.
m = y2 – y1
x2 – x1
3 = k – (– 1) ------------------ 3 = k + 1
4 1 – (– 3) 4 4
-36-
4k + 4 = 12
4k = 8
4 4
k=2
or since the denominators are the same, we equate the numerators
Thus 3 = k + 1
3–1=k
k=2
2. A line passes through the points P1(-2, 5) and P2(b, 1) and has slope –2/3.
Find the value of b.
Solution:
m = y2 – y1
x2 – x1
–2= 1–5
3 b – (– 2)
–2= –4 ------------------- by cross multiplying
3 b+2
– 12 = – 2(b + 2)
– 12 = – b – 4
b = 12 – 4
b=8
3. Given that the slope of a line is –2, find the value of t if the line passes
through the points P1(–2 , 3) and P2(1, t).
Solution:
m = y2 – y1
x2 – x1
–2= t–3
1 – (– 2)
–2= t–3 ------------------- by cross multiplying
3
–6= t–3
3–6= t
t=3–6
t=–3
4. Given that the slope of a line is 1, find the value of y if the line passes through
the points P1(½, 2) and P2(-3, y). (Student problem)
-37-
3.2.3 Distance or length
Consider the segment with endpoints P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) as illustrated in the
diagram below.
Using Pythagorean Theorem, PQ2 = PR2 + QR2
y2 Q(x2 – x1)
(y2 – y1)
y1 R(x2,y1)
P(x2,y1) (x2 – x1)
x1 x2
Thus PQ2 = l(x2 – x1)l2 + l(y2 – y1)l2

PQ = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
Student problems
Find the distance between the following sets of points:
1. (1,1), (4,5)
2. (-1,1), (5,9)
3. (-3,2), (2,14)
4. (-3,4), (2,14)
Worked examples
1. The point (1,m) and (– 2, – 1) are 5 units apart. Find the value of m.
Solution: PQ2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
52 = (– 2 – 1)2 + (– 1 – m)2
25 = (– 3)2 + (– 1 – m)2
25 = 9 + 1 + 2m + m2
25 = 10 + 2m + m2
15 = 12m + m2 or m2 + 2m – 15 = 0
(m + 5)(m – 3) = 0
m + 5 = 0, m–3=0
m=–5 m=3
Thus m = – 5 or m = 3
1. The point (t, 9) and (–1, 1) are 10 units apart. Find the value of t.
Solution: PQ2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
102 = (– 1 – t)2 + (1 – 9)2
100 = 1 + 2t + t2 + (– 8 )2
100 = 1 + 2t + t2 + 64
100 = 65 + 2t + t2
-38-
35 = 2t + t2 or t2 + 2t – 35 = 0
(t + 7)(t – 5) = 0
t + 7 = 0, t–5=0
t=–7 t=5
Thus t = – 7 or t = 5
4. Given that the slope of a line is 1, find the value of y if the line passes through
the points P1(½, 2) and P2(-3, y). (Student problem)
5. Find the relationship between x and y if the point P(x,y) is equidistance from
Q(3,1) and R(– 1,3) (Student problem)
3.2.4 Midpoint
The midpoint of a line segment is the point at the half of the segment.
Theorem: If M is the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining
P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2), then
x1 + x2, y1 + y2
M=
2 2
Consider the diagram below: 2

y 2 PQ = PM + QM
but PM = QM, substituting we have
y2 Q(x2,y2) PQ = PM + PM
PQ = 2PM
ym M(xm,ym) PM = ½ PQ
NB: P(x1,y1), M(xm,ym), Q(x2,y2)
y1 P(x1,y1)
x1 xm x2 x
PM = ½ PQ
(xm – x1)2 + (ym – y1)2 = ½ (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
By squaring both sides of the equation, we have
(xm – x1)2 + (ym – y1)2 = ¼[(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)]2
(xm – x1)2 + (ym – y1)2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
4 4
(xm – x1) + (ym – y1) = x2 – x1 + y2 – y1 2
2 2 2
2 2
Equating corresponding components, we have
(xm – x1)2 = x2 – x1 2 (ym – y1)2 = y2 – y1 2
2 2
-39-
-39-
xm – x1 = x2 – x1 ym – y1 = y2 – y1
2 2
xm = x2 – x1 + x1 ym = y2 – y1 + y1
2 2
xm = x2 – x1 + 2x1 ym = y2 – y1 +2 y1
2 2
xm = x1 + x2 ym = y1 + y2
2 2
Thus M = (xm, ym)
M = x1 + x2, y1 + y2
2 2
Student problems
1. Find the midpoint of the line segment whose endpoints are indicated below:
a) (-1,1) and (5,9) b) (-3,2) and (2,14) c) (-3,4) and (2,14)
2. Find the coordinates of P if the midpoint of the line segment is (3,1) and joins
P and Q(-1,4).
3.3.3 Special forms of equation of a line
I. Slope – Intercept form
Consider the linear equation Ax + By = C.
Note that By = –Ax + C
Dividing both sides of the equation by B, y = –Ax + C
B B
If we let m = –A and b = C, then y = mx + b
B B
where m is the slope of the line and b, the y – intercept (the point where the line
crosses the y – axis).
Sample problems – Using the slope – intercept form
1. Find an equation of a line given that
i. Slope = 2/3 and y – intercept = –5.
ii. Slope = 1 and y – intercept = 0.
iii. Slope = –2/3 and y – intercept = –4.
2. Find the slope, y – intercept and graph
i. y = ¾x – 1
ii. y = -2/3x + 5
iii. 3x – 2y = 6
II. Point – Slope form
Suppose a line has slope m and passes through the point P1(x1, y1). If (x, y) is any
other point on the line as shown in the figure below, then
-40-
y – y1 = m y
x – x1
i.e: y – y1 = m(x – x1) (x, y)
Thus an equation of a line with slope m that passes through x

the point P1(x1, y1) is y – y1 = m(x – x1) which is called the
Point – slope form of an equation of a line. P1(x1, y1)
Worked examples – Using Point – Slope form

1. Find an equation of a line in standard form that has slope – ¾ and passes
through the point (-2, 3).
Solution: y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – 3 = - ¾[(x – (-2)]
4(y – 3) = -3(x + 2)
4y – 12 = -3x – 6
3x + 4y = – 6 + 12
3x + 4y = 6
2. Find an equation of a line in standard form that has slope 2/3 and passes
through the point (-2, 1). (Student problem)
3. Find an equation of a line in standard form that has slope –2/3 and passes
through the point (3, -2). (Student problem)
III. Two – point form
If a line passes through two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) and if (x, y) is any other
point on the line, then
y – y1 = m
x – x1
y – y1 = y2 – y1
x – x1 x2 – x1
Worked examples – Using the two – point form
1. Find an equation of a line that passes through the given pair of points (4, -1)
and (-8, 5)
Solution:
y – y1 = y2 – y1
x – x1 x2 – x1
y – (-1) = 5 – (-1)
x–4 -8 – 4
y+1 = 6
x–4 -12
y+1 = 1
x–4 2
-41-
1(x – 4) = 2(y + 1)
x – 4 = 2y + 2
x – 2y = 6
2. Write the linear function f for which f(1) = 3 and f(0) = 4.

x1 = 1, y1 = 3, x2 = 0 and y2 = 4 y
y – y1 = y2 – y1
x – x1 x2 – x1 9
8
y–3 = 4–3 7
x–1 0–1 6
y–3 = 1 5
4
x–1 –1 3
y–3 = –1 2
x–1 1
y – 3 = –1(x – 1) x
y–3=–x+1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y = – x + 4 or x+y=4
x y
0 4
4 0
3. Write the linear function that has the following function values. Then
sketch the graph of the function: f(5) = –4, f(-2) = 17
Solution: We can write the function by first finding the slope and then use the
point – slope form.
x1 = 5, y1 = -4, x2 = -2, y2 = 17
m = y2 – y1
x2 – x1
m = 17 – (-4) = 21 = – 3 y
-2 – 5 –3
12
y – y1 = m(x – x1) 10
y – (-4) = -3(x – 5) 8
y + 4 = -3x + 15 6
4
3x + y = 11 or f(x) = – 3x + 11 2
x
0
x y -2
2 4 6 8 10
3 2
4 -1
4. Write the linear function that has the following function values. Then
sketch the graph of the function: f(5) = –4, f(-2) = 17. (Student problem)
-42-
Table 2: Equation of a line
Standard form Ax + By = C A, B not both zero
Slope – intercept form y = mx + b slope m, y – intercept b
Point – slope form y – y1 = m(x – x1) slope m, point (x, y)
Horizontal line y=b slope = 0
Vertical line x=a slope undefined
3.3.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
Given two non-vertical lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 respectively, then
L1 is parallel to L2 (L1 L2) if and only if m1 = m2
L1 is perpendicular to L2 (L1 L2) if and only if m1m2 = – 1
If m1m2 = – 1, then
m1 = – 1 or m2 = – 1
m2 m1
Two non-vertical lines are perpendicular if and only if their slopes are the negative
reciprocal of each other.
Worked examples
1. Given the line L: 3x – 2y = 5 and the point (– 3, 5), find an equation of a line
through P that is
a) parallel to L.
b) perpendicular to L.
a) Parallel to L b) Perpendicular to L
3x – 2y = 5 m2 = – 1
m1 = – A = – 3 m2
B –2 m2 = – 1
m1 = 3 3/2
2 m2 = – 2
y – y1 = m(x – x1) 3
y – 5 = 3[(x – (– 3)] y – y1 = m(x – x1)
2 y – 5 = – 2[(x – (– 3)]
2(y – 5) = 3(x + 3) 3
2y – 10 = 3x + 9 3(y – 5) = – 2(x + 3)
– 3x + 2y = 9 + 10 3y – 15 = –2x – 6
3x – 2y = –19 2x + 3y = 9
2. Given the line L: 4x + 2y = 3 and the point (2, – 3), find an equation of a line
through P that is
a) parallel to L.
b) perpendicular to L.
c) write your answers in the slope – intercept form, y = mx + b.
(Student problem)
-43-
3.3.5 Perpendicular bisector
A perpendicular bisector is a line passing through the mid-point of a line segment and
is perpendicular to it.
Consider the figure below:
C Observe that line CD is perpendicular to segment
AB and bisects segment AB. Thus CD is a perpen-
A B dicular bisector to AB. Note that CD means line
CD and AB means segment AB.
D
Steps to find the equation of a perpendicular bisector:
i. Find the mid-point of the line segment it bisects.
ii. Find the slope of the perpendicular bisector.
iii. Use the point – slope form (or simply use the distance formula).
Sample problems
1. Find an equation of a perpendicular bisector that passes through a line whose
endpoints are
a) (2, 5); (4, – 3)
b) (-1, 4); (3, 2)
c) (-3, 7); (1, -1)
2. A quadrilateral has vertices A(0, 2), B(4, -1), C(1, -5) and D(x, y).
a) If AB DC and DA CB, find the values of x and y.
b) Show that AB DC.
c) Show that AB BC.
d) Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of AD.
3.3 Quadratic functions
If a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0, then the function
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
is a quadratic function and its graph is a parabolic.
If f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, then we can write
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c factor out a from the first two terms
f(x) = a x2 + b x + c by completing the square, we have
a
f(x) = a x + b x + b2 + c – b2
2
a 4a2 4a
f(x) = a x + b 2 + c – b2
2a 4a
Let h = - b and k = c – b 2 then f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k
2a 4a
-44-
Table 3: Properties of a quadratic function
Given the quadratic function and the vertex form by competing the square
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a(x – h)2 + k, where a ≠ 0
we summarized the general properties as follows:
1. The graph of f is a parabola.
2. If a > 0, graph opens upward and if a < 0, graph opens downward.
3. Vertex V(h, k)
4. Vertex formula: h = - b and k = c – b2
2a 4a
5. Axis of symmetry x = h, (parallel to y – axis).
6. f(h) = k is the minimum if a > 0 and the maximum if a < 0.
7. Domain (-∞, ∞); range (-∞, k] if a < 0 or [k, ∞) if a > 0.
8. The graph of f is the graph of g(x) = ax2 translated horizontally h units and
vertically k units.
Graphing quadratic functions
i. Find the x – coordinate of the vertex. x = - b
2a
Thus V = [ -b/2a, f(-b/2a)] or V = (h, k)
ii. Find the x – and y – intercept, if any.
Note: If a>0, the parabola opens upward.
If a<0, the parabola opens downward.
x = -b/2a or x = h is the axis of symmetry (AOS).
Worked examples
Determine the vertex, axis of symmetry, domain and range. Graph f and label the
vertex and the axis on the graph.
1. f(x) = 3x2 – 18x + 29
f(x) = 3(x2 – 6x) + 29
f(x) = 3(x2 – 6x + 9) + 29 – 3(9)
f(x) = 3(x – 3)2 + 29 – 27
f(x) = 3(x – 3)2 + 2 a = 3, h = 3 and k = 2
Vertex, V(3, 2) AOS: x = 3 Domain (-∞, ∞); range [2, ∞ )
y
x f(x)
2 5
3 2
4 5
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2. f(x) = ½(x + 2)2 – 4
3. f(x) = 4x – x2
4. y = -2(x – 3)2 + 4
5. y = x2 + 2x – 8 (Class activity)
6. Find the equation of a quadratic function whose graph satisfies the given
conditions: a) Vertex (4, 8); x intercept: 6. b) Vertex (-4, 12); y intercept: -4.
Vertex (4, 8); x intercept: 6
f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k
0 = a(6 – 4)2 + 8
0 = a(2)2 + 8
0 = 4a + 8 or 4a = – 8
4a = – 8
4 4
a=–2
f(x) = – 2(x – 4)2 + 8

f(x) = – 2(x2 – 8x + 16) + 8
f(x) = – 2x2 + 16x – 32 + 8
f(x) = – 2x2 + 16x – 24
Vertex (-4, 12); y intercept: - 4

f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k
- 4 = a[(0 – ( – 4)]2 + 12
- 4 = a(4)2 + 12
- 4 = 16a + 12 or 16a = – 16
16a = – 16
16 16
a=–1
f(x) = – 1[(x – ( – 4)]2 + 12

f(x) = – (x + 4)2 + 12
f(x) = – (x2 + 8x + 16) + 12
f(x) = – x2 – 8x – 16 + 12
f(x) = – x2 – 8x – 4
7. Find the equation of a quadratic function whose graph satisfies the given
conditions:
a) Vertex (-5, -25); additional point on graph (-2, 20)
b) Vertex (3/2, -5/2) and passes through the point (3, 2). (Student problem)
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Applications
Vertex analysis
If the parabola opens upward, then the vertex becomes the minimum point.
If the parabola opens downward, then the vertex becomes the maximum point.
Maximum point
Minimum point
Worked examples
1. The population of a bacteria culture at time t minutes is given as P = f(t) = 200
+ 4t – 0.04t2. Find a) the time t, when the culture will be at its maximum size.
b) The maximum size of the culture.
Solution: a = – 0.04, b = 4 and c = 200
a) t = – b = –4 = –4
2a 2(– 0.04) – 0.08
t = 400 = 50 the culture will be at its maximum size in 50 minutes.
8
b) f(t) = 200 + 4t – 0.04t2
f(50) = 200 + 4(50) – 0.04(50)2
= 200 + 200 – 0.04(2500)
= 400 – 100
= 300 The maximum size of the culture is 300.
2. A company’s profit in producing x units of a commodity is given by the
function p(x) = 9000 + 30x – 0.05x2. a) How many units should be produced to
maximize profit? b) What is the profit?
Solution: a = – 0.05, b = 30 and c = 9000
a) x = – b = – 30 = – 30
2a 2(– 0.05) – 0.1
x = 300 The company must produce 300 units to maximize profit.
b) p(x) = 9000 + 30x – 0.05x2

f(300) = 9000 + 30(300) – 0.05(300)2
= 9000 + 9000 – 0.05(90000)
= 18000 – 4500
= 13,500 The maximum size of the culture is 13,500.
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3. A company has found that its total cost to produce x units of a commodity is
given by the function c(x) = 50000 – 80x + 0.04x2. How many units should be
produced to minimize the cost? Find the total cost. (Student problems)
4. The length of the rectangular piece of cardboard is 2 inches more than its width
as in the following figure. An opened box is formed by cutting out 4 inches
square from each corner and folding up the sides. If the volume of the box is
672 cubic inches, find the dimension of the original cardboard.
x+2
4 4
4 4
Solution: lwh = V
(x + 2) x (4) = 672
4x2 + 8x = 672
4x2 + 8X – 672 = 0 dividing both sides of the equation by 4, we have
x2 + 2x – 168 = 0
(x + 14)(x – 12) = 0
x + 14 = 0, x – 12 = 0
x = – 14 x = 12 we ignore – 14 as length has positive value.
x + 2 = 12 + 2 = 14
Thus the dimension of the original cardboard is 12in x 14in x 4in.
3.4 Cubic functions
A cubic function is a function of the form f(x) = xn where n = 3. It is a polynomial
function whose degree is 3.
The graph of the cubic function

