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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE ........................................................................................ viii

LEARNING UNIT 1 READING AND WRITING FOR ART HISTORY .............................................. 1

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Finding information ................................................................................................ 1

1.1.1 Books ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 E-books ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.2.3 E-Reserves ................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4 Journal articles ............................................................................................................ 5
1.2.5 Internet sources .......................................................................................................... 7
a) Wikipedia ................................................................................................................................... 7
b) Khan Academy .......................................................................................................................... 7
c) Oxford Art Online .................................................................................................................... 8
d) Gallery and Museum Websites ........................................................................................... 8
e) Online Magazines .................................................................................................................... 8

1.3 Using sources ....................................................................................................... 10

1.3.1 Initial review .............................................................................................................. 10
1.3.2 Reading ...................................................................................................................... 10

1.4 Plagiarism and intext citations .............................................................................. 11

1.4.1 What is plagiarism? ................................................................................................... 11
1.4.2 How does one acknowledge sources properly? ....................................................... 12
1.4.3 When to paraphrase and when to quote.................................................................. 13
1.4.4 The bibliography........................................................................................................ 14

1.5 Writing for academic purposes ............................................................................. 14

1.5.1 Try to be objective and professional, not emotional or entertaining. ..................... 14
1.5.2 Careful with opinions ................................................................................................ 14
1.5.3 Hearsay and generalisations ..................................................................................... 15
1.5.4 Author and artist names ........................................................................................... 16
1.5.5 Sensitivity to race and gender ................................................................................... 16
1.5.6 Basic structure of an essay ........................................................................................ 16
1.5.7 Paragraphs................................................................................................................. 17

1.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 19

LEARNING UNIT 2 ART HISTORY AND ITS METHODS ........................................................... 20

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 20

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2.1 Introduction to Art History ................................................................................... 21

2.2 What is Visual Literacy? ........................................................................................ 24

2.3 Basics of Art History ............................................................................................. 28

2.3.1 Style ........................................................................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Chronology ................................................................................................................ 30
2.3.3 Time and place of origin ............................................................................................ 31
2.3.4 Medium ..................................................................................................................... 32
2.3.5 Subject matter ........................................................................................................... 36
2.3.6 Stylistic terminology .................................................................................................. 42
a) Representational ................................................................................................................... 42
b) Non-representational ........................................................................................................... 48

2.4 The language of visual art ..................................................................................... 52

2.4.1 Elements of art .......................................................................................................... 53
a) Line............................................................................................................................................. 53
b) Form and shape ..................................................................................................................... 56
c) Colour ........................................................................................................................................ 61
d) Value.......................................................................................................................................... 66
e) Texture ...................................................................................................................................... 68
f) Space ......................................................................................................................................... 71
2.4.2 Principles of design ................................................................................................... 75
a) Balance ..................................................................................................................................... 75
b) Scale or proportion ............................................................................................................... 78
c) Emphasis or focus .................................................................................................................. 80
d) Contrast .................................................................................................................................... 80
e) Movement or rhythm ........................................................................................................... 82
f) Unity or harmony .................................................................................................................. 84

2.5 Methodologies of Art History ............................................................................... 87

2.5.1 Formalism .................................................................................................................. 89
a) Background to Formalism ................................................................................................... 89
b) Steps to follow when doing a formal analysis: ............................................................. 90
2.5.2 Iconography............................................................................................................... 93
a) Background to Iconography ............................................................................................... 93
b) Steps to follow when doing an iconographic analysis: ............................................... 94
2.5.3 Social history or contextual approach....................................................................... 96
2.5.1 Visual literacy and social history ............................................................................... 99
2.5.2 Semiology ................................................................................................................ 101
2.5.3 Deconstruction ........................................................................................................ 102

2.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 103

LEARNING UNIT 3 ART CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION ................................................. 104

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3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 104

3.2 Introduction to the Artworld (Art World) ............................................................ 105

3.3 Interacting with the artworld ............................................................................. 108

3.3.1 Engaging with Public Art ......................................................................................... 115

3.4 Interpreting artworks ......................................................................................... 121

3.4.1 What am I looking at? ............................................................................................. 121
3.4.2 Aboutness................................................................................................................ 122
3.4.3 Understanding titles ................................................................................................ 123
3.4.4 Artist’s biography and artist’s statement................................................................ 124
3.4.5 Historical context/background................................................................................ 126
3.4.6 Symbolism and metaphors...................................................................................... 126
3.4.7 All art is about other art .......................................................................................... 127

3.5 Understanding contemporary art ....................................................................... 129

3.6 Art criticism........................................................................................................ 130

3.6.1 Gathering research .................................................................................................. 130
3.6.2 Evaluating ideas and interpretations (and what to do with contradictions) .......... 131
3.6.3 Emotional responses to artworks ........................................................................... 132
3.6.4 Applying theoretical frameworks ............................................................................ 132
3.6.5 Structuring your writing .......................................................................................... 132

3.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 133

Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 133

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INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE

This module has been divided into three learning units, namely:

• Reading and writing for Art History

• Art History and its methods
• Art criticism and interpretation

THE PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

The purpose of this module is to equip students with the basic principles of academic writing and
the main art historical methods and terminology, as well as for students to acquire sufficient
analytical and theoretical skills relating to looking at images, art criticism, and interpretation,
which will allow them to engage meaningfully with historical and contemporary artworks.

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS MODULE

• Remember and apply and understand the concepts of reading and writing for art history
• Apply the basic terminology and methodologies of art history to selected examples of
artworks, both historical and contemporary
• Apply the methods of art interpretation and criticism to selected examples of artworks

THE LEARNING PROCESS

The learning process for this module requires you to take an active part in your studies. It is not
enough simply to read through the study material and the suggested reading and to leave it at
that. The learning process covers the following aspects, which will be dealt with briefly under
separate headings in this introduction to the module, namely

• our expectations of you in this module, and our relationship

• the assessment strategy
• activities (both their purpose and feedback on them)
o study activities
o reflective activities
o further reading
o learning journal

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OUR EXPECTATIONS OF YOU IN THIS MODULE, AND OUR RELATIONSHIP

We expect you to take your studies seriously, to follow the guidance given and, above all, to take
an active part in your studies, rather than assume a passive role that involves no more than
reading the study guide. You have invested time and money in registering for this module, and
we have put a great deal of time and energy into developing the module and this study guide.
Keep the learning outcomes constantly in mind and direct your efforts towards meeting them. Do
not think that by paying no attention to your studies during the semester, and then making a
massive effort in the weeks just before the exams, you can do justice to the module.

Please make frequent and effective use of all the resources at your disposal, and do not rely
purely on the study guide. Among the most important of these resources are those provided by
the library, namely the study collection and books on the open shelves. In addition, you need to
make use of online resources as explained in this study guide and Tutorial Letter 101.

We undertake to provide you with personal feedback on your assignments and to encourage you
in every way we can. Please feel free to contact us about aspects of your academic work in this
module. You will find our contact information in Tutorial Letter 101.

ASSESSMENT STRATEGY

In assessing the work you submit for marking during the semester, we will be looking for
evidence that you meet the outcomes for this module. Quite simply, this means that you should
not concentrate on memorising information, but rather on understanding it. This includes being
able to apply your understanding of art history gained from your own active study in order to
discuss questions that give you the opportunity to show whether you meet the outcomes. There
is, in other words, no ‘‘syllabus to learn’’. That is why it is important that you should constantly
bear in mind the outcomes for the module that we listed earlier.

ACTIVITIES

Because your learning strategy needs to be active, there are several things you need to do:

• Read the study material, specifically the recommended study material

• Look at artworks and visual texts
• Work through the self-assessment activities
• Submit all assessments
• Read through the feedback on assessments

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A few tips on how to approach this study guide:

• Art history is a complex and vast field. A short guide such as this cannot give you an in-depth
understanding of the field, therefore it is crucial that you do not limit your reading to this
study guide alone. Several additional articles and resources have been included in the text
and must be read along with the study guide. You will notice that many of these are available
from Grove/Oxford Art Online on the Unisa library website. If ever you need clarity on a
specific term or concept, this is a very useful resource to consult.
• Please note that these additional resources will not feature in the assessments and are
therefore for self-enrichment only.
• While art history is a theoretical subject by nature, this learning unit attempts to bring theory
and practice together by including several practical activities. The knowledge you will gain
will depend solely on the extent to which you engage with these activities.

Study activities

In addition to submitting assignments, which are a formal way of organising your thoughts, you
will also need to do various self-assessment activities, which you do for yourself and which you
therefore do not submit for formal assessment. Some of the activities are structured in such a
way that you can interact with fellow students on myUnisa through discussions and blog
activities. These activities take the form of questions in the study guide on the work covered. The
purpose of these self-assessment activities is to assess your own progress in the module and
your progress towards meeting the learning outcomes.

Reflective activities

Reflecting on your progress is another of the self-assessment activities we will ask you to do.
These reflective activities give you the chance to think about the work in a particular section of a
learning unit, or about the learning unit as a whole, and perhaps how you might improve your
study strategy. The activities include reflection on the experiences you have had in considering
the artworks under discussion.

Further reading

Tutorial Letter 101 lists some further reading, which you should make every effort to obtain during
the semester. The activities in each learning unit as well as the bibliography include sources that
you may want to consult. These sources are usually of a specialised nature, and they are
relevant to particular aspects of the field of study. The tutorial letter explains which readings are
compulsory and which you can consult to further your knowledge on the subject.

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Learning journal

By now you should be used to the idea of using a learning journal (perhaps in the form of a
loose-leaf file), in which you record your responses to the self-assessment and reflective
activities, and the looking and other learning activities. If not, there’s no good reason why you
shouldn’t start using one now. You may want to come back to your responses later in the
semester, and possibly even revise them in the light of what you learn as you work through the
rest of the study guide.

Even if this is the first time you have used a learning journal and you are sceptical about the idea,
bear in mind that the overriding purpose of a journal of this kind is for you to engage actively in
your studies and to internalise what you learn. Merely reading through the study guide (or other
study material) passively is much less effective than active participation in the learning process.

A LAST WORD BEFORE WE START

We hope you will benefit from exploring some of the more challenging aspects of studying visual
culture, and that in the process you will be enriched and will gain an understanding of its
importance. Remember: read widely, look deeply, and reflect intensively on your work. And,
above all, enjoy your studies!

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LESSON 1: READING AND WRITING FOR ART HISTORY

Compiled by: Leana van der Merwe

1.1 Introduction

The first learning unit is dedicated to helping you find information, read, and interpret what you
have found, and write your art history assignments in the correct way. We will introduce you to a
variety of sources and resources where you can find information relevant to your art history
studies. The second part of this unit will focus on plagiarism, what it is, and how you can avoid
it. This is important for all your undergraduate studies in art history and even if you decide to
pursue postgraduate studies in the future.

Learning outcomes

After working through this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Find relevant sources and decide if they are useful or not

• Know the different types of resources relevant to your studies and where to find them
• Demonstrate your understanding of and insight of what plagiarism is and how you can avoid
it
• Be aware of the necessity to paraphrase, quote, and correctly reference sources in your own
writing by using the Departmental Referencing Guide
• Understand the difference between academic and informal writing

Key concepts

• Plagiarism
• Sources
• Academic writing
• Intext citations

1.2 Finding information

Not many years ago, information was much more difficult to find than it is today. Home
computers only became common items in households since the mid-1980s. Before that, students
and researchers had to rely on physical books and other documents such as paper journals,
manuscripts and typed or written research notes that they could find in the library. In the past, if

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your local library did not have something you needed, you had to go to another, or if your library
offered the service, they could request a book or magazine for you from another library. This
could take weeks to arrive at the local library and then you would still have to go and pick it up.

Today you have everything at your fingertips. You can access almost anything online, even with
your mobile phone, provided that you have an internet connection. You can browse magazines
and books online, watch videos, both entertaining and informative, and enter into discussions on
social media on a variety of topics.

Activity 1.1: Introductory activity

• Make a list of five places online where you find most of your information for your art
history studies.
• Now, write down which of these you think are good sources when you want to find
information for an academic assignments.

This proliferation (rapid increase) of access to information on various platforms has made it
somewhat difficult to distinguish fact from fiction and to decide what information to use. Often, we
use information which is quick to find, or easy to understand. Then we go back to that same
place time and again to try and find what we need. However, these are often not the most
accurate or trustworthy sources.

We have all heard of ‘fake news’. Unfortunately, many of the places that we visit daily such as
Facebook, Twitter and our own WhatsApp groups are full of articles, claims, and opinions that
are uninformed and quite simply false. Many ‘news sites’ are also ‘fake’, meaning that they exist
solely for the purpose of disseminating (spreading) false news or lies. These sites often have a
political agenda, and when you research further you might find that these belong to people or
groups who want to further their personal viewpoints for a specific reason, which is not always
sound.

This is why libraries still have an important role to play. Libraries give us access to a variety of
good resources, not only books. The Unisa library has thousands of books, but also has
collections of magazines, scientific journals, e-books, and several online resources such as
Oxford Art Online, which are very useful for art history students. The library also has an archival
collection which contains many old, valuable, and rare books, manuscripts, and other resources,
some of which can be accessed online.

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The library offers quiet and safe spaces to research and study, and trained staff who can assist
you in finding sources and conducting research. The following sections will look at some of these
resources in detail.

Figure 1-1: Student studying in the library.

1.1.1 Books

We are all familiar with books. Even though there are many online and digital resources available
today, books are still valuable resources. You can browse the Unisa collection online, and
request books via the website. These books can be posted to your home or delivered to your
closest Unisa library, where you can collect them.

Books are very useful when you are looking for quality information about specific theories, artists
or movements. The library also carries a large collection of artist exhibition catalogues.

You can access the Unisa library here:

https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Library

Activity 1.2: Searching for books

• Go to the Unisa library website

• Click on Search catalogue. You will now see the following screen:

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 • Now you may search for books according to book title, author, keyword or subject. It is
always better to ‘Search the entire collection’, but you can also search per satellite library,
if you wish to go directly to your closest Unisa library.
• Now, see if you can find any books on the Renaissance. You may also go to your TL101
and see if you can order any of the recommended books for your assignments.

1.2.2 E-books

E-books are full books that are available to read online. These are extremely useful for students,
because they do not have to be physically checked out at the library. They are also useful to
students that live far from a library and can be used even if the library is closed. They are
available immediately, so you do not have to wait for books to be delivered. E-books provide a
valuable alternative to physical books.

When you search for e-books, you should select ‘e-books’ when you search for information.

Activity 1.3: Finding e-books

• Go to the catalogue search function again

• Now, select e-books like this:

Now search for e-books by keyword as shown above. See if you can find any books about ‘Art
History’.

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 Figure 1-2: Three students accessing resources online at home during the Covid-19 Pandemic.

1.2.3 E-Reserves

Your art history lecturers will provide some important readings to you electronically online as ‘e-
reserves’. These are listed in your TL101, and you can find them by clicking on the ‘Find e-
reserves’ link on the library home page.

E-reserves are very important for your studies in Art History. You should download all of them,
read them several times carefully, and summarise the main points. These readings are essential
for preparing your assignments and for studying for the exam.

1.2.4 Journal articles

‘Journals’ refer to peer-reviewed academic journals. These are publications that are dedicated to
a specific subject, such as Art History. What distinguishes (makes them different) them from
ordinary magazines is that they are peer-reviewed. What this means is that every single article
that is published by the journal is checked and evaluated by at least two specialists in the field,
who decide if the article is good enough and if the information is accurate enough. These
specialists will normally have a doctoral degree in the field and be senior and well-respected
academics. Journals are therefore extremely good sources for students and researchers,
because we know that the information in them have been thoroughly researched and checked.

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You can find information on how to access journal articles, by reading the Library Guide for Art &
Music, which can be found by clicking on ‘Library Guides’ on the Unisa Library website:

Activity 1.4: Journals and journal articles

• Click on the link, which will take you to the home page of Unisa ’s own art history Journal
de arte: https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rdat20/current
• The page will open on the most current issue (edition of the journal), and you may read
the articles there. You may also browse previous issues or search for keywords, topics or
authors.

Now, see if you can find an article on South African artist William Kentridge in this publication,
and write down the title and the author of this article in your learning journal – we will come
back to it later.

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1.2.5 Internet sources

Internet sources can be very helpful in your art history studies, but they can also be particularly
problematic. That is because many of them have not been verified for accurateness or quality.
Remember, anyone can publish on the internet. However, not all internet sources are bad. Here
are some examples of internet sources that you might come across:

a) Wikipedia

Wikipedia is a favourite of students and often a first point of entry when searching for general
information. Wikipedia, however is filled with inaccurate and incomplete information. Remember,
Wikipedia can be populated by anyone, even someone with no qualification or experience in the
fields they are writing in. Recently, Wikipedia has put in some measures to verify information, but
it still relies on the input of their authors, who can be anyone.

Wikipedia is not all bad though. You can use Wikipedia to get an initial oversight of a topic, and to
indicate areas which you might want to research further. Wikipedia is also a good place to find
copyright free images, and a good source of images to use in your assignments.

HOWEVER: Do not use Wikipedia as a source of information for your assignments or exams and
never quote or copy anything from Wikipedia.

b) Khan Academy

Khan Academy (https://www.khanacademy.org) offers information for students on a variety of

topics, from maths and science to art and music. Their writers are generally well respected in
their fields and the information is mostly accurate. However, you must remember that Khan
Academy is not a specialist platform for art history, so the articles tend to be general and
provides more of an overview than specific and detailed information. Again, it is therefore a
useful place to start your search and to find general information, but from there you will need to
investigate further.

VERY IMPORTANT: Every article on Khan Academy’s website has an individual author. The
author is not Khan Academy! Remember this when we get to the section on plagiarism and intext
citations (section 1.4).

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c) Oxford Art Online

Formerly Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online is a subscription-based online platform, specialising
in art history. You can access it with your student logins (https://0-www-oxfordartonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za) because the university has a paid subscription for its students and staff.

This database is similar to Khan Academy, but it contains specialist art historical articles and is
therefore a much better source to use than the former. As with Khan Academy, each article has
its own author. This is important to remember for when we learn about plagiarism and intext
referencing.

d) Gallery and Museum Websites

Gallery and museum websites are excellent resources for up-to-date information on artists and
exhibitions, and for finding images of artworks. Some South African gallery websites are:

• https://www.goodman-gallery.com

• https://www.everard-read.co.za

• https://www.whatiftheworld.com

• https://www.99loop.co.za

Some international museums and galleries also have a variety of articles on art historical topics.
Tate Modern and Tate Britain (https://www.tate.org.uk) have extensive information on art and
artists, written by specialists in the field. Likewise, the Smithsonian Institute (https://www.si.edu)
provides access to online collections of images and high-quality research articles.

e) Online Magazines

There are several good quality art magazines that publish online content freely.

Some are:

• https://artafricamagazine.org

• https://www.frieze.com

• https://aeon.co

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Figure 1-3: Student searching for information online.

Activity 1.5: Exploring online content

• On Google, search for ‘Dada art’.

• Click on the Wikipedia entry, and look at the article. Read the introduction, look at the
main headings, and the images.
• Now, click on one of the subsections, for example ‘photomontage’ and read the entry the
link takes you to.
• Write in your learning journal what you notice about this section.
• Now, go to Oxford Art Online and search for the same topic i.e., ‘dada photomontage’.
• Look at the list of articles. What do you notice? Choose one article that looks relevant to
you and read it. Now, write down what you notice about this article. You may mention
things like: How long is it? How many images does it contain? Does it have links to
additional information? etc.
• Finally, go to the Tate website (https://www.tate.org.uk) and use the same search term.
What did you find?
• Write in your journal which of these three online sources you think will be most helpful to
you, and why.

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1.3 Using sources

Now that you know where to find information, how should you use it? This section will provide
you with some tips on using sources for your assignments and to study from.

1.3.1 Initial review

First, read the abstract – if there is one. Journal articles always have abstracts. An abstract is a
paragraph which summarises the main points of the article. Sometimes, it could also be helpful to
read the conclusion, usually the last paragraph of an article.

For books, you may look at the table of contents, to see what is in the book. If there is no
abstract, read the introduction of the book or article.

After this initial review, you may decide that this source is not for you, and then you have not
wasted any time reading it. If it looks like it might be a helpful source, you can now start reading.

Activity 1.6: Reviewing an article

Download the following article, and answer the questions that follow: https://0-www-tandfonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/doi/abs/10.1080/00043389.2019.1619972

From the abstract of the article, what do you think the article is about? You may write your
reflections in your learning journal.

1.3.2 Reading

Once you have decided that a source is useful for your art history assignment, you can start
reading it. If you choose to, you can print the article. It is always helpful to read with a highlighter
and some coloured pens in hand. Then you can mark important sections and make your own
notes. If you prefer to work onscreen, you should use Adobe Acrobat or a similar program to
electronically highlight and make notes. Alternatively, you can make your own handwritten
summaries in a notebook.

Never read without making notes. Making notes helps you to concentrate and identify important
information. It also assists in committing what you read to mind.

Once you have read the source, you should go back to your assignment question, and make a
list of aspects which you still need further information on. This will help you to decide what else to
search for, and what to look out for when you read the next source.

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 Figure 1-4: A student doing research online, and taking notes based on his reading.

When you take notes, remember to write down where you have found your information (the
author, the year, the title, the page number for each important point and the publication
information). You will need this when you write your assignments. If you download or print
articles, keep them together somewhere safe in a file, or saved in a folder on your computer, so
you know where to find it later. You should create a place for each module that you study, where
you keep everything together, including your sources, study guide, e-reserves and tutorial letters.

1.4 Plagiarism and intext citations

Now that you have all the information that you need, you need to start writing your assignment.
When you write assignments, or exams, you must use the information that you find in sources,
and in your study material. Now, you should be careful of plagiarism.

1.4.1 What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is when you use another person’s work, without properly acknowledging it.

It may include, but is not limited to the following:

• Copying and pasting from a website

• Copying directly from a book, magazine or any other source
• Copying another student’s work
• Pretending someone else’s idea or work is your own

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• Using ideas from a source without acknowledging the author

1.4.2 How does one acknowledge sources properly?

When you are using information from sources, you must acknowledge these in two places:

• Through intext citations or references

• In the bibliography

There are two ways to work with information in sources; the first is direct quotes, and the second
is paraphrasing.

Tutorial Letter 301/ARHALLY explains this in detail. You should download this tutorial letter from
myUnisa and study it in detail. This tutorial letter deals with plagiarism, referencing, as well as the
layout requirements, such as table of contents, captions to figures, headings, and sections, and
many other important aspects that you need to know.

Activity 1.7: Example: How to use intext references – direct quotes

You will work with journal articles a lot during your studies in Art History. Have a look again at
the William Kentridge article that you downloaded before:

https://0-www-tandfonline-com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/doi/abs/10.1080/00043389.2019.1619972

• Read the passage on page 74.

• Now, I will demonstrate how to use intext references for direct quotes from this page:

Allara (2019:74) argues that “a dominant motif in Kentridge’s animations and videos for over 20
years, the processions of migrants, silhouettes buffeted by the winds of history, speak to the
vulnerability and instability of human societies, and to the suffering caused by their collapse
into violence and chaos”.

The intext reference here is the highlighted part. We can break it down as follows:

Allara (2019 :74)

The author’s The year of The page number

surname publication of the where this quote can be
article found.

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 The format for books looks the same. Please consult Tutorial Letter 301/ARHALLY for other
types of sources such as magazine articles, websites and videos.

Activity 1.8: Example: How to use intext references – paraphrasing

To paraphrase means to write in your own words. I am going to use the same passage as
above and write it in my own words.

Allara (2019: 74) argues that Kentridge’s work shows images such as migrants in silhouette,
and connects them to historical processes which renders them vulnerable and suffering due to
the violent and precarious societies that they find themselves living in.

OR

Kentridge’s work shows images such as migrants in silhouette and connects them to historical
processes which renders them vulnerable and suffering due to the violent and precarious
societies that they find themselves living in (Allara 2019:74).

You will see that I did not merely change one or two words but left the passage more or less
the same. I wrote my own sentence, thereby showing my own understanding of the passage. It
is not acceptable to change one or two words only, or to use the ‘“synonym’ function in Word
to find some alternatives. You must fully rewrite the sentence.

1.4.3 When to paraphrase and when to quote

Paraphrasing is used 90% of the time. When in doubt, paraphrase. It is always better to use your
own words, because it shows that you have read and understood the material.

Quoting is only used in the following three instances:

• When someone important e.g., the president of a country, has said something important and
it is vital that we know their exact words.
• When someone has said something so eloquently or beautifully that paraphrasing will cause
the meaning or impact thereof to be lost.
• When quoting lines from poetry, songs or a novel that one wishes to elaborate on.

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Many students over-use quotes because they do not understand the readings, or struggle to find
their own words. You need to persevere (keep trying) with this – it does get easier! Quoting just
for the sake of quoting, is referred to as ‘lazy quoting’ and is not acceptable.

1.4.4 The bibliography

When you write an essay or assignment, you need to include a bibliography, listing all the
sources which you have used, including your study material.

Please consult TL301/ARHALLY to make sure that you use the correct format required of you.

1.5 Writing for academic purposes

Writing for academic purpose is not the same as any writing you have done so far. It is also
different from the kind of writing that one finds in the popular press, such as magazines and news
articles. You have to write in a way that makes your thoughts clear and shows that you have
answered the question. It takes time and practise to get the correct tone for your writing. By tone,
I mean the way that the reader ‘hears’ you, or the way you come across. It is also not a creative
essay or a philosophical essay, so even though it is expected of you to analyse and interpret
images, you should do so, given the information and methods given to you in your study material,
and further enriched through your own research.

Here are a few tips:

1.5.1 Try to be objective and professional, not emotional or entertaining

Do not write: “During the Middle Ages people were painted in a most ridiculous flat style, because that is
how they liked it”.

Rather write: “Painted figures from the Middle Ages appeared flat, which was the prevailing style of the
time.”

Do not write: “I find Leonardo da Vinci to be an incredible artist!”

Rather state: “Da Vinci was a prominent artist of the Renaissance.”

1.5.2 Careful with opinions

The aim of assignments is not to give your opinion – it is to answer a question – and to show the
lecturer that you have read the prescribed study material. Although you might think that Rococo
art is “the most beautiful art ever made”, your opinion is not sought at this point. Rather refrain
from giving unsolicited opinions and stick to answering the question.

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Do not write: “I think Turner felt sad when he painted this landscape. That is why the sky is blue and
stormy.”

Rather write: “According to Coetzee (2010:23), Turner aimed for a melancholy mood when he painted this
landscape. He achieved this by using blue tones and the impression of stormy weather.”

Likewise, you should avoid adjectives that express an opinion.

Do not write: “The Mona Lisa is a beautiful painting by da Vinci”.

Rather say: “The Mona Lisa was painted by da Vinci.”

What you should do in an essay is to provide an argument, which is always supported by

evidence (Pleshkov & Alieva 2020). The argument that you are making should answer the
assignment or exam question. This does not mean that you cannot have your own ideas about a
topic or an artwork, but that you should be able to substantiate (provide evidence or support for)
your position.

In other words, find reputable (trustworthy) sources and use the information in the sources to
come to conclusions, not wild ideas or hearsay that cannot be verified or proven.

1.5.3 Hearsay and generalisations

Hearsay are the typical things we say to our friends or family, such as “People do not like modern
art”, or “One can learn a lot from going to museums”. Says who? How can you prove it? And who
are these ‘people’ that you talk about? Did you conduct any research about the matter? Be
careful of making unsubstantiated and general claims like this. Stick to the facts.

There are typical phrases that are used in statements that amount to hearsay, such as “it is well
known” and ‘research shows’ or ‘in the world today’.

Instead, you should be specific, rather than general, and refer to sources or actual research.

Do not write: “These days people do not like to go to museums.”

Rather write: “Since the early 2000s there has been a steady decline in South Africans going to
public museums” (Matthews 2019:23).

Note that in the last example, the information is from a source, not just an opinion grasped out of
thin air. Also, a specific time frame and a place has been added to make the writing more
specific.

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1.5.4 Author and artist names

When you refer to authors or artists you always refer to them by their surname, except for the
first time you mention them in a text.

For example, the artist William Kentridge, you will refer to as ‘Kentridge’, not ‘William’. He is not
your friend or uncle; therefore, you refer to him by his surname. We also do not add prefixes such
as Mr, Prof, or Miss. Only surnames.

If he really is your friend or uncle, you still use the surname, because you are in an academic
context, and your lecturer does not know that he is related to you.

1.5.5 Sensitivity to race and gender

When you write, be mindful how you refer to people when you identify their race or gender.

Men are men and women are women – not ladies, females, fellas, girls, or guys. These terms
can all cause offence and should be avoided.

Also be careful of generalising in terms of race, class, gender, or even nationality. Avoid writing
about groups of people like they are all the same and express unwarranted opinions about
groups or categories of people, such as “all white people love to watch Afrikaans television” or
“black people like rap music”.

1.5.6 Basic structure of an essay

An essay consists of three parts:

• An introduction
• A body
• A conclusion

The introduction should include the following:

o A brief outline of the question or the argument that you are going to make.
o How you are planning to prove/substantiate your positions.
o Which examples you are going to discuss.

The body of your essay contains the arguments and the discussion of theory as well as artists
and artworks. It consists of sections that logically follow each other and is written in paragraphs.

16
The conclusion must repeat the main argument of your essay and summarise your key
evidence, so you can prove that you have answered the question. The conclusion should be
concise (short, but with all the necessary information) and you should refrain from adding any
additional facts and/or ideas here.

1.5.7 Paragraphs

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of an essay. If you write good paragraphs, you will have
a good essay. A strong paragraph is constructed in the same manner as an essay – it also
contains an introduction, body and conclusion (Pleshkov & Alieva 2020). Each and every
paragraph should have these elements.

The introduction of a paragraph is referred to as a topic sentence. It states the main idea or
argument of the paragraph.

Then follows your evidence. This must be concrete information that you sourced from sources.
This should be filled in with details such as descriptions or analyses of theories and/or artworks.
The evidence together with the relevant detail is the body of your paragraph.

Lastly, you need a conclusion to summarise the argument of the paragraph and show your
reader how your evidence has proven your argument or satisfied the requirements of the topic.

The micro-arguments of each paragraph should all work together to make up the larger
argument of your essay.

Following from this discussion, it is clear that a paragraph should consist of several sentences. A
paragraph cannot only have one sentence! Then it is not a good paragraph, or indeed, a
paragraph at all!

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Activity 1.9: Example from student essays

Look at the following example from a student’s essay:

o In the first paragraph, second sentence that starts with ‘however’, the student makes a
statement. Do you understand what the student is saying here? No? Neither do I. It is
because instead of making sure that he/she understands the readings, only a few of the
author’s words were changed resulting in a statement that makes no sense. Always make
sure that you understand what you read, and write simply and clearly, using your own
words.
o The second paragraph contains three sentences. What do you think is the main idea of
this paragraph? Unsure? So am I. Can you see that this paragraph is poorly constructed
with no main idea? It is basically a loose collection of three almost unrelated sentences.
o The student writes: “this painting illustrates more clearly than any painting the
Impressionist instinct”. Does this argument convince you? I am not convinced. The
evidence given is simply not strong enough and too brief. Moreover, if one consults the
source he/she quotes, this is not what the author says at all!
o The last sentence of this paragraph is also problematic. Can you see why? Write your
thoughts down in your learning journal.

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1.6 Conclusion

In this unit, you were shown how to find relevant information and how to use these sources in
your art history studies. We explained plagiarism and showed you how to acknowledge sources.
We also explained the concepts of paraphrasing and quoting. The last section of this unit
explained how to write for academic purposes. Academic writing is a skill that must be learnt and
practiced. Hopefully after working through this unit and completing the activities, you have a
better understanding of what is expected of you academically in your studies of art history. As
you progress with your studies, you should keep this in mind, and refer to this unit if necessary.

The following learning unit will introduce you to the basics of art history, the language of visual
art, and methodologies of art history. In this unit, you will be given the foundation of art history as
a subject, where you can implement the skills learnt in learning unit 1.

Bibliography

Alieva, O & Pleshkov AA. 2020. How to write an academic essay [O]. Available on:
https://iq.hse.ru/en/news/438577495.html?utm_source=facebook.com&utm_medium=social&utm_
campaign=in-certain-academic-traditions--writing. Accessed on: 1 February 2020.

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LESSON 2: ART HISTORY AND ITS METHODS

Compiled by Estelle McDowall with contributions by Zinziswa Mavuso

2.1 Introduction

Our world is cluttered by visual imagery, and the digital age has considerably increased the
number of images we have to deal with daily. But how do we understand visual images? Visual
literacy is a skill to be learnt, just as the study of languages, and as such it has its own ‘grammar’
and ways of communicating and understanding.

The previous unit introduced you to the principles of reading and writing for art history. In this
learning unit, I will present you with a short introduction to what art history entails, a definition and
explanation of visual literacy, an explanation of the basic concepts of art history, followed by an
explanation of the main art historical methods that you will need in your art history studies. You
will see that there are activities that you must do, but there are also several definitions. It is
important that you do all the activities as well as study the definitions. When you go through this
learning unit, you will encounter many images. I include the images to explain the concepts. You
will notice that most of the images are at least 100 years old, but some are also sourced from
Wikimedia Creative Commons. The reason why we use these images is that they do not have
copyright restrictions and that they are published in the public domain. This does not mean that
these are the only images that we want you to look at. It is important that you can also identify
the themes and ideas that we discuss here in contemporary artworks. For this reason, it is
important that you look at as many images as possible, visit local art galleries and museums as
often as you can, and follow artists’ pages on social media.

Learning outcomes

After working through this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Describe art history as a subject

• Define visual literacy and explain what it means to be visually literate
• Know the basic terms associated with art history
• Define and apply the elements of art
• Define and apply the principles of design
• Describe and apply art historical methods
• Analyse an artwork using formalism and social history of art (Contextual approach)

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Key concepts

• Art history
• Visual literacy
• Elements of art
• Principles of design
• Methodology
• Formalism
• Iconography
• Social history of art

2.1 Introduction to Art History

Art history is an intellectual or scholarly investigation of the visual arts – that is, those made
objects which are presumed to have a visual content (Fernie 1996:326) – and the historical
evidence that apply to them (Kleinbauer 1989:1).

Activity 2.1: Defining Art History

Write a short paragraph where you explain what you think art history is all about. In this
paragraph, include why you are interested in the subject and what you plan to achieve with this
subject.

What is important to remember, is that Art History is really an exciting and interesting subject. We
are no longer stuck in the dusty archives of European libraries and museums, but we look for and
find art everywhere. Even though the name Art History refers to something in the past, art history
is also about what is happening now, and about art created by your peers. We study the history
of art because it teaches us about our creative expression and the creative expression of our
past. Studying Art History is a way to explore human cultures. You will see that major changes in
art are often linked to changes in societies and art has the potential to change aspects of society.
The history of art also shows us how cultures are different, and how cultures use different types
of creative expression.

Activity 2.2: Finding Art

Take a day where you look for art in the area where you live. It can be a framed picture in your
house, graffiti on the wall at the train station, an image you created in your art studies, or an

21
artist who draws portraits on the street. See how many examples of art you can find. Make a
list in your journal of everything you saw and include photos or drawings of what you found.

The purpose of this activity is to realise that art is not only limited to Western art museums, but
that art is everywhere, and that all art has value in society. Art is also not limited to traditional
mediums like painting in the form of oil on canvas, bronze sculpture, and drawing. Art can be
the way that you decorate your laptop, or the doodles you make in your notebook. Sometimes,
art is created only to bring joy to the viewer and in other instances, as a tool of resistance (See
Figure 2-1, Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3).

Figure 2-1: Artwork by the street artist Banksy on the Israeli West Bank barrier in Bethlehem
(photograph by Markus Ortner) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mauer-betlehem.jpg).

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Figure 2-2: Faith47, Estamos Todos Los Que Cabemos, Haarlem (2015) (Photograph by Kevin Likes)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Estamos_Todos_Los_Que_Cabemos.jpg).

Figure 2-3: Graffiti on a wall, Irene, Pretoria (2019) (Photograph by Estelle McDowall).

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Art history came into existence as a discipline in the Western world only about 400 years ago. Art
history has never been a neat and standardised concept. Art is not homogenised and has
different forms at different times and in diverse places, and therefore art history changes over
time. Art history is an interdisciplinary field and includes the fields of art theory, art criticism, and
aesthetics. In addition, by learning about art history, you will also be introduced to history,
sociology, anthropology, psychology, literature, and politics and economics. Art history is a
critical practice and constantly redefines its own nature.

Art history is in the first place about art. It is concerned with the form and style of the artwork, its
content or iconography and its meaning. It is also concerned with the culture or context in which
the artwork originated, which provides information about those very elements. We need to study
these different elements to arrive at an interpretation of the artwork. The art historian requires a
method of investigation or methodology to give structure and purpose to those studies.

It is important to note here that "method" does not mean the same as "theory". Theory can be
defined as a “comprehensive explanation which deals with a set of phenomena”, while method is
“the particular way in which a theory is applied” (Hatt & Klonk 2006:2).

Art theory is concerned with the study not of the artwork itself, but with the theories that shaped
and influenced it. It seeks to understand the attitudes towards art which conditioned the creative
process; this may include the theories of the imitation of nature, and decorum: that is, not only
the suitable representation of typical aspects of human life but also what is decent and proper in
taste, morality, and religion (Kleinbauer 1989:4).

2.2 What is Visual Literacy?

In order to interpret artworks, you need to be able to understand and apply the terminology and
methods, which you will be learning