Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Untitled
Untitled
Forensic Photography
Third Edition
The text of this book or any part hereof, may not be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including copying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval
system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
publisher.
Edited by:
The English Factor
www.englishfactor.com
“Providing international-quality editorial services at reasonable costs.”
ISBN: 978-971-9647-40-9
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 4
DEDICATION
DEDICATION................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................ 8
What is Photography?..................................................................... 8
What is Police Photography?........................................................... 8
Significance of Photography in
Police Work and Law Enforcement......................................... 10
The PNP Forensic Photography Division........................................ 11
Review Questions.......................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.................................. 15
Pre-Photographic History.............................................................. 16
Advances in Photographic Technology........................................... 18
Beginnings of Forensic Imaging..................................................... 20
Forensic Imaging in the Twentieth Century................................... 21
Review Questions.......................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 3
LIGHT AND THE CAMERA.......................................................... 26
Light............................................................................................. 26
Two Main Sources of Light............................................................ 28
Sources of Artificial Light.............................................................. 29
The Camera.................................................................................. 31
Camera Types............................................................................... 32
Essential Components of a Camera............................................... 33
Essential Parts of a Camera.......................................................... 33
Camera Lenses............................................................................. 37
Standard Camera Lenses.............................................................. 37
Special Camera Lenses and Zooms............................................... 38
Classification of Lenses................................................................. 39
Inherent Defects and Aberrations of Lenses.................................. 40
Types of Lens According to Their Degree of Correction................... 40
Camera Accessories...................................................................... 41
Basic Crime Scene and Evidence Photography Kit......................... 43
Proper Handling of the Camera..................................................... 45
How to Hold a Camera.................................................................. 45
Care and Handling of the Camera and Film.................................. 45
Review Questions.......................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 4
FILM VS. DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY............................................ 49
Film Photography......................................................................... 49
Loading and Unloading the Film................................................... 50
Choosing Film Types..................................................................... 53
Chemical Processing..................................................................... 55
Equipment for Film Processing..................................................... 58
Digital Photography...................................................................... 59
Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Photography.................. 61
Digital Photography in Police Work............................................... 63
Review Questions.......................................................................... 64
CHAPTER 5
ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY............................................... 66
Exposure...................................................................................... 66
Exposure Controls........................................................................ 67
Available Light Photography.......................................................... 67
Exposure Using Flash (Artificial Light).......................................... 68
Focus........................................................................................... 69
Depth of Field............................................................................... 70
Taking Better Photos: General Photography Tips........................... 71
Top Ten Tips for Better Photos...................................................... 72
Tips for Optimizing the Quality of Crime Scene Photographs......... 76
Review Questions.......................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 6
DOCUMENTATION OF THE CRIME SCENE................................ 80
Photographing the Crime Scene.................................................... 81
Ranges of Photographs................................................................. 81
Methods of Photographing the Crime Scene.................................. 83
Sequential Photographs of the Crime Scene.................................. 83
Standard Operating Procedures in
Photographing the Crime Scene............................................... 84
Issuance/ Release of Photographic Evidence................................. 85
Note Taking.................................................................................. 85
Essential Items of Information to Be Included
During Note Taking................................................................. 85
Crime Scene Sketching................................................................. 87
Information to be Included in the Sketch...................................... 94
Types of Sketches......................................................................... 94
Methods of Sketching................................................................... 95
General Rules of Sketching........................................................... 96
Review Questions.......................................................................... 98
CHAPTER 7
PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE.................................... 100
Photographing Evidence.............................................................. 101
Photographing Bodies and Wounds............................................. 105
Accident Photography................................................................. 107
Mug-Shot Photography............................................................... 108
Review Questions........................................................................ 110
CHAPTER 8
ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY..................... 112
Ultraviolet Photography.............................................................. 113
Infrared Photography.................................................................. 114
Macrophotography...................................................................... 116
Microphotography....................................................................... 116
Review Questions........................................................................ 117
CHAPTER 9
Application of Photography to Law Enforcement.......................... 119
Uses of Photographs................................................................... 120
Legal Implications of Photographic Evidence............................... 120
Categorizing Photographic Evidence............................................ 121
Preservation of Fingerprints Through Photographs...................... 122
Markings in the Field of View...................................................... 122
Basic Requirement for the Admissibility
of Photographs as Evidence in Court..................................... 123
Review Questions........................................................................ 125
ANNEXES
A.M. NO. 01-7-01-SC - RE: Rules on Electronic Evidence ........... 127
Primer on the Anti-Photo and Video Voyeurism
Act of 2009 (RA 9995)........................................................... 137
Primer on Cybercrime................................................................. 140
1997 Resolutions & Legislative Committee - Resolution 97-9...... 142
GLOSSARY................................................................................. 143
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................... 149
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 8
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define photography, police photography and forensic
photography;
• Describe the police photographer;
• Explain the significance of photography in law
enforcement and police work; and
• Enumerate the duties and functions of a forensic
photographer.
What is Photography?
The word photography is derived from the Greek words “photos”
(light) and “graphos” (writing). The term, therefore, means “writing with
light” (Lynch-Johnt & Perkins, 2008).
Photography involves the creation of an image using light. It is
the art or process of producing images of objects by action of light on
a sensitized surface with the aid of an image-forming device known as
a camera and the chemical process involved therein.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between police photography and
forensic photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 14
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe the camera obscura;
• Enumerate significant events in the pre-photographic
history;
• Identify advances in photographic technology during
the nineteenth century;
• Narrate the beginnings of forensic imaging;
• Explain the contribution of Alphonse M. Bertillon in
criminology; and
• Enumerate important developments in forensic
imaging in the twentieth century.
Pre-Photographic History
The early cave paintings of the Upper Paleolithic period can be
considered as the earliest creation of pictorial recording. Such can be
traced as far back as about 35,000 years ago. These “pictures” could
possibly be a record of actual hunting of the time, or they could be
religious petitions for a bountiful hunting. They could also simply be
depictions of icons that serve to brighten domestic activities. These
pictorial images are significant to the discussion of history because they
demonstrate how human culture is inextricably linked to photography
(Wright, 1999).
The history of imaging began with the camera obscura, the first
pinhole camera. Although there may be a conflict among authors as
to who is the first to describe the camera obscura, Robert C. Sanders
considers that it is most likely the Arab scholar Hassan bin al Haitham
who wrote about it in 1038. These early pinhole cameras were used
by scientists to observe the sun and by artists to make sketches. Two
others who are credited by some authors as the first to describe the
camera obscura are Roger Bacon in 1267 and Leonardo da Vinci in
1490 (Sanders, 2010).
The evolution of the camera obscura includes the addition of lens
in 1550 by Girolamo Cardano, the further addition of lenses and curved
mirrors to produce an upright image in 1558 by Giovanni Battista della
Porta, and the invention of a diaphragm in 1568 by Daniele Barbaro.
Jean Hellot may have been the first one to use the word
“photography,” which means writing with light. He was reported to
have used a photographic process to make secret writings visible by
exposure to light in 1737. In 1795, Thomas Wedgwood made the first
known attempt to use a photographic process to take a photograph with
a camera obscura. However, his attempt failed due to a combination of
underexposure and his inability to fix the image.
The editors of the Focal Encyclopedia of Photography define
photography as beginning when the recording of images “could-be-
made-permanent.” The book provides the following dates to outline
important pre-photographic events in history (Peres, 2007).
shots. By the late 1840s, the daguerreotype process was being used
commercially in every industrialized nation of the world.
Another milestone in the history of photography was the discovery
of the UV fluorescence by Sir George G. Stokes in 1852. This led to the
formulation of the Stokes’ Law as the fundamental theoretical basis
of all fluorescent photography currently used in law enforcement.
It states that the wavelength of the fluorescence is always longer
than the wavelength of the light that excited the fluorescence. The
fluorescence will not be as bright as the exciting light source. Sanders
(2010) explains that in practice, this means “that if the film or camera
sensor is sensitive to both the color of the exciter light source (such
as an argon-ion laser with an output at 514nm) and the color of the
fluorescent light (such as the color of the fluorescent color of R6G
dye-stained latent print evidence), you will need a barrier filter to
block the exciter light source so that the film or sensor can record the
fluorescence.”
Sanders identified other advances in the history of photography,
as follows (Sanders, 2010):
1874; the use of traffic accident photographs were affirmed to show the
road conditions that were a factor in the traffic accident in 1875; and
tintype photographs of injuries were admitted in 1879.
Alphonse M. Bertillon invented many techniques that contributed
to the field of criminology, one of which is the invention of the
mug shot. In 1879, when he completed his military training and
became a minor clerk at the Paris Prefecture of Police, he began to
use anthropological statistics and anthropometric techniques in
solving the central problem plaguing the department’s identification
practices (Lerner & Lerner, 2006). The department had accumulated
a tremendous number of images but lacked any real way to utilize
them. Bertillon developed a system of identification that involved the
recording of eleven anthropometric measurements, supplemented with
a physical description of the body, particularly the features of the face
and the head. Bertillon’s signaletic system was officially accepted by
the Paris police in 1883 and became widely adopted across Europe,
Canada, and the United States. However, the system was not entirely
successful as a dominant mode of criminal identification, and was
eventually replaced by fingerprinting (Finn, 2009).
In 1887, banks began using cameras to photograph persons
attempting to break into them. In 1893, a bank robbery suspect in New
York City was identified using such a photograph (Sanders, 2010).
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is a camera obscura and how was it used?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What significant events occurred during the pre-photographic
history?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the advances in photographic technology that
occurred during the nineteenth century?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 25
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are the significant events relevant to the beginnings of
forensic imaging?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. Who is Alphonse M. Bertillon and what are his contributions
to the field of criminology?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. What are the important developments in forensic imaging that
occurred in the twentieth century?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 26
CHAPTER 3
LIGHT AND THE CAMERA
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Explain the importance of light in photography;
• Enumerate the types, components and essential parts
of a camera;
• Explain the function of the lens and identify standard
and special camera lenses and zooms;
• Identify and explain the functions of different camera
accessories;
• Enumerate the equipment and accessories included in
a crime scene photography kit; and
• Explain the proper way of handling a camera.
Light
Light is the very essence and the basic substance of photography.
It is important to understand how light behaves and how lenses form
it into images in order to gain a broader view of the possibilities of
photography.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 27
the front of the camera to form a latent image on the film. A lens
consists of a convex disk of ground and polished glass that reflects
the widening light rays traveling away from every point of the subject.
Light is prevented from reaching the film by a shutter until your chosen
moment of exposure. The point at which the lens focuses these rays –
the focal plane – coincides with the position of the film when the lens is
correctly focused. The focal plane is where the rays of light refracted by
the lens converge to form a sharp, upside-down image. Light traveling
from different distances from the camera needs varying degrees of
refraction to focus at the focal plane, so a focusing mechanism moves
the lens toward or away from the position of the film and focal plane
coincides when the lens is correctly focused.
The amount of exposure to light is most often controlled by a
combination of the time the shutter is open (the shutter speed) and the
diameter of the light beam passing through-the-lens (the aperture). The
shutter speed and the aperture are controls that influence the visual
result. Shutter time alters the way movement is recorded, blurred or
frozen; while lens aperture alters the depth of subject that is shown in
focus at one time (depth of field) (Langford, Fox, & Smith, 2010). These
controls will be explained further in this chapter.
2. Artificial light
This refers to man-made sources of light used or utilized for indoor
photography to align the adverse lighting condition. It is also utilized to
align the hazy or dull light in outdoor photography.
This includes all non-natural sources such as conditions light
from incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs, electronic flashes and
studio strobes.
b. Short Duration
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 30
The Camera
By definition, a camera is photographic apparatus used to
expose sensitized film or plates to reflected light images formed by a
lens (Brenner, 2004). It can also be considered as a light tight box
with a means of forming the image, holding sensitized materials, and
controlling the amount of light that will reach the film.
Camera Types
1. SLR (single lens reflex) cameras are the most popular type for
serious photography. They could be either digital or use 35mm
film. An SLR camera’s unique feature lies in the design of its
viewfinder system in which a system of mirrors shows the user the
image precisely as the lens renders it. Thus, no matter what focal
length lens is attached to the camera, the scene the photographer
sees through the viewfinder corresponds exactly to that seen by
the lens.
Focusing control:
a. Split Image b. Microprism c. Ground Screen
Out of focus Sharp focus
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 36
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 37
Camera Lenses
As defined above, a lens is a glass, plastic, or crystal optical
element molded into a curved shape that can bend and focus rays of
light. It is responsible for focusing the rays of light coming from the
subject.
Simple lenses feature a single convex or concave lens. Most
photographic lenses feature multiple elements housed in a single lens
barrel that cancel out each element’s weaknesses to produce a sharp
image. The size of the individual lens elements and their positions
determine the angle of view and focal length of the lens.
4. Zoom Lens
A zoom lens has a variable focal length. It allows fine-tuning
of subject framing by adjusting the focal length of the lens.
Classification of Lenses
1. Positive lens – a convex lens characterized by the fact that
it is thicker in the middle than the edge, and forms a real
image on the opposite side of the lens. It has a positive
focal length and bends the rays together, which makes it a
converging lens.
2. Negative lens – a concave lens characterized by the fact
that it is thinner in the middle than the edge and forms
a virtual image on the same side of the lens. It does not
require focusing at all, as everything will be sharp, upright
and clear, no matter how close or far away the object. It
is also known as a diverging lens because of its power to
diverge rays of light that passes through it.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 40
Camera Accessories
The following are among the several
camera accessories that can be utilized in
photographing subjects.
1. Tripod – a stand consisting of
three legs and a mounting head
for a camera; used to support and
stabilize the camera (Figure 3.7)
2. Cable release – a cable with a button
or plunger attached to a camera to
prevent accidental movement and
eliminate camera shake (Figure
3.8)
3. Flash unit – an artificial light source
synchronized with the opening and
closing of the shutter to emit a brief
but very bright burst of illumination
to a scene (Figure 3.9)
4. Light Meter – a device used in
determining the intensity of light
that strikes the subjects and affects
the film (Figure 3.10)
5. Extension Tube – a tube inserted
between the lens and camera body
to provide increased magnification
for macrophotography; used in
photographing minute objects
(Figure 3.11)
6. Filter – a piece of colored glass,
gelatin, plastic, or other material
that attaches to or over the camera
or enlarger lens to selectively absorb
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 42
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is light and why is it important in photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What is a camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the types, components and essential parts of a
camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What is a lens? What is its function in a camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 48
CHAPTER 4
FILM VS. DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe the film-based camera;
• Explain the process of loading and unloading the film;
• Differentiate film types;
• Explain the chemical processing of photographs;
• Differentiate a photograph from an image;
• Enumerate the different types of digital cameras;
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of digital
photography; and
• Explain the issues regarding the use of digital
photography in police work.
Film Photography
Although digital photography has now gained dominance over
film photography, there are still professionals who would argue that
film remains the best way to capture images because of its incredible
ability to record detail in a very stable form.
The most popular of film cameras is the 35mm SLR (single lens
reflex camera), with through-the-lens viewing, built-in metering and
interchangeable lenses. The availability of fine-grained and ultra sharp
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 50
rolls of film allows the 35mm format to be usable for a wide variety of
needs.
Film cameras are loaded with a film without having it fogged by
light. A photographic film is defined as a thin, transparent, flexible
acetate or polyester base, coated with light-sensitive emulsion used in
a camera to record a photographic image. They should always be kept
in a cool place, out of direct sunlight, in low humidity, and away from
all sources of chemical fumes.
2. With the rewind knob up, fit the film canister on the left
side under the rewind knob.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 51
3. Pull the tail of the film gently out of the canister into place.
4. Pull the tail of the film gently out of the canister and insert
it into the take-up spool.
5. Turn the rewind knob slightly to make sure that the film is
snug against the sprockets and advance the film once.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 52
2. Pull the rewind lever out and turn it slowly until it is released
from the take-up spool.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 53
3. Turn the lever a few more times and then open the back of
the camera and remove canister.
however, is not as good as the slower film speeds. When light levels
are really low such as in dimly lit interiors or outdoors at dusk, the
sensitivity of faster films (e.g., ISO1000) can give acceptable results
(Hedgecoe, 2005).
Some films, including slide films, are made specifically for
shooting in well-lighted situations. Others are made for artificial light,
incandescent lighting and stage lighting. High speed transparency
film allows the operator to shoot a roll of film at a speed higher than
recommended because the processing of the film can make up for the
difference in light. The photograph will not be as clear or precise, but
it can be useful where additional speed is needed.
Aside from film speed, films can also be categorized as either
black-and-white or color film. A black-and-white film records the
actual intensity of light as shades of gray. The developing stage of
the photographic process turns the silver halide crystals that have
been exposed to light into minute grains of metallic silver. Light from
a bright area of the subject will affect more silver halide crystals than
light from a dark area when these are developed. They are converted to
grains of metallic silver, forming a dark area on the negative. When the
film is printed to a positive, it becomes a light area again. Black and
white films have anti-halation backing, a coating at the back of the film,
usually gelatin containing a dye or pigment, to absorbing light rays
and prevent the light from reflecting back from the film base through
emulsion.
A color film is more complex and consists of three layers of light-
sensitive emulsion -- red, green or blue -- with layer sensitive to a
particular color. During exposure, blue light from a subject will affect
the silver halide crystals in the blue-sensitive layer of the film and so
on. During development, a colored dye forms in the relevant layer of
a complementary or opposite color to the layer in which it is formed;
that is, yellow dye forms in the blue-sensitive layer, magenta dye in
the green-sensitive layer, and cyan dye in the red-sensitive layer. The
silver crystals are then bleached out, leaving just the complementary
colors. Various combinations of the same colors produce all the other
colors in the photograph.
When a color negative is printed, a similar process takes place
in the three layers of the printing paper: the complementary colors
of those in the negative form in the relevant layer of the paper. This,
therefore, reverses the colors on the negative back into the colors of the
original image. Color transparency film goes through a reversal process
during film processing so that the image on the film is a positive; that
is, the color of the original image is the same as the colors on the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 55
processed film. The three layers of color film include the blue-sensitive
layer, the green-sensitive layer and the red-sensitive layer.
Chemical Processing
Film processing involves a sequence of consistent and controlled
steps whereby a latent image (which is formed by the action of light
on the emulsion while in the camera) is converted into a visible image
through chemical means. The gelatin of the emulsion absorbs liquid
chemicals, which react with those within the film, differentiating
between exposed and unexposed parts of the image. Essentially,
the latent image is developed; its chemical make-up is changed into
something more permanent. When fixed and washed, the chemical by-
products are removed and changes make it no longer sensitive to light
(Langford, Fox, & Smith, 2010).
Photographic processing requires concentration and care over
detail. It is important to avoid contaminating one chemical with
another, wash by-products out of the emulsion thoroughly, closely
monitor times and temperatures, and prevent scratches and dust from
ruining the very soft and vulnerable film. The process itself is easy
but carelessness can result in the loss of unrepeatable pictures. Color
processing, in particular, can be quite tricky to do by hand because
it requires very accurate time and temperature controls and often
requires many solutions. Most professionals therefore choose to have
photos developed commercially so that the most accurate processing
is carried out by expensive automatic machinery with automatically
controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate.
Individual hand processing requires essential items of equipment,
chemicals which may require mixing or diluting for use, and a suitable
place to work. The most important equipment is the processing tank
that can hold 120 or 35mm films in open coils or sheet films suitably
separated. Chemicals or wash water can then circulate over the
emulsion surfaces to affect them evenly. Other items needed include
photographic-grade thermometer, various graduated measures for
measuring and mixing solutions, an electronic timer, a plastic mixing
rod, chemical storage bottles, a funnel to return solutions to containers,
a hose for washing, and photographic clips for hanging up films to dry.
Processing chemicals can be bought either as complete kits containing
all stages (as for color film processing) or as individual items (such as
black and white chemicals), either in concentrated liquids or premixed
powders which need dissolving.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 56
Film processing begins with the loading of the film, which involves
a few simple steps:
1. Remove the protective cover.
2. Cut the film leader.
3. Roll the film into the reel.
4. Cut off the end of the film.
5. Place the reel in the tank.
6. After pouring the stop bath, pour the fixing solution into
the tank and agitate. The fixing process usually takes 5
to 10 minutes in a regular fixer and 2 to 4 minutes in a
rapid fixer. A fixer is a chemical solution that dissolves
unexposed silver halide crystals, leaving the developed
silver image on the film or print and making it stable in
white light. Fixation is the process of removing, unexposed
silver halides remaining in the emulsion after first stage of
development of the latent image;
7. Pour out the fixer and save it for reuse;
8. Wash the film in clean running water for a minimum of 20
minutes (20 to 30 minutes);
9. Rinse the film in wetting agent. A wetting agent is a mild
form of detergent that reduces water surface tension,
thereby helping the water to flow off the surface of the film
without leaving drying marks;
10. Gently wipe it through a special film squeegee or even two
fingers applied with the wetting agent; and
11. Lastly, hang the film and attach a weight to prevent it from
curling during drying.
Digital Photography
Many photographers think the image has replaced the photograph
in the digital age. What really makes a distinction between photograph
and image, between picture and print? A photograph is what comes
out of the camera based on the primary definition of photography
(drawing with light). It would still be a photograph even if five or fifty
negatives are used to make the print in the darkroom, by the definition
of the darkroom enlarger as an optical (not digital) instrument that
utilizes light. It is still a photograph even after undergoing standard
editing in the computer. Standard editing can range from minor
exposure tweaks to heavy digital dodging and burning, just like in the
wet darkroom. Non-critical details like electrical wires and trash can
be removed from a photograph without changing the meaning of the
original photograph. So at what point in the editing does it cease to be
a photograph?
An image is created when critical elements are added or deleted,
changing the scene as it was seen by the eye or camera, or when visual
effects introduced are not possible with the camera or in the darkroom.
It is also considered an image if it is a digital illustration or digital
printing created in the computer from scratch. The defining property
that differentiates it from a photograph is that the image is not made
or remade using light.
A picture is a print of a photograph – what we get from the lab,
darkroom or desktop printers. It is something we can hold in our
hands, hang on the wall, or see in a magazine. We can’t point to a
photograph on a computer monitor and call it a picture; neither can
we say that we have pictures stored in our camera, flash cards, or hard
disks.
If a picture is a print of a photograph, what do we call the print of
an image? A computer printout of an image is best called a print. This
is based on historical and traditional precedent. Before the digital age,
art works not created by camera were called prints, not pictures.
Digital Cameras
The principal attraction with digital cameras is the immediacy of
the results. As soon as the picture is taken, the shot can be viewed
instantly on screen as well as on the computer or TV screen. There
is no processing stage; the image can be printed at home using a
standard desktop printer or professionally using photographic paper,
and the memory can be re-used. Digital cameras use an electronic
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 60
3. Spy Camera
This usually refers to a camera disguised as a
matchbox, card case, pocket watch, or other small item
and used surreptitiously.
4. Infrared Camera
This is a camera with detectors that respond to
infrared energy radiated by any heat. It is used to take
photographs without the presence of light, and works as
well by day or night. It is commonly used in surveillance
during night time.
5. Pinhole Camera
This is a simple camera consisting of a light-tight
box with a piece of film at one end and a tiny pinhole
in the other (instead of a lens) through which light is
transmitted. This camera has no lens, and its aperture
is controlled by a paper flap.
6. Disposable Cameras
These are cameras that are supplied with pre-
loaded film. When the film has been exposed, the whole
camera is taken into the processing laboratory.
7. Cellphone Cameras
More people now have cameras and take more
pictures due largely to the popularity of the mobile
phone with built right in digital cameras of up to 8 MP
on the CCD chip. Some even have zoom functionality,
ability to record, and come with a flash or light source.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Digital cameras are not as sensitive to light as the film-
based cameras.
2. They require more light to make an exposure.
3. The shutter lag or the delay between pressing the shutter
button and actually capturing of the image can lead to
missed opportunities.
4. The LCD viewfinder can sometimes be hard to see on a
bright day.
5. Camera battery life is limited due to the abundance of
computerized parts.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 63
2 The Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB) is a Home Office Unit composed
of scientists and technologists providing technical advice and guidance to ensure
the effectiveness and efficiency of police service in England.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 64
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is a film-based camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. How is film loaded and unloaded in a camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the different film types?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. How are photographs converted from latent to visible images?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 65
CHAPTER 5
ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define exposure and explain the adjustments that
control exposure;
• Enumerate the steps to obtain proper exposure;
• Explain the importance of focus in crime scene
photographs;
• Explain how to get depth of field in photographs; and
• Enumerate ways to capture better crime scene
photographs.
Exposure
Exposure is defined as the amount of light received by a
photographic emulsion or imaging chip. Overall exposure is the
product of the intensity of the light, the aperture size, and the shutter
speed (Hedgecoe, 2005).
A properly exposed photo is neither too light nor too dark. On the
other hand, in incorrectly exposed photos, the details are hidden by
dark shadows or washed out by being overexposed.
The photographer must always remember that a camera makes
adjustments to light much like the human eye. You might say that
the eye has a built-in light meter. That same light meter is imperative
for getting usable shots with a camera. A light “meter” will tell the
photographer what camera settings will give the best results.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 67
Exposure Controls
Below are two adjustments in the camera that can control the
amount of light that reaches the film.
1. Shutter Speed Control
The shutter speed control determines the length of time
that the film is exposed to light. The numbers found on the
control correspond to fractions of a second.
2. Lens Opening
The size of the lens opening in your camera is the other factor
that determines the amount of light that reaches the film. The
indicator on the camera for the degree of light passing through
the camera lens is called the “f” number. The smaller the “f”
number, the smaller the opening and vice versa. Much like
fast films and slow films, there are fast and slow lenses. A fast
lens, for instance, is one that transmits a lot of light. The user
should be cautious, however, since fast lenses do not produce
the sharpest images.
Focus
Focus is defined as the physical point at which rays of light from
a lens converge to form a properly defined image of the subject. The
sharpness or focus of a photograph will make a difference in a court of
law. If the jury can see exactly what has taken place through a series
of photographs that are clear and concise, the evidence will be much
easier to understand.
In the book Crime Scene Photography, Edward M. Robinson (2010)
highlights the difference of crime scene photos with others not used in
law enforcement. When taking photographs of family, friends, pets,
birthday cakes, trophies, and other interesting items, the focus is on
these subjects. In crime scene photography, medium and large crime
scenes as well as individual items need to be captured. Focusing the
foreground and background details are just as important as focusing
on all items of evidence. Focusing is therefore critical to the work of
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 70
2. Tripod
Since the depth is so shallow, the photographer must
concentrate on the most important part of the photograph.
The tripod is used for a close-up photograph as described.
Remember that the sharp area of the photograph
extends to about one-third in front and two-thirds beyond
the subject of the photograph. Also remember that the lens
used has a significant effect on the way that the photograph
will look when processed.
3. Type of lens
Sometimes the photographer may want to highlight a
particular part of the photograph. To do so may require
a different lens. Wide-angle lenses, for instance, make
objects look smaller and distances between look greater.
Conversely, zoom lenses can be adjusted to acquire a close-
up photograph that can be taken from some distance.
Depth of Field
Depth of field is the distance measured from the nearest to the
farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused
at particular distance. The term, also known as the zone of focus, is
used to describe how much of what the camera sees in focus.
Depth of field is usually misunderstood and thought to be the
sharpness in front and at the back of the subject of the photograph.
The term is really used, however, to describe the distance that the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 71
investigator can move away from the subject and still maintain a sharp
image. Depth is the area in front and at the back of the photograph.
To get depth, remember the following:
1. Use small lens - To get depth, the photographer will use
a small lens with a large “f” number. Understanding this
concept will control the sharpness of every photograph.
3. Double check the ISO values from time to time to ensure that
they are recording the scene as intended. A photographer
can use an ISO 100 film speed when recording colorful
bloodstains on clothing, switch to an ISO 400 setting to
capture a flash exposure of the bedroom where the clothes
were found, and switch again to ISO 800 or 1600 to
document latent bloodstains treated with Luminol.
4. Move in close.
Moving close to the subject to fill the viewfinder
eliminates background distractions and shows off details in
the subject. The result could be photos with higher impact.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 74
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is exposure? How do you make adjustments in the
camera to control exposure?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the ways to obtain proper exposure when capturing
images?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 79
CHAPTER 6
DOCUMENTATION OF THE CRIME SCENE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Enumerate and explain the three methods of
documenting a crime scene;
• Enumerate and explain the ranges of photographs to
be captured in the crime scene;
• Identify the methods of photographing the crime
scene;
• Identify the sequential photographs to be taken in the
crime scene;
• Enumerate the essential items to be included during
note taking;
• Enumerate the information to be included in a crime
scene sketch; and
• Identify the types and methods of sketching.
Ranges of Photographs
An important aspect to consider regarding the various ranges of
photographs is the general point-of-view established by the camera
locations. These locations will enable the viewer of the pictures to
orient the crime scene in a logical manner.
1. General View or
Long-Range
General view or
long-range photographs
of the overall scene are
fundamentally taken
to portray the areas as
if a person viewing the
scene is seeing it from
the standing position.
To obtain this result,
the photographer takes
the photograph with the
camera at eye level. Figure 6.1 General View or Long Range
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 82
Figure 6.2
Medium
View or
Mid-range
3. Close-up View/Range
Close-up range photographs are normally taken approximately
five feet or less from the subject matter. The attention of close-up
photography is directed to objects which could not effectively be seen
in the long-range and mid-range photographs. Take necessary extreme
close-up shot of the subject to show the extent of damage.
Figure 6.3
Close-up
View/ Range
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 83
2. Progressive Method
— A photographic method of taking crime scene photographs
starting from a fixed point, photographing each piece of
evidence from general to specific as the photographer moves
toward it, and progressively getting closer.
Note Taking
The investigator/photographer’s notes are personal records of the
search for evidence. The objective of note taking at a crime scene is
to make detailed notes that will remain fully meaningful even months
after the event. Oftentimes, a note that is completely clear to the writer
a short time after being made later becomes unintelligible.
Notes are valuable not only as an aid to an accurate recall of
events to be testified in court, but also to furnish the raw material
needed in the written formal report of the case. The notebooks should
be kept permanently in a safe place.
The notes taken should begin with the investigator’s name and
assignment to the case. Notes should be supplemented by sketches
and photographs of the scene. Notes should be recorded in the order
that the observations they pertain to are made, and will not necessarily
be in logical order. During the initial stage of the recording process, it
is important only that the notes are complete, as the investigator will
later reorganize the information during the writing of the formal report.
PHOTOGRAPHER’S NOTE
CASE NUMBER: SOCO 038-2013
TYPE OF CASE: Robbery with Homicide
LOCATION’S ADDRESS: #13 Molave St., San Isidro, QC
DATE: July 4, 2013
TIME RCVD THE CALL/RQST: 1600H
TIME LEAVE BASE: 1605H
TIME ARRIVE CS: 1700H
INVEST ON CASE: PO3 Juan Dela Cruz, NCR, CIU
VICTIM / WITNESS: _______________________
FILM USED: Kodak colored 400 ASA, 36 exposure
NUMBER OF EXP: 24 shots
CAMERA USED: Nikon FM 10 SLR
WEATHER CONDITION: Hazy
CHAIN OF CUSTODY: Turned in to (name of person),_(date & time)
ITEMS PHOTOGRAPHED: Itemized
TIME LEAVE THE CS: 2300H July 4, 2013
TEAM COMPOSITION: Name of Team Members
Types of Sketches
1. Rough Sketch – A rough sketch is drawn free-hand by the
sketcher at the crime scene. Changes should not be made
to it after the sketcher has left the scene. This sketch will
not normally be drawn to scale, but will indicate accurate
distances, dimensions, and relative proportions.
Methods of Sketching
1. Coordinate Method
The coordinate method measures the distance of an
object from two fixed points. One form of this method uses
a baseline which is drawn between two known points. The
baseline could be a wall, or drawn as a mathematical center
of a room. The exact dimensions of which are known. The
measurements of a given object are then taken from left to
right along the baseline, to a point at right angles to the
object which is to be plotted. The distance will be indicated
in the legend with a number in parentheses following the
name of the object.
2. Triangulation Method
The triangulation method is useful in an outdoor
situation where there are no easily identifiable edges of
roads or fields to use as reference points. Two or more
reference points are located and should be widely separated
if possible. The item of interest is located by measuring
along a straight line from the reference points.
3. Cross-Projection Method
The cross-projection method is useful when the items
or locations of interest are on or in the wall surfaces as well
as elsewhere in an enclosed space. The walls, windows and
doors in a cross-projection sketch are drawn as though the
walls had been folded flat on the floor. Then a sketch is
drawn of the measurements from a given point on the floor
to the wall.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 96
Figure 6.9
Photo Log Form
July 4, 2016
Date
SOCO FORM #4
RE SOCO REPORT NR: SOCO-038-13
FRAME SHUTTER
APERTURE SUBJECT LIGHTING REMARKS
NR SPEED
With
1-4 5.6 60 Coordination of SOCO T.L. to the I.O.C. Artificial For Info
Light
5 5.6 60 Way to Main Crime Scene -DO- -DO-
Medium Shot of Evidence in the Crime
6-35 5.6 60 -DO- -DO-
Scene
36-37 5.6 60 SOCO Team Searching Possible Evidence -DO- -DO-
35-63 5.6 60 Overlapping Shot of the Crime Scene -DO- -DO-
64-67 5.6 60 SOCO Team on Final Search -DO- -DO-
66-71 5.6 60 The Crime Scene without Evidence -DO- -DO-
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the three methods of documenting a crime scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the ranges of photographs to be captured in the
crime scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the methods of photographing the crime scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 99
CHAPTER 7
PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Enumerate the procedures for photographing physical
evidence;
• Explain the importance of capturing specific images
when photographing bodies and wounds;
• Enumerate the procedures for photographing bodies
and wounds;
• Enumerate the procedures for road and traffic
accidents; and
• Enumerate the angles captured in mug shot
photography.
Photographing Evidence
The PNP forensic photographers follow standard operating
procedures in photographing evidence. Many valuable articles of
evidence can be found in the scene of the crime. Each object should
be photographed individually in relation to other objects at the scene.
Three purposes are served by this procedure.
1. A permanent record is made of the original appearance of
the object.
Procedures
Three photographs of each item of evidence should be made. One
photograph should be captured from a distance sufficient to show the
object against the background of its setting so that it can be located
and referred to in the over-all crime scene photographs. The other
two photographs should be taken close-up and with a fairly large
image size to clearly show the nature of the object and its identifying
characteristics. A small ruler should be include in one of those close-
up shots and omitted on the other. Extreme close-ups may be needed
where specialized techniques should be used.
• For foot or shoe impressions, the imprints of shoes, foot
slippers or sandals are often found at or near crime scenes.
Before and after reproductions are made by plasters casts
or dental stone, the impressions should be photographed.
• Evidence of all kinds must be photographed in close-up
range to show details.
• The procedure for tire impression is quite similar to the
described shoe impressions. A length of the tire track that
shows a clear pattern should be shot several times in close-
up range to give maximum detail of the pattern.
• In murder and homicide cases, it is necessary to photograph
in detail the pattern and color of bloodstains. The location
area and tapering of the stains may indicate the positions
and action of the assailant or the victim.
• Small quantities of clue materials such as glass fragments,
paint flakes, soil particles, fibers, hair and other substances
and small specimens are often carried unknowingly to and
from the scene of the crime. Their location on the suspect’s
clothing and at the crime scene should be documented
carefully by close-up photograph for comparison purposes.
• Conduct mug-shot photography to the victim/s and
suspects while undergoing paraffin casting.
• Photograph other physical evidence submitted to the
laboratory before examination such as suspected drugs,
chemicals, explosive substances and others.
• Photograph vehicle/s submitted as evidence to show the
trajectory of bullet holes, entrance, exit and the extent of
damage, as well as the body serial number and chassis
number order to show any sign of tampering.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 103
Accident Photography
The following are the basic rules in photographing road/traffic
accidents for SOCO and Field Laboratory Work (FLW).
• Avoid unnecessary surrounding/objects that are not
pertinent to the case.
• Photographs should be taken from the eye level of the driver.
If there are witnesses, photographs should be taken at their
level from the spot where they have seen the incident.
• Shots should be taken from the four points of the compass
and 25 feet from the point of impact to show the approach
and terrain.
• Take close-up shots of the damaged area in two angles from
a distance of eight to ten feet.
• Take shots in order and properly note at the photograph
notes in order to guide the investigator on how the accident
occurred.
• Special care should be taken when photographing a hit and
run case.
• What to photograph:
1. All vehicles in their original position
2. All victims
3. Debris that indicate where the first impact
occurred
4. License plate of vehicles (at least one photograph
of each vehicle)
5. All skid and tire marks, patches of oil or water
6. If the vehicle has gone off the road and has made
marks in soil, these should be photographed.
They may give indication of the speed of the
vehicle.
7. A close mark made in asphalt roadway should
be taken to indicate the texture of the road.
8. The vicinity of the accident that does not include
the accident itself (for reference point)
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 108
Mug-Shot Photography
For taking mug shots of suspects, photograph the subject in front
of the height scale without footwear to determine his/her exact height.
Let the subject hold the case verifier. Mug shots should be done in the
following angles with the case number displayed at each shot.
1. Front view, whole body
2. Front view (half body-head to elbow)
3. Left Side view (half body-head to elbow)
4. Right Side view (half body-head to elbow)
The PNP also has a compilation of facial features called the
Composite Criminal Illustration, which is taken from photographs with
descriptive details provided. This serves as an aid in an investigation
where evidence is limited and the suspect is unknown. It has been
found to be useful in obtaining descriptions of unknown suspects. It
also gets the public involved in the identification of suspects.
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the procedures for photographing physical evidence?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Why is it important to capture specific images when
photographing bodies and wound?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 111
CHAPTER 8
ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define ultraviolet light;
• Explain the uses of ultraviolet photography in crime
scene investigations;
• Define infrared photography; and
• Explain the uses of infrared photography in law
enforcement.
Ultraviolet Photography
Ultraviolet (UV) light is defined as part of the electromagnetic
spectrum from about 400nm down to 1nm. UV light is invisible to
the human eye but strongly affects photographic materials. Adding
ultraviolet light enhances contrast through fluorescence, a process in
which radiant energy of a certain wavelength is absorbed, then instantly
re-emitted at another, typically longer wavelength. Adding ultraviolet
energy to the subject causes excitation of its electrons and creates
fluorescence. Fluorescence creates contrast because the higher state
of energy of the subject’s electrons makes potential evidence visible.
The purpose of using ultraviolet light is therefore to make unseen
properties in a subject visible. For example, the unseen property could
be a fingerprint in a small drug capsule (Duncan, 2010).
Although unseen by the naked eye, ultraviolet light is present in
nearly all light sources including the sun, incandescent light bulbs,
flashlights and electronic flash units. Ultraviolet radiation can be felt
in number of ways like causing the skin to tan or develop skin cancer.
It can also deteriorate photographs and other documentary evidence.
Utilizing ultraviolet light is an essential tool to crime scene
investigators who need to show details unseen in natural light. Its
application can be useful, for example in forgeries and document
alterations, fingerprint enhancements, and tracing bodily fluids or
gunpowder residue.
In document alterations, forgers may have used solvents, alcohols
and cleansing liquids to obliterate, erasing or obscure important
documents such as checks or contracts. By utilizing ultraviolet light
between 350 and 415 nm, it is possible to produce and photograph a
visualization of such alterations.
The visibility of trace evidence such as small threads, hairs and
fibers can also be enhanced with ultraviolet light. Fabrics, in particular,
can be detected because they are color-treated to remain bright and
vibrant. Laundry detergents also infuse “brighteners” in fabrics, thus
creating contrast when threads tear away from the garment and
detected through ultraviolet light.
Bleach, milk products, and bodily fluids including semen, blood,
saliva and mucus can fluoresce under ultraviolet light. A crime scene
investigator should seek to collect any of these unknown substances
for further evaluation and, prior to its recovery, the surface should be
photographed.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 114
Infrared Photography
Infrared photography is the recording of images formed by
infrared radiation. Because infrared radiation is invisible, some special
techniques may be needed. But, in general, most of the commonly
required methods are as simple as those of ordinary photography.
Equipment
1. Camera – The 35mm camera is the most convenient to use
in most cases.
2. Lenses – Most good lenses can be used in infrared
photography. It is helpful if the lens has an infrared focusing
scale.
Film
1. Black-and-White Infrared Film
a. Records infrared luminescence from subjects
b. Requires an infrared filter on the camera lens (Try a
Kodak Wratten Filter #87.)
2. Color Infrared Film
a. This is usually not a good choice for law enforcement
use because color infrared film is a “false color” film.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 115
3. Loading Film
a. Infrared film is sensitive to heat and should be
refrigerated. Allow sufficient time for the film to reach
room temperature before opening the package.
b. Kodak High Speed Infrared Film must be loaded and
unloaded in total darkness because the felt-lined slots
of the magazines are not “light-tight” to infrared. Both
exposed and unexposed film can be safely stored in the
sealed film container.
Lighting
1. Use tungsten lamps or electronic flash units for black-and-
white infrared photography.
2. Use electronic flash illumination for color infrared
photography. Other light sources (except daylight) require
special filtering.
Exposure
1. Exposure is determined by test shots.
2. Using Kodak High Speed Infrared Film with a Kodak
Wratten Filter #87, try an ISO 25 for daylight and an ISO
64 for tungsten lighting.
Focusing
1. Focus in a normal manner without the filter in place.
2. The distance that appears opposite the normal index mark
on the lens should then be moved to the red (infrared) index
mark. This will usually result in a lengthening of the lens.
3. Replace the filter for the exposure.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 116
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What is ultraviolet light?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the uses of ultraviolet photography in crime scene
investigations?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 118
CHAPTER 9
APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO
LAW ENFORCEMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Enumerate the uses of photographs in law
enforcement;
• Explain the legal implications of photographic
evidence; and
• Enumerate the basic requirements for the
admissibility of photographs as evidence in court.
Uses of Photographs
1. Identification of the Subject
The first step in the investigation in any crime is to
photograph all aspects of the crime scene completely and
accurately before any of the objects of evidence is removed or
otherwise disturbed. The forensic photographer produces a
pictorial record of everything regarding the crime to include
the nearby surroundings. It is always better to take too many
photographs than too few then select the best.
2. Preservation of Evidence
Prevent from necessary handling of physical evidence thus
preserving the integrity of the physical evidence.
3. No inflammatory content/unbiased
Another issue to avoid in police photography is the
inclusion of emotional matters that might be classed by the
court as inflammatory, or tending to affect the emotions of the
viewer. An example of this would be photograph of a murder
scene with hysterical female relatives of the victim crying in
the background, or a photograph of the wounds on the corpse
including the exposed sexual organ of the victim. If these
private parts are not relevant, they should be decently covered.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 125
Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:
Review Questions:
1. What are the uses of photographs in law enforcement?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the legal implications of photographic evidence?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 126
EN BANC
RESOLUTION
Acting on the Memorandum dated 18 June 2001 of the Committee
on the Revision of the Rules of Court to Draft the rules on E-Commerce
Law [R.A. No. 8792] submitting the Rules on Electronic Evidence
for this Court’s consideration and approval, the Court Resolved to
APPROVED the same.
The Rules on Electronic Evidence shall apply to cases pending
after their effectivity. These Rules shall take effect on the first day of
August 2001 following their publication before the 20th of July in two
newspapers of general circulation in the Philippines.
17th July 2001.
RULES ON ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE
RULE 1
COVERAGE
SECTION 1. Scope. - Unless otherwise provided herein, these
Rules shall apply whenever an electronic data message, as defined in
Rule 2 hereof, is offered or used in evidence.
SEC. 2. Cases covered. - These Rules shall apply to all civil actions
and proceedings, as well as quasi-judicial and administrative cases.
RULE 2
DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 1. Definition of Terms. - For purposes of these Rules, the
following terms are defined, as follows:
(a) “Asymmetric or public cryptosystem” means a system
capable of generating a secure key pair, consisting of a
private key for creating a digital signature, and a public key
for verifying the digital signature.
(b) “Business records” include records of any business,
institution, association, profession, occupation, and calling
of every kind, whether or not conducted for profit, or for
legitimate purposes.
(c) “Certificate” means an electronic document issued to
support a digital signature which purports to confirm the
identity or other significant characteristics of the person
who holds a particular key pair.
(d) “Computer” refers to any single or interconnected device
or apparatus, which, by electronic, electro-mechanical or
magnetic impulse, or by other means with the same function,
can receive, record, transmit, store, process, correlate,
analyze, project, retrieve and/or produce information, data,
text, graphics, figures, voice, video, symbols or other modes
of expression or perform any one or more of these functions.
(e) “Digital Signature” refers to an electronic signature
consisting of a transformation of an electronic document
or an electronic data message using an asymmetric or
public cryptosystem such that a person having the initial
untransformed electronic document and the signer’s public
key can accurately determine:
(i) whether the transformation was created using
the private key that corresponds to the signer’s
public key; and
(ii) whether the initial electronic document had
been altered after the transformation was made.
(f) “Digitally signed” refers to an electronic document or
electronic data message bearing a digital signature verified
by the public key listed in a certificate.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 129
RULE 3
ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
SECTION 1. Electronic documents as functional equivalent of paper-
based documents. – Whenever a rule of evidence refers to the term
of writing, document, record, instrument, memorandum or any other
form of writing, such term shall be deemed to include an electronic
document as defined in these Rules.
RULE 5
AUTHENTICATION OF ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
SECTION 1. Burden of proving authenticity. – The person seeking
to introduce an electronic document in any legal proceeding has the
burden of proving its authenticity in the manner provided in this Rule.
RULE 6
ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES
SECTION 1. Electronic signature. – An electronic signature or a
digital signature authenticate din the manner prescribed hereunder is
admissible in evidence as the functional equivalent of the signature of
a person on a written document.
SEC. 2. Authentication of electronic signatures. – An electronic
signature may be authenticate in any of the following manner:
(a) By evidence that a method or process was utilized to
establish a digital signature and verity the same;
(b) By any other means provided by law; or
(c) By any other means satisfactory to the judge as establishing
the genuineness of the electronic signature.
RULE 7
EVIDENTIARY WEIGHT OF ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
SECTION 1. Factors for assessing evidentiary weight. - In assessing
the evidentiary weight of an electronic document, the following factors
may be considered:
(a) The reliability of the manner or method in which it was
generated, stored or communicated, including but not
limited to input and output procedures, controls, tests and
checks for accuracy and reliability of the electronic data
message or document, in the light of all the circumstances
as well as any relevant agreement;
(b) The reliability of the manner in which its originator was
identified;
(c) The integrity of the information and communication system
in which it is recorded or stored, including but not limited
to the hardware and computer programs or software used
as well as programming errors;
(d) The familiarity of the witness or the person who made the
entry with the communication and information system;
(e) The nature and quality of the information which went into
the communication and information system upon which
the electronic data message or electronic document was
based; or
(f) Other factors which the court may consider as affecting
the accuracy or integrity of the electronic document or
electronic data message.
RULE 8
BUSINESS RECORDS AS EXCEPTION TO THE HEARSAY RULE
SECTION 1. Inapplicability of the hearsay rule. – A memorandum,
report, record or data compilation of acts, events, conditions, opinions,
or diagnoses, made by electronic, optical or other similar means at
or near the time of or from transmission or supply of information by
a person with knowledge thereof, and kept in the regular course or
conduct of a business activity, and such was the regular practice
to make the memorandum, report, record, or data compilation by
electronic, optical or similar means, all of which are shown by the
testimony of the custodian or other qualified witnesses, is excepted
from the rule or hearsay evidence.
RULE 10
EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES
SECTION 1. Electronic testimony. – After summarily hearing the
parties pursuant to Rule 9 of these Rules, the court may authorize
the presentation of testimonial evidence by electronic means. Before
so authorizing, the court shall determine the necessity for such
presentation and prescribe terms and conditions as may be necessary
under the circumstance, including the protection of the rights of the
parties and witnesses concerned.
RULE 12
EFFECTIVITY
SECTION 1. Applicability to pending case. – These Rules shall
apply to cases pending after their effectivity.
SEC. 2. Effectivity. – These Rules shall take effect on the first day
of August 2001 following their publication before the 20th day of July
2001 in two newspapers of general circulation in the Philippines.
(on leave)
ANGELINA SANDOVAL GUTIERREZ
Associate Justice
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 137
If the photo shows only the side of a female breast, without the
nipple, is this still covered by the law?
Yes. The term “female breast” includes “any portion of the female
breast”.
PRIMER ON CYBERCRIME
This primer, outlined in a question and answer format, aims to
make the Filipino public aware of the nature, history and extent of
cybercrime occurrence in the country. It also makes the people informed
of the latest development in anti-cybercrime efforts and activities by the
Philippine Government.
1) What is a cybercrime?
A cybercrime is a crime committed with or through the use of
information and communication technologies such as radio, television,
cellular phone, computer and network, and other communication
device or application.
RESOLUTION 97-9
Robert C. Sanders
Recording Secretary
Ref. : https://www.theiai.org/pdf/res97_9.pdf
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 143
GLOSSARY
Air Bells- Small bubbles of air that attach to the film’s emulsion. If these
bubbles remain attached, the negatives will have undeveloped
spots. Agitation will remove air bubbles on the film.
B (Bulb) Setting- A shutter speed setting a camera that allows for time
exposures. When set on B, the shutter will stay open as long as
the shutter release button remains depressed.
Depth of Focus- The distance which the focusing can be racked back
and forth and still have the subject appear in focus. Sometimes
depth of focus is confused with depth of field.
Double Exposure- Two pictures taken in the same frame of film or two
images printed on the same piece of photographic paper.
Emulsion Side- The side of the film coated with light sensitive silver
salts.
Film Speed- The sensitivity of a film to light. The higher the number
the more sensitive to light or faster the film. The speed of the
film is indicated by the numerical rating designated as the ASA,
ISO or DIN rating.
Focal Length- The distance between the film and the optical center of
the lens when the lens is focused at infinity. In 35 mm format
cameras, 50 to 58 mm are called normal or standard lenses.
Lenses with a focal length less than
Skylight Filter- A light pink filter used to eliminate some of the blue
caused by haze. This filter does not affect the exposure. Most
photographers keep a skylight filter on the lens to protect the
lens from dust and fingerprints.
Stop Bath- A weak solution of acetic acid used in the second step of
processing black and white film or paper. It stops the developing
process. Kodak stop bath turns purple when it is used up or
exhausted.
Zoom lens- Lenses which allow the user to continuously vary the focal
length without changing the focus.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 149
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kodak. (2013, October 17). Top Ten Tips. Retrieved from Kodak: http://
www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/top10tips/