f(x) = x3
has the following features:
a) The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers.
b) The range of the function is the set of all real numbers.
c) The function is odd.
d) The graph has an intercept at (0, 0).
e) The graph is increasing on the interval (– ∞, ∞).
f) The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
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Worked examples y
1. Graph the function f(x) = x3.
x f(x) (2, 8)
8
-2 -8 6
0 0 4
2 8 2
x
-6 -4 -2 - 0 2 4 6
-4
-6
(-2, -8) -8
2. Graph the function f(x) = x3 + 1
x f(x) y
-1 0
0 1 2
1 2 (1, 2)
1
(0, 1)
(-1, 0) x
-2 -1 0 1 2
-1
-2
Student problems
3. Graph the function f(x) = x3 – 1
4. Graph the function f(x) = x3 + 2
3.5 Polynomial functions of higher degree
We know that the graph of a polynomial function is continuous. Essentially, this
means that the graph of a polynomial function has no breaks, holes, or gaps.
Worked examples y
1. Sketch the graph of f(x) = – x5
2
x f(x)
-1 1
1
0 0 (1, -1)
1 -1 x
-2 -1 0 1 2
-1 (-1, 1)
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2. Sketch the graph of f(x) = (x + 1)4
x f(x) y
-2 1
-1 0
2
0 1
(-2, 1) 1 (0, 1)
(0, -1)
-2 -1 0 1 2
Student problems
Sketch the graph of the following functions:
3. f(x) = x4
4. f(x) = x4 – 5x2 +4
Written Exercise 3:
Graph the following linear functions:
1. 2x – 4y = 8
2. y = ½x + 5
3. y = -3/2x – 4, on the interval –4 < x ≤ 4
4. 3x = 4y + 12
5. x = -½ y + 6, on the interval -2 < x < 6
6. Determine the vertex, axis of symmetry, domain, range, maximum or
minimum, intervals over which f is increasing, intervals over which f is
decreasing. Graph f and label the vertex and the axis on the graph.
y = ½x2 – 2
f(x) = x2 – 2x – 8
f(x) = 4x2 – 12x + 10
7. Find two consecutive positive integers such that the sum of their squares is
113.
8. Find two consecutive even positive integers such that the sum of their squares
is 164.
9. A horse breeder wants to construct a corral next to a horse barn that is 50 feet
long, using the entire barn as one side of the corral as shown below. he has 250
feet of fencing available and wants to use all of it.
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a) Express the area A(x) of the corral as a function of x.
b) Indicate its domain.
c) Find the value of x that produces the maximum area.
d) What is the dimension of the corral with the maximum area?
10. A quadrilateral has vertices A(-4,5), B(4,-1), C(-7,1) and D(x,y).

a) Find the values of x and y.
b) Show that AB CD
c) Show that AB BD.
d) Show that AC BD
e) Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of AC
11. The cost C(x) of producing x units of a commodity is given by the equation
C(x) = 5x2 + 500x – 5000 provided that x is between 0 and 100. The revenue R(x)
from the sales of x units of the commodity is given by R(x) = x2 + 600x provided
x is between 0 and 100. Find the level of production at which the manufacturer
will break-even. At which level of production will the manufacturer make a
profit?
12. Show that the points (-4,3), (4,4) and (0, -3) are vertices of an isosceles
triangle.
13. Show that the points (0,1), (2,5) and (-2, -3) are collinear.
14. Graph the function f(x) = (x – 1)3 + 2
15. Write the linear function that has the following function values. Then sketch
the graph of the function:
a) f(-2) = –2, f(-6) = 12
b) f(3) = – 8 , f(1) = 2
c) f(– 5) = – 1, f(5) = – 1
16. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

a) f(x) = x5 – x
b) f(x) = x5 – 5
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Chapter 4: Rational Functions
4.1 Definition of rational functions
A function f is a rational function if it can be written in the form
f(x) = p(x)
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials of degree m and n respectively, and q(x) ≠ 0.
4.2 Definition of asymptotes
A line is called an asymptote to a curve if the distance between the line and a point
on the curve approaches zero as the point increases without bound.
4.3 Graphing quadratic functions
Steps for graphing rational functions:
1. Determine the y – intercept. (y = f(x)); x = 0
2. Determine the x – intercept. P(x) = 0
3. Find the vertical asymptotes, if any.
4. Determine the horizontal asymptotes or slant asymptotes by the following
conditions:
a. If the degree of the numerator, P(x) is less than the degree of the
denominator, Q(x), then the x – axis is the horizontal asymptotes.
b. If the degree of P(x) = Q(x) are equal, then the horizontal asymptotes is
given by y = a/b where a and b are the leading coefficients of P(x) and Q(x).
c. If the degree of P(x) is one more than the degree of Q(x), then there is a slant
asymptotes obtained by long division.
d. If the degree of P(x) is at least two more than the degree of Q(x), then there
is neither a slant nor a horizontal asymptotes.
Worked examples
1. Find the domain and x intercepts for f(x) = x2 – 2x – 15
x2 – 9
Solution: f(x) = p(x) = x2 – 2x – 15
q(x) x2 – 9
q(x) ≠ 0
x2 – 9 ≠ 0
(x – 3)(x + 3) ≠ 0
x – 3 ≠ 0 and x + 3 ≠ 0
Thus x ≠ ±3; Domain of f is all real numbers except ±3.
For the x intercept, p(x) ≠ 0
x2 – 2x – 15 = 0
(x – 5)(x + 3) = 0
The x intercept of f are 5, and – 3.
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2. Sketch the graph of y = 1 . Find the asymptotes.
x–3
3. Graph f(x) = 2x
x–2
4. Graph f(x) = x2 – x
x+1
Rational functions with removable discontinuities
1. Sketch the graph of y = x2 – 4 where x ≠ - 2.
x+2
2. Sketch the graph of y = x – 3
x2 – 9
4.4 Partial fractions decomposition
A rational expression can be expressed as a sum of two or more simpler rational
expressions called partial fractions.
Any proper fraction p(x)/Q(x) reduced to lowest terms can be decomposed into the
sum of partial fractions as follows:
1. If q(x) has a non-repeating linear factor of the form ax + b, then the partial
fraction decomposition of p(x)/q(x) contains a term of the form
A A is a constant
ax + b
2. If q(x) has k – repeating linear factor of the form (ax + b)k, then the partial
fraction decomposition of p(x)/q(x) contains k terms of the form
A1 + A2 +……+ Ak A1, A2 …………. Ak, are constants
ax + b (ax + b) 2 (ax + b) k
3. If q(x) has non-repeating quadratic factor of the form ax2 + bx + c that has
imaginary zeros, then the partial fraction decomposition of p(x)/q(x) contains
a terms of the form
Ax + B A, B are constants
ax + bx + c
2
4. If q(x) has k–repeating quadratic factors of the form (ax2 + bx + c)k, where
ax2 + bx + c has imaginary zeros, then the partial fraction decomposition of
p(x)/q(x) contains k terms of the form
A1x + B1 + A2x + B2 …. + ……. + Akx + Bk

ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c)
2 2 2 (ax2 + bx + c)k
where A1 ………. Ak, B1 ……………..Bk are constants
Worked examples
Nonrepeating Linear Factors
1. Decompose into partial factions 5x + 7
x + 2x – 3
2
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Solution:
5x + 7 5x + 7
=
x2 + 2x – 3 (x – 1) (x + 3)
5x + 7 A B
= x–1 + x+3
x2 + 2x – 3
5x + 7 A(x + 3) + B(x – 1)
=
x2 + 2x – 3 x2 + 2x – 3
5x + 7 = (A + B)x + (3A – B)
Thus
A + B = 5 by equating corresponding coefficients.
3A – B = 7
4A = 12 3 2
5x + 7
Hence A = 3 and B = 2 and = x–1 + x+3
x2 + 2x – 3
2. Decompose into partial factions 7x + 6
x +x–6
2
Answer: 3 + 4
x+3 x–2
Repeating Linear Factors
3. Decompose into partial factions 6x2 – 14x – 27
(x + 2)(x – 3)2
Answer: 1 + 5 – 3
x+2 x–3 (x – 3)2
Non-repeating Linear and Quadratic Factors
4. Decompose into partial factions 5x2 – 8x + 5
(x – 2)(x2 – x + 1)
Answer: 3 + 2x – 1
x–2 x2 – x + 1
Repeating Quadratic Factors
5. Decompose into partial factions x3 – 4x2 + 9x – 5
(x2 – 2x + 3)2
Answer: x–2 + 2x + 1
x – 2x + 3
2 (x – 2x + 3)2
2
Written Exercise 4:
1. Graph the following rational functions:
a) f(x) = x2 – 2x – 4 b) f(x) = x2 – 4x + 3 c) f(x) = 3x
x2 – 9 2x – 4 x–3
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d) f(x) = 2x e) f(x) = x2 + 1 f) f(x) = 2x + 3
x–3 x 2–x
2. Decompose into partial fractions:
a) 7x – 14 c) 5x2 – 9x + 19
x2 – x – 12 (x – 4)(x2 + 5)
b) 3x2 + 7x + 1 d) 3x3 – 3x2 + 10x – 4

x(x + 1)2 (x2 – x + 3)2
3. Find the value of the constant A, B, and C such that
3x2- 21x + 24 A + B + C
f(x) = =
(x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 3) (x + 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)
4x + 5
4. Resolve = into partial fraction.
x3 + x2 + 2x – 4
2x – 3 a b
5. If = , find the value of a2 + b2
(x + 1)(3x + 2) x+1 3x + 2
6. Find the domain and x intercepts for
a) f(x) = 3x2 + 4x + 1
x3 + 3x2 – x – 3
x2 – 2x – 3
b) g(x) =
x3 – x2 – 4x + 4
7. Express x3 – 2x2 -4x - 4 into partial fraction.

x2 + x – 2
7x2 + 5x + 13
8. Express into partial fraction.
(x2 + 2)(x + 1)
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Chapter 5: Piecewise Functions
5.1 General piecewise functions
Functions that are defined differently on different intervals on real number lines are
called piecewise functions. As such, the graph of a piecewise function is formed from
pieces of other functions (ie: linear, quadratic, cubic, etc.).
Worked examples
Graph the following piecewise functions:
1. g(x) = x + 2, if x ≤ 1
x2 , if x > - 1
Solution: g(x) = x + 2, x ≤ 1 g(x) = x2 , if x > - 1
x g(x) x g(x)
1 3 -1 1
0 2 0 0
y 1 1
6
5
4 g(x) = x2, for x > –1
3
g(x) = x + 2, for x ≤ 1 2
1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2. f(x) = x2 – 4x + 7, if x ≥ 2
x + 1 , if x < 2
Solution: f(x) = x2 – 4x + 7 , x ≥ 2 f(x) = x + 1 , if x < 2
x f(x) x f(x)
2 3 2 3
3 4 y 1 2
6
5
4
3
f(x) = x + 1, for x < 2 2
1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
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4x + 11, if x < – 2
3. h(x) = 3, if – 2 ≤ x ≤ 1
-½x + 7/2, if x > 1
Solution: h(x) = 4x + 11, if x < – 2 h(x) = -½x + 7/2, if x > 1
x f(x) x f(x)
-2 3 1 3
-3 -1 3 2
y
6
5
4 h(x) = -½ x + 7/2, for x > 1
h(x) = 3, for -2 < x < 2 3
2
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
h(x) = 4x + 11, for x < -2
Student problem
1. k(x) = x2 – 6x + 11, if x > 1
½x + 1 , if -2<x≤2
5.2 Absolute value functions

A function of the form y = a bx + c + d is called an absolute value function and the
graph is a v-shape.
y = f(x) = x = x, if x ≥ 0
-x, if x < 0
Worked examples
1. Graph f(x) = x
Solution: f(x) = x = x, if x ≥ 0
-x, if x < 0
f(x) = x, x ≥ 0 f(x) = - x, x < 0
x f(x) x f(x)
0 0 0 0
1 1 y -1 1
3
f(x) = - x, x < 0 2 f(x) = x, x ≥ 0
1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
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2. Graph y = x – 2
Solution: f(x) = x – 2 = x – 2 , if x ≥ 2
– (x– 2), if x < 2
f(x) = x – 2, x ≥ 2 f(x) = 2– x, x < 2
x f(x) x f(x) 4 y
2 0 2 0
3
3 1 1 1
2
1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
3. Graph the function f given by f(x) = x + x. Find the domain, range and point of
discontinuity. x
Solution: f(x) = x + x , if x ≥ 0 f(x) = x + x , if x < 0
x -x
f(x) = x + 1, if x ≥ 0 f(x) = x – 1, if x < 0
f(x) = x + 1, x ≥ 0 f(x) = x – 1, x < 0
x f(x) x f(x) y
0 1 0 -1
1 2 -1 -2 3
2
x
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
f(x) = x – 1, for x < 0
-2
Domain: (- ∞, o) u (o, ∞), Range: (- ∞, -1) u (1, ∞)

Point of discontinuity: x = 0
Student problem
4. Graph the function f given by f(x) = -2x – x. Find the domain, range and point
of discontinuity. x
5.3 Greatest integer functions
The greatest integer function of a real number x, denoted by x is the integer n such
that n ≤ x < n + 1; that is x is the largest integer less than or equal to x. For examples
2 = 2, 2.5 = 2, -1.8 = -2
The greatest integer function is also called the step function.
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Worked examples
1. Graph y = x , -2 ≤ x < 3 y
Solution: y = -2 if -2 ≤ x < -1
y = -1 if -1 ≤ x < 0 3
y = 0 if 0 ≤ x < 1 2
y = 1 if 1 ≤ x < 2
1
y = 2 if 2 ≤ x < 3
0 x
-2 -1 0-1 1 2 3 4
-2
Student problem
2. Graph y = x + 2, -1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
3. Graph y = x – x, -2 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Written exercise 5
1. Consider the function f, given by f(x) = x + x – 1
x–1
a) Graph the function.
b) Locate the point of discontinuity, if any.
c) Find the domain and range of the function.
2. Consider the function f, given by f(x) = 2x + x – 1
x–1
a) Graph the function.
b) Locate the point of discontinuity, if any.
c) Find the domain and range of the function.
Graph the following piecewise functions:
3. f(x) = x + 1, if -1 ≤ x ≤
-x + 1, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
4. g(x) = x + 2, if x < -1
x – 2 , if x > -1
-2x – 6, if x < – 2
5. h(x) = – 2, if – 2 ≤ x ≤ 3
6x – 20, if x ≥ 3
6. Graph f(x) = x + x, 0 ≤ x < 4
7. Solve and graph y = x + 1 + 2x
8. Solve and graph y = x + 2 – x – 1
9. Solve and graph y = x + 3 – 3x
10. Solve and graph y = x – 2 + 4x
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Chapter 6: Exponential And Logarithmic Functions
6.1 Exponential Functions
A function of the form f(x) = bx where b>0, b≠1 and x is a real number is called an
exponential function with base b.
Dom f(x) ={x/ x Є R} and Range f(x) = {y/y≥0}
Properties of exponential functions
1. For y = bx (b>0, b≠1), y is increasing if b>1, y is decreasing if 0<b<1.
2. The graph of exponential functions always passes through the point (0, 1).
Sample examples
1. Sketch the graphs of a) y = 2x b) y = ½ x
6.2 Solving exponential equations
Theorem: bx = by, if x = y.
Worked examples
Solve of x in the following exponential equations
1. 2x+5 = 23 2. 343x – 4 = 49x + 2 3 . 1 x + 1 = 3x + 7
x+5=3 (73)x – 4= (72)x + 2 9
x=3–5 7 3(x – 4) =7 2(x + 2) 9 – (x + 1) = 3x + 7
x=–2 3(x – 4) = 2(x + 2) 3 – 2(x + 1) = 3x + 7
3x – 12 = 2x + 4 – 2x – 2 = x + 7
4. 1 = 81 3x – 2x = 4 + 12 – 2x – x = 7 + 2
3 x – 1 x = 16 – 3x = 9
(Student problem) –3 –3
x=–3
6.3 One – to – one and inverse functions
A function f is a one – to – one function denoted (1 – 1) if and only if no two distinct
ordered pairs have the same second component.
For example: f = {(0,2),(-1,1),(2,3),(3,4)} is a one-to-one function.
g = {(-1,1),(-0,2),(1,2),(2,3)} is a function but not a one-to-one function.
f(x) = 3x+5 is a 1 – 1 function.
f(x) = x2 is not a 1 – 1 function.
Inverse functions
Suppose f is a set of ordered pair of the form (x,y) and f is 1 – 1. The inverse function
(f-1) is the set of ordered pair of the form (y,x) obtained from f by interchanging x and
y. In general, for any function, f and its inverse, f-1,
(f o f-1)x = (f-1 o f)x = x ------ f(f-1(x)) = f-1(f(x)) = x
If g is considered as an inverse of f, then (f o g)x = (g o f)x = x
Properties of inverse functions
If f--1 exists, then
1. f—1 is a one – to – one function
2. Domain of f—1 = range of f.
3. Range of f—1 = domain of f.
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Worked examples
Find the inverse of the following functions if they exist.
1. f = {(1,2),(2,6),(3,4)}
Solution: f-1 = {(2,1),(6,2),(4,3)}
2. y = f(x) = 3x+2. Show that f(f-1(x)) = f-1(f(x)) = x

Solution:
y = 3x + 2 f(f—1(x)) = f[(1/3 (x – 2)] f—1(f(x)) = f—1(3x + 2)
x = 3y + 2 = 3[1/3 (x – 2)] + 2 = 1/3(3x + 2 – 2)
3y = x - 2 =x–2+2 = 1/3(3x)
3 3 3 =x =x
y = 1/3 x – 2/3
f (x) = 1/3 (x – 2)
—1
Student problems
1. y = f(x) = 2x+3. If g is an inverse of f, show that (f o g)x = (g o f)x.
2. Find f—1 for f(x) = √x – 1
3. If f(x) = 2x – 4 and g(x) = ½x – 2, show that g is an inverse of f.
4. If f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 1, show that g is an inverse of f.
2x – 3 2x + 1
6.4 Logarithmic Functions

For the exponential function y = bx, (b>0, b≠1), the inverse function is given by
x = by.
If x = by, then y = logbx
read as the “logarithm of x to base b is equal to y.
Thus if y = logbx or logbx = y, then x = by
In other words, is the power that the base b must be raised to, to give you the
argument.
6.5 Exponential – Logarithmic conversion (and vice versa)
I. Write corresponding logarithmic equation (Student problems)
1. 3 = √9
2. 10,000 = 104
3. 25 = 52
4. 0.00001 = 10-5
II. Write corresponding exponential equation (Student problems)
1. Log216 = 4
2. Log381 = 4
3. Log3 (1/27) = -3
4. Log2(1/32) = -5
5. Log813 = ¼
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6.6 Laws of logarithms
Theorem: If x, y, n and b are positive real numbers, and b>0, b≠1, then
i. Logbxy = Logbx + Logby
ii. Logbx/y = Logbx – Logby
iii. Logbxn = nLogbx
iv. LogbX = LogbY, if and only if X = Y
v. Logb 1 = 0
vi. Logbb = 1
vii. Logbbx = x
viii. bLogbx = x, x > 0
Worked examples
Express as a logarithm in terms of the indicated variables.
1. Log549a3b
Solution: Log549a3b = log549 + log5a3 + log5b
= log572 + log5a3 + log5b
= 2log57 + 3log5a + log5b
2. Logb125x5/y3
Solution: logb 125x5 = logb125 + logbx5 - logby3
y3
= logb53 + logbx5 - logby3
= 3logb5 + 5logbx - 3logby
Express as a single logarithm:
1. ½ logbx – 3logb(x – 1)
Solution: ½ logbx – 3logb(x – 1) = logbx1/2 – logb(x – 1)3
x1/2
= logb
Student problems
(x – 1)3
2. 1/3 (logbx + logby – 2logbz)
3. 2(log581 – log53) + ½log516
4. 1/3log427 – (2log46 – ½ log481)
Theorem: Logbbx = x, thus Log10 = 1 and lne = 1

Proof
Let Logbbx = t
x Logbb = t, but Logbb = 1
x(1) = t
x = t, therefore Logbbx = x
Worked examples
Evaluate: Using logarithmic properties
1. Log464 x = 3
-62-
Solution: Let Log464 = x
4x = 64
4x = 43
x=3 Thus Log464 = 3
2. Log5(0.04)
Solution: Let Log5 (0.04) = x
5x = 0.04
5x = 4
100
5x = 1
25
5 = 5–2
x
x=–2
Thus Log5(0.04) = – 2
Student problems
1. Log1/381
2. Log2(Log2(Log216))
3. Log2(Log2(Log5625))
Theorem: blobbx = x Proof
Let blobbx = t
Taking the log on both sides of the equation yields
Logb [blobbx] = Logbt
Logbx (logbb) = Logbt, but logbb = 1
Logbx (1) = logbt
Thus Logbx = logbt and x = t
Worked examples
1. Evaluate: 7log75 + log72
Solution: 7log75 + log72 = 7log75 + 7log72 = 5 + 2 = 7
2. 10log1012 - log102 Student problem
3. Let102 = 0.3010, Log103 = 0.4771 and Log105 = 0.699. Find the values of
a) log1045
b) log1045
c) log1027
Solution: a) log1045 = log10 (3 x 3 x 5)
= log10 32 + log10 5
= 2 log10 3 + log10 5
= 2(0.4771) + 0.699
= 0.9542 + 0.699
= 1.6532
-63-
b) log1030 = log10 (2 x 3 x 5)
= log10 2 + log110 3 + log10 5
= 0.3010 + 0.4771 + 0.699
= 1.4771
c) log1027 = log10 33
. = 3log10 3
= 3(0.4771)
= 1.4313
6.6.1 Common and Natural Logarithms
Common logarithms, also called Briggsian logarithms are logarithms with base 10.
Natural logarithms, also called Nepierian logarithms are logarithms with base e,
named in honor of John Napier (1550 – 1670), who is credited with the invention of
logarithms.
y = log x = log10 x ----------- common logarithmic function
y = ln x = loge x ----------- natural logarithmic function
6.7 Solving logarithmic equation
Note: If logbx = logby, then x = y.
Worked examples
Solve for x in the following logarithmic equations:
1. Log8(x – 6) + Log8(x + 6) = 2 2. lnx + ln(x – 2) = 1
Solution: Log8(x – 6) + Log8(x + 6) = 2 Solution: lnx + ln(x – 2) = 1
Log8(x – 6)(x + 6) = 2 ln x(x – 2) = 1
Log8(x2 – 36) = 2 eln x(x – 2) = e1
x2 – 36 = 82 x(x – 2) = e1
x2 – 36 – 64 = 0 x2 – 2x – e = 1
x2 – 100 = 0 let a = 1, b = –2 and c = – e in
(x – 10)(x + 10) = 0 x = –b ± b2 – 4ac
x – 10 = 0 x + 10 = 0 2a
x = 10 x = -10 (ignore) x = 2 ± 4 + 4e
2
3. Log3(2x + 7) – log3x = 2 x = 2 ± 4(1 + e)
Solution: Log3(2x + 7) – log3x = 2 2
Log3 2x + 7 = 2 x=2±2 1+e
x 2
2x + 7 = 32
x x=1+ 1+e
9x = 2x + 7
9x – 2x = 7 We ignore the negative portion
7x = 7
7 7
x=1
-64-
4. Log103x = Log1012 + 2(log105 – log102)
Solution: Log103x = Log1012 + 2(log105 – log102)
Log103x = Log1012 + log1052 – log1022
Log103x = Log1012 + log10 25 – log104
Log103x = Log10 12 x 25
4
Log103x = Log10 75
3x = 75
3 3
x = 25
5. Xlogx = 100x
Solution: Xlogx = 100x
Taking the common log on both sides of the equation, we have
log Xlogx = log 100x
logx logx = log 100x
logx logx = log 100 + logx
(logx)2 = log 102 + log x but log 102 = 2
(log x)2 – log x – 2 = 0 let log x = t
t2 – t – 2 = 0
6. 7 + 3lnx = 5
(t – 2)(t + 1) = 0
Solution: 7 + 3lnx = 5
t = 2 or t = – 1
3lnx = 5 – 7
log x = 2 log x = – 1
3lnx = – 2
x = 102 x = 10– 1
lnx3 = – 2
x = 100 x= 1
eln x3 = e –2
10
x3 = e –2
Solution: { 1/10, 100}
x = e –2/3
Written Exercise 6
Solve for x and check
1. Log10(x + 21) + Log10x = 2
2. Log10(3x2 – 5x – 2) – Log10(x – 2) = 1
3. Log1/312x2 – Log1/3(20x – 9) = -1
4. Log3(8x3 + 1) – Log3(4x2 – 2x + 1) = 2
5. 2Log25x – Log25(25 – 4x) = ½
6. Log4(Log2(Log216)) = x
7. Log10(Log3(Log5125)) = x
8. Log10(Log2(Log39)) = x
9. Log5(5x – 3) = log5(x + 9)
10. lnx – ln2 = 0
11. ln x + 2 = 1
-65-
From problems 12 – 14, express as a single logarithm
12. ½ (Logbx + 3Logby – 5Logbz)
13. 1/3logb(x – 1) + logb3 – 1/3logb(x + 1)
14. ½ logb(x2 – 1) + ½ logb(x2 + 1)
Letb2 = 0.3010, Logb3 = 0.4771 and Logb5 = 0.699. Find the following logarithms:
15. a) logb4 b) logb8 c) logb1/2 d) logb√2
16. a) logb48 b) logb50 c) logb0.25 d) logb2.4
From problems 14 to 17, find f-1(x) and show that f(f-1(x)) = x.

17. f(x) = 2
x–2
18. f(x) = x
x+1
19. y = 5x + 1
20. y = 3x + 7
Solve of x in the following exponential equations
21. 64x – 5 = 128x + 3
22. 625x + 2 = 125x – 7
For problems 20 – 22, determine if g is an inverse of f.

23. f(x) = 4 – x2, x ≥ 0, g(x) = √x – 4
24. f(x) = 2x – 3 and g(x) = 3 + 4x
x+4 2–x
25. f(x) = √x + 2 and g(x) = x2 – 2

26. Find the solution set of Xlog 100 = 100
27. Find the solution set of 100log x = x
28. If the graph of f(x) = bx passes through the point (2, 9), find f(4) and f(–2).
29. The graph of f(x) = bx passes through the point (3, 8), find f(3) and f(2).
Verify the following logarithmic identities

30. log7 14x – log72x = x
31. log 60x – log 6x = x
32. ln (4/5)x + ln (5/3)x – ln (3/4)x = 0
33. e – lnx = 1/x for x > 0
-66-
Chapter 7: Quadratic Relation
7.1 Conic sections
A conic section (or simply conic) is the intersection of a plane and a cone. The types
of conic sections include:
i) Circle
ii) Parabola
iii) Ellipse
iv) Hyperbola
Conic sections were discovered during the classical Greek period, 600 to 300 BC. This
early Greek study was largely concerned with the geometric properties of conic. It
was not until the early 17th century that the broad applicability of conic became
apparent and played a prominent role in the early development of calculus.
7.1.1 Circle
A circle is a collection of points in a plane which are equidistant from a fixed point in
the plane, called the center. The radius of a circle is a line segment which has one
endpoint at the center of the circle and the other point on the circle. The diameter of
a circle is the line segment which has both of its endpoints on the circle but passes
through the center.
Consider the circle below
y
Using the distance formula, we have

P(x, y)
(x – 0) 2 + (y – 0)2 = r2
r
x x2 + y2 = r2
C(0, 0)
Center, C(0, 0), radius = r.
P(x, y)
r
C(h, k)
-67-
Using the distance formula, we have
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 ----- Standard form --- Center, C(h, k), radius = r
Ax2 + By2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0 --- General form, where A = B
Worked examples
1. Find an equation of the circle in general form whose center C(-3, 1) and radius
is r = 4.
Solution: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
(x + 3)2 + (y – 1)2 = 42 ----- Standard form
x2 + 6x + 9 + y2 – 2y + 1 = 16
x2 + y2 + 6x – 2y + 10 – 16 = 0
x2 + y2 + 6x – 2y – 6 = 0
1. Find an equation of a circle described below: (Student problems)
a) C(-2, -3) and r = 5
b) C(-3, -8) and r = 4
c) C(1, 0) and r = 10
2. Find an equation of the circle whose diameter has the endpoints (2, 1) and (4,
5).
Solution: Use the midpoint formula to find the center of the circle.
C = x1 + x2, y2 + y2
2 2
C=2+4,1+5
2 2
C = (3, 3) center, C(3, 3)
Use the distance formula to find the radius of the circle.
r2 = (3 – 2)2 + (3 – 5)2, using the center C(3, 3) and one endpoint of the
diameter
r2 = 1 + 4 = 5
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 ----- Standard form
(x – 3) + (y – 3) = 5
2 2
x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 6y + 9 = 5
x2 + y2 – 6x – 6y + 18 – 5 = 0
x2 + y2 – 6x – 6y + 13 = 0 ----- General form
3. Find an equation of the circle whose diameter has the following endpoints:
(Student problems).
a) (-2, 5) and (4, 7)
b) (3, 5) and (7, -1)
4. Write the equation of the circle in standard form and then identify its center
and radius: x2 + y2 – 10x – 6y + 25 = 0
-68-
Solution: x2 + y2 – 10x – 6y + 25 = 0
x2 – 10x + y2 – 6y + 25 = 0
x2 – 10x + y2 – 6y = – 25 by using completing the square method, we have
x2 – 10x + 25 + y2 – 6y + 9 = – 25 + 25 + 9
(x – 5)2 + (y – 3)2 = 9
Thus the center is, C(5, 3) and the radius, r = 3.
5. Write the equation of the circle in standard form and then identify its center
and radius: (Student problems).
a) x2 + y2 – 2x + 6y + 9 = 0
b) 4x2 + 4y2 + 12x – 24y + 41 = 0
7.1.2 Parabola
A parabola is a set of all points (x, y) in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line,
the directrix, and a fixed point, the focus, not on the line.
The vertex is the midpoint between the focus and the directrix. The axis of the
parabola is the line passing through the focus and the vertex.
y y
D(x, p) Directrix: y = p
x
F(0, p) F(0, -p)
P(x, y) P(x, y)
x
D(x, -p) P>0 P<0

Directrix: y = – p
PF = PD
(x2 – x 1 )2 + (y2 – y1)2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
(x – 0)2 + (y – p)2 = (x – x)2 + (y + p)2
x2 + (y – p)2 = (y + p)2
x2 + y2 – 2py + p2 = y2 + 2py + p2
x2 = 4py
-69-
y y
Focus, F(h, k + p) V(h, k)

x
V(h, k) x
Focus, F(h , k + p)
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k)
P(x, y)
P(x, y)
F(p, 0)
F(p, 0)
P>0 P<0
Directrix: x = p
Directrix: x = – p
(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
(x + p)2 + (y – y)2 = (x – p)2 + (y – 0)2
(x + p)2 = (x – p)2 + y2
x2 + 2px + p2 = x2 – 2px + p2 + y2
– y2 = – 4px
y2 = 4px
Focus, F(h + p, k)
Focus, F(h + p, k) V(h, k)
V(h, k)
(y – k)2 = 4p(x – h)
-70-
Equation Vertex Focus Value of p Direction of
parabola
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k) V(h, k) F(h, k + p) P> 0 Opens upward
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k) V(h, k) F(h, k + p) P< 0 Opens downward
(y – k)2 = 4p(x – h) V(h, k) F(k + p, h) P> 0 Opens to the right
(y – k)2 = 4p(x – h) V(h, k) F(k + p, h) P< 0 Opens to the left
Worked examples
1. Locate the focus and directrix and sketch the graph of y2 = 16x.
Solution: Focus, F(p, 0); Directrix: x = – p. y
Solving for p, we have 4p = 16 since y = 4px
2 8
6
Thus p = 4. Focus, F(4, 0); Directrix: x = – 4. 4
2
x 0 1 4 F(4, 0)
y 0 ±4 ±8 -2 x
Directrix: x =-4– -2
4 0 2-4 4
-6
-8
2. Locate the focus and directrix and sketch the graph of x2 = 4y.
Solution: Focus, F(0, p); Directrix: y = – p. y
Solving for p, we have 4p = 4 since x2 = 4py 8
Thus p = 1. Focus, F(0, 1); Directrix: y = – 1. 6
4
2 F(0, 1)
x 0 ±2 ±4
y 0 1 4 -2 x
-4 -4- 2 0 2 4
Directrix: y = – 1
-6
-8
3. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola and sketch.
x2 – 2x + 8y + 17 = 0
Solution: x2 – 2x + 8y + 17 = 0 Solve for p;
x2 – 2x + 8y = – 17 4p = -8, thus p = -2
x2 – 2x + 1 + 8y = – 17 + 1 Focus, F(h, k + p) = F(1, -2 – 2)
(x – 1)2 + 8y = – 16 F(1, – 4)
(x – 1)2 = – 8y – 16 Directrix: y = 0
(x – 1)2 = – 8(y + 2) Vertex, V(1, – 2)
h = 1, k = -2
-71-
y
8
6
4
2
F(4, 0) x
-2
-4 V(1, -2)
-6
-8 F(1, -4)
4. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola and sketch.
y2 + 6y + 8x + 25 = 0
Solution: y2 + 6y + 8x + 25 = 0 Solve for p;
y + 6y + 8x + 25 = 0
2 4p = – 8, thus p = – 2
y + 6y + 8x + 25 = 0
2 Focus, F(h + p, k)
y + 6y = – 8x – 25
2 h+p=–2–2=–4
y + 6y + 9 = – 8x – 25 + 9
2 F(– 4, – 3)
(y + 3)2 = – 8x – 16 Vertex, V(– 2, – 3)
(y + 3)2 = – 8(x + 2) Directrix: x = 0 y
h = – 2, k = – 3
-4 -2 0 2 4
-2
F(-4, -3) -4
V(-2, -3)
-6
-8
4. Find an equation of the parabola in general form whose vertex and focus are
(3, 2) and (1, 2) respectively
Solution: h = 3, k = 2 h+p=1
p=1–h
p=1–3=–2
(y – k)2 = 4p(x – h)
(y – 2)2 = 4(– 2)(x – 3)
y2 – 4y + 4 = – 8x + 24
y2 – 4y + 8x – 20 = 0
4. Find an equation of the parabola in general form whose vertex is (0, 4) and
directrix is the line y = 2.
Solution: h = 0, k = 4, and p = 2
-72-
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k)
(x – 0)2 = 4(2)(y – 4)
x2 = 8y – 32
x2 – 8y + 32 = 0
4. Find an equation of the parabola in general form whose focus is (2, 2) and
directrix is the line x = – 2.
Solution: F(2, 2) P(x, y) D(– 2, y)
PF = DP
(x – 2)2 + (y – 2)2 = (x + 2)2 + (y – y)2
(x – 2)2 + (y – 2)2 = (x + 2)2 + (y – y)2
x2 – 4x + 4 + y2 – 4y + 4 = x2 + 4x + 4
y2 – 4y + 4 = 8x
(y – 2)2 = 8x
Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola described below:
1. y = ¼ (x2 – 2x + 5)
2. 4x – y2 – 2x – 33 = 0
Find an equation of the parabola in general form
1. Vertex, V(- 1, 2); Focus, F(- 1, 0)
2. Vertex, V(- 2, 1); Directrix: x = 1
3. Focus (3, 1); Directrix: y = –1
7.1.3 Ellipse
An ellipse is a set of all points (x, y) in a plane: the sum of whose distances from two
distinct fixed points (foci) is constant.
The line through the foci intersects the ellipse at two points (vertices). The chord
joining the vertices is the major axis, and its midpoint is the center of the ellipse. The
chord perpendicular to the major axis at the center is the minor axis.
Consider the ellipse below
P(x, y) Major axis

d1 d2
Center
Vertex Vertex
Minor axis
d1 + d2 is a constant
Standard equation of an ellipse (center at the origin) where a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0
d1
-73-
y y
(0,a)
(0,b)
(0,c)
(-a, 0) (0,0) (a, 0) (-b,0) (0,0) (b,0)
x x
(-c, 0) (c, 0) (0,-c)
(0,-b)
(0,-a)
Major axis is horizontal Major axis is vertical

Minor axis is vertical Minor axis is horizontal
Sum of distances from (0, b) to foci is equal Sum of distances from (b, 0) to foci is
to sum of distances from (a, 0) to foci. Equal to sum of distances from (0, a)
to foci.
(0 + c)2 + (b – 0)2 + (0 – c)2 + (b – 0)2 = (a – c)2 + (0 – 0)2 + (a + c)2 + ( 0 – 0)2
c2 + b2 + c2 + b2 = (a – c)2 + (a + c)2
2 b2 + c2 = (a – c) + (a + c)
2 b2 + c2 = 2a
Thus a = b2 + c2 - - a2 = b2 + c2, c2 = a2 – b2 and b2 = a2 – c2
From the definition of the ellipse,
d1 + d2 = 2a
(x+ c)2 + (y – 0)2 + (x – c)2 + (y – 0)2 = 2a
(x + c)2 + y2 + (x – c)2 + y2 = 2a
(x + c)2 + y2 = 2a – (x – c)2 + y2
(x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 – 4a (x – c)2 + y2 + (x – c)2 + y2
x2 + 2cx + c2 + y2 = 4a2 + 4a (x – c)2 + y2 + x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2
4cx = 4a2 – 4a (x – c)2 + y2, multiplying by ¼ , we have
cx = a2 – a (x – c)2 + y2
a (x – c)2 + y2 = a2 - cx
a2[(x – c)2 + y2] = (a2 – cx)2
a2(x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2) = a4 – 2a2cx + c2x2
a2x2 – 2 a2cx + a2c2 + a2y2 = a4 – 2a2cx + c2x2
a2x2 + a2c2 + a2y2 = a4 + c2x2
a2x2 + a2 (a2 – b2) + a2y2 = a4 + c2x2
a2x2 + a4 - a2b2 + a2y2 = a4 + c2x2
a2x2 - a2b2 + a2y2 = c2x2
a2x2 – c2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2
(a2 – c2)x2 + a2y2 = a2b2, but b2 = a2 – c2
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b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2, divide the equation by a2b2.
b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2
a2b2 a2b2 a2b2
x2 + y2 = 1
a2 b2
Translation of axis, where the center is at the point (h, k)
y y
x x
(x – h)2 (y – k) 2 (x – h)2 (y – k) 2 a>b>0

+ = 1 + = 1
a2 b2 b 2 a 2
Equation (Standard form) Center Foci Vertices

(x – h)2+ (y –k)2 =1 C(h, k) F(h + c, k), F(h – c, k) V(h + a, k), V(h – a, k)
a2 b2 or F(h ± c, k) or V(h ± a, k)
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = 1 C(h, k) F(h, k + c), F(h, k – c) V(h, k + a), V(h, k – a)
b2 a2 or F(h, k ± c) or V(h, k ± a)
Equation (General form) Center Foci Vertices Major axis Minor axis
Ay2 + Bx2
+ Cy + Dx + E = 0 C(h, k) F(h ± c, k) V(h ± a, k) 2a 2b
Ax2 + By2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0 C(h, k) F(h, k ± c) V(h, k ± a) 2b 2a
The eccentricity of an ellipse is defined by e = c/a

Worked examples
1. Locate the foci, center and vertices of the ellipse and sketch the graph:
(x – 2)2 + (y – 1)2 = 1
25 16
Solution: h = 2, k = 1, a = 5, b = 4 c2 = a2 – b2
c2 = 25 – 16 = 9 y
c=3
8
Foci: h + c = 2 + 3 = 5 Foci: (5, 1), (-1, 1) 6
(-1, 1) (5, 1)
h – c = 2 – 3 = -1 4
Center: C(h, k) = C(2, 1) 2
(2, 1) (7, 1)
(-3, 1)
Vertices: h+a=2+5=7 -4 -2 0 -22 4 6 8 x
h – a = 2 – 5 = -3 -4
-6
Vertices: V(7, 1), (-3, 1)
-8
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2. Find the center, foci, and vertices of ellipse and sketch the graph:
(x – 1)2 + (y – 5)2 = 1
9 25
Solution: h = 1, k = 5, a = 5, b = 3 c2 = a2 – b2 y
c2 = 25 – 9 = 16 (1, 10)
10
c=4 8
(1, 9)
Center: C(h, k) = C(1, 5) 6 (1, 5)
Foci: k + c = 5 + 4= 9 Foci: (1, 9), (1, 1) 4
k–c=5–4=1 2 (1, 1)
Vertices: k + a = 5 + 5 = 10 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
k–a=5–5= 0 -2
(1, 0)
-4
Vertices: V(1, 10), (1, 0)
3. Find the center, foci, and vertices of ellipse 9x2 + 4y2 + 36x – 24y + 36 = 0.
Solution: 9x2 + 4y2 + 36x – 24y + 36 = 0.
9x2 + 4y2 + 36x – 24y = – 36
9x2 + 36x + 4y2 – 24y = – 36
9(x2 + 4x) + 4(y2 – 6y) = – 36
9(x2 + 4x + 4) + 4(y2 – 6y + 9) = – 36 + 36 + 36
9(x + 2)2 + 4(y – 3)2 = 36, multiplying the equation by 1/36, we have
36 36 36
(x + 2) 2 (y – 3) 2
+ = 1
4 9
h = -2, k = 3, a = 3, b = 2 c2 = a2 – b2 Center: C(h, k) = C(–2, 3)
c =9–4=5
2
c = √5 Vertices: k + a = 3 + 3 = 6
Foci: h + c = -2 + √5 Foci: (5, 1), (-1, 1) k–a=3–3= 0
h – c = -2 – √5 Vertices: V(-2, 6), (-2, 0)
4. Find an equation of the ellipse whose vertices are (0, 2) and (4, 2) and minor axis
of length 2.
Solution: The vertices of this ellipse have coordinates V(h ± a, k), ie: k = 2
h+a=0
h–a=4
2h = 4
h =2 and a = –2
Minor axis = 2b = 2
b=1
Solving for c, we write c2 = a2 – b2
c2 = (-2)2 - 12
c2 = 4 – 1 thus c = √3
The value of c is not necessary in writing the equation
-76-
(x – h)2 (y – k) 2
+ = 1
a2 b2
(x – 2)2 (y – 2)2
+ = 1
4 1
Student problems
Find an equation of the ellipse described below:
1. Foci: (0, 0), (0, 4). Major axis of length 8
2. Center (2, – 1); Vertex (2, ½). Minor axis of length 2
3. Vertices (±5, 0) and eccentricity e = 3/5.
7.1.4 Hyperbola
A hyperbola is a set of all points (x, y) in a plane: the difference of whose distances
from two distinct fixed points (foci) is a positive constant.
The graph of a hyperbola has two disconnected parts (branches). The line through
the two foci intersects the hyperbola at two points (vertices). The line segment
connecting the vertices is the transverse axis, and the midpoint of the transverse axis
is the center of the hyperbola.
Standard equation of a hyperbola (center at the origin) where a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0

Transverse
Transverse y y Axis
Axis
(0, c)
(0, b) (0, a)
(-a, 0) (a, 0) (-b, 0) (b, 0)
x x
(-c, 0) (0, -a)
(c, 0)
(0, -b) (0, -c)
Transverse axis is vertical

x2 - y2 = 1 Transverse axis is horizontal y2 – x2
a2 b2 a2 b2
The vertices and foci are respectively a and c units from the center. Moreover, a, b,
and c are related by the equation b2 = c2 – a2 or c2 = a2 + b2
d1 – d2 = 2a
(x+ c)2 + (y – 0)2 – (x – c)2 + (y – 0)2 = 2a
(x+ c)2 + y2 – (x – c)2 + y2 = 2a
(x+ c)2 + y2 = 2a + (x – c)2 + y2
-77-
(x + c)2 + y2 = 4a2 + 4a (x – c)2 + y2 + (x – c)2 + y2
x2 + 2cx + c2 + y2 = 4a2 + 4a (x – c)2 + y2 + x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2
4cx = 4a2 + 4a (x – c)2 + y2, multiplying by ¼ , we have
cx = a2 + a (x – c)2 + y2
cx – a2 = a (x – c)2 + y2
c2x2 – 2a2cx + a4 = a2[(x – c)2 + y2]
c2x2 – 2a2cx + a4 = a2(x2 – 2cx + c2 + y2)
c2x2 – 2a2cx + a4 = a2x2 – 2a2cx + a2c2 + a2y2
c2x2 – a2x2 + a4 = a2c2 + a2y2
(c2 – a2)x2 – a2y2 = a2c2 – a4
(c2 – a2)x2 – a2y2 = a2(c2 – a2), but b2 = c2 – a2
b2x2 – a2y2 = a2b2
b2x2 – a2y2 = a2b2
a2b2 a2b2 a2b2
x2 – y2 = 1
a2 b2
Similarly
d1 – d2 = 2a
(x – 0)2 + (y + c)2 – (x – 0)2 + (y – c)2 = 2a
x2 + (y + c)2 – x2 + (y – c)2 = 2a
x2 + (y+ c)2 = 2a + x2 + (y – c)2
x2 + (y + c)2 = 4a2 + 4a x2 + (y – c)2 + x2 + (y – c)2
x2 + y2 + 2cy + c2 = 4a2 + 4a x2 + (y – c)2 + x2 + y2 – 2cy + c2
4cy = 4a2 + 4a x2 + (y – c)2, multiplying by ¼ , we have
cy = a2 + a x2 + (y – c)2
cy – a2 = a x2 + (y – c)2
c2y2 – 2a2cy + a4 = a2 [x2 + (y – c)2]
c2y2 – 2a2cy + a4 = a2(x2 + y2 – 2cy + c2)
c2y2 – 2a2cy + a4 = a2x2 + a2y2 – 2a2cy +a2c2
c2y2 – a2y2 – a2x2 = a2c2 – a4
(c2 – a2)y2 – a2x2 = a2(c2 – a2), but b2 = c2 – a2
b2y2 – a2x2 = a2b2
b2y2 – a2x2 = a2b2
a2b2 a2b2 a2b2
y2 – x2 = 1
a2 b2
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Equation (Standard form) Center Foci Vertices Axis
(x – h)2 – (y – k)2 = 1 C(h, k) F(h ± c, k) V(h ± a, k) Transverse axis 2a
a2 b2 Conjugate axis 2b
(y – k)2 – (x – h)2 = 1 C(h, k) F(h, k± c) V(h, k ± a) Transverse axis 2a
a2 b2 Conjugate axis 2b
Ax – By + Cx + Dy + E = 0
2 2 C(h, k) F(h ± c, k) V(h ± a, k)
Ay2 – Bx2 + Cy + Dx + E = 0 C(h, k) F(h, k± c) V(h, k ± a)
Worked examples
1. Locate the center, foci, and vertices of the hyperbola and sketch the graph:
(x + 1)2 (y – 4)2
– = 1
144 25
Solution: h = -1, k = 4, a = 12, b = 5 c2 = a2 + b2
c2 = 144 + 25 = 169
c = 13 y
Center, C(-1, 4)
Foci: h + c = -1 + 13 = 12
h – c = –1 – 13 = -14 14
Foci: (12, 4), (-14, 4) 12
Center: C(h, k) = C(2, 1) 8
4
Vertices: h + a = -1 + 12 = 11
h – a = -1 – 12 = -13 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 x
Vertices: V(11, 4), (-13, 4) -4
-8
-12
-14
2. Locate the center, foci, and vertices of the hyperbola.

9y2 – 4x2 + 8x + 18y + 41 = 0
Solution: 9y2 – 4x2 + 8x + 18y + 41 = 0
9y2 + 18y – 4x2 + 8x = – 41
9(y2 + 2y) – 4(x2 – 2x) = – 41
9(y2 + 2y + 1) – 4(x2 – 2x + 1) = – 41 + 9– 4 y
9(y + 1)2 – 4(x – 1)2 = – 36
8
4(x – 1)2 – 9(y + 1)2 = 36
6
(x – 1)2 (y + 1)2
– = 1 4
9 4 2
h = 1, k = – 1, a = 3, b = 2 x
c2 = a2 + b2 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
c2 = 9 + 4 = 13 -2
c = √13 -4
-6
Center, C(1, –1) -8
-79-
3. Locate the center, foci, and vertices of the hyperbola.
9y2 – 16x2 – 64x – 54y – 127 = 0
Solution: 9y2 – 16x2 – 64x – 54y – 127 = 0
9y2 – 16x2 – 64x – 54y = 127
9y2 – 54y – 16x2 – 64x = 127
9(y2 – 6y) – 16(x2 + 4x) = 127
9(y2 – 6y + 9) – 16(x2 + 4x + 4) = 127 + 81 – 64
9(y – 3)2 – 16(x – 2)2 = 144 y
(y – 3)2 (x – 2)2 8
– =1
16 9 6
4
h = 2, k = 3, a = 4, b = 3 2
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 = 16 + 9 = 25 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
c=5 -2
-4
Center, C(2, 3) -6
Foci: k + c = 3 + 5 = 8 Vertices: k + a = 3+ 4 = 7 -8
k – c = 3 – 5 = –2 k–a=3–4= –1
Foci: (2, 8), (2, -2) Vertices: V(2, 7), (2, -1)
Written Exercise 7:
1. The point (3, 4) lie on a circle whose center is at (– 1, 2). Write the standard and
general form of this circle.
2. Write the equation of the circle in standard form and identify its center and radius.
3. Write the standard and general forms of a circle whose diameter has the endpoints
(3, 2) and (– 5, 4).
4. Find an equation of the parabola described below:
a) Vertex: V(4, 1); Focus (2, 1)
b) Focus (2, 2); Directrix: x = –2
c) Vertex, V(0, 4); Directrix: y = 2
5. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola 4x – y2 – 2y – 33 = 0 and sketch
its graph.
6. Find the center, foci and vertices of the ellipse and sketch its graph.
a) 9x2 + 4y2 – 36x + 8y + 31 = 0
b) 16x2 + 25y2 – 32x + 50y + 16 = 0
7. Find an equation of the ellipse with vertices (0, ±8) and eccentricity e = ½.
8. Find the center, foci, and vertices of the hyperbola 9x2 – 4y2 – 36x – 24y – 36 = 0.
9. Find the center, foci, and vertices of the hyperbola 16y2 – 9x2 – 72x – 96y – 144 = 0.
10. Find an equation in general form of each hyperbola described below:
a) Vertices (2, 0), (6, 0) Foci (0, 0), (8, 0).
b) Vertices (2, 3), (2, -3) Foci (2, 5), (2, -5).
c) Vertices (-2, 1), (2, 1) and passes through the point (4, 3)
-80-

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pre – Calculus – An Integrated Approach is mainly designed for students

I hope that this edition of pre-calculus will be of an immense benefit to both

For example, If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then

III. Complement of a set

Illustrating properties of set operations using Venn diagram

Description and identification of regions of Venn diagrams

There are four regions.

Law 1 is verified using the diagrams below

Law 2 is verified using the diagrams on page 8.

1.3.2 Interval notations

Worked examples I – Graphing intervals and inequalities

1.3.3 Linear and combined inequalities in one variable

7. Solve and graph 3(x – 1) ≥ 5(x + 2) – 5. (Student problem)

II. Solving a linear inequality involving fraction

Properties of absolute value equation:

1. mx + a < b is equivalent to –b < mx + a < b

3. Solve 2x + 1 ≥ 5 and write solutions in both inequality ant interval notation

Solution: – 5 < x < – 2 ----------- square all sides of the inequality

Step 1: 4(x + 2) – 3(x + 1) ≥ (x + 1)(x + 2) (write in standard form)

Step 1: 2x2 – 7x – 4 ≥ 0 (write in standard form)

2. Solve and graph each of the following inequalities.

Exercise V: Determine whether each of the following graphs is a function or not a

2.4.1 Categories of functions

2.4.2 Function notation

Solutions: f(-2) = (-2)2 + 3(-2) = 4 – 6 = -2

In addition to evaluating functions at specific number, it is important to be able to

Worked example – Evaluating and simplifying difference quotient

f(x + h) = (x + h)2 + 2(x + h) + 3

f(x + h) = (x + h)2 + 3(x + h) + 7

f/g(x) = f(x) = 4 – x = 4–x

5. If f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x – 2. Find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) (Student problem)

6. Given that f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = 4 – x2, find the following:

Finding components of composite functions

1. Express the function h(x) = 1 as a composition of two functions.

11. Verify that if f(x) = 1 and g(x) = 1 then (f o g)(x) = x

12. Given that f(g(x) = and g(x) = 1 – x2 , find g(x).

d) (5) (Student problem)

18. Express the function f(g(x)) = as a composition of two functions.

The degree of a term is the exponent of the variable in the terms.

the values of A, B and C such that h(x) = k(x).

–2B + C = 5 -------------- (2)

2. Graph the equation 4x + 3y = 12. (Student problem)

Table 1: Geometric interpretations of slope

Thus PQ2 = l(x2 – x1)l2 + l(y2 – y1)l2

Consider the diagram below: 2

Thus an equation of a line with slope m that passes through x

Worked examples – Using Point – Slope form

2. Write the linear function f for which f(1) = 3 and f(0) = 4.

f(x) = – 2(x – 4)2 + 8

Vertex (-4, 12); y intercept: - 4

f(x) = – 1[(x – ( – 4)]2 + 12

b) p(x) = 9000 + 30x – 0.05x2

The graph of the cubic function

2. Graph the function f(x) = x3 + 1

10. A quadrilateral has vertices A(-4,5), B(4,-1), C(-7,1) and D(x,y).

14. Graph the function f(x) = (x – 1)3 + 2

16. Sketch the graphs of the following functions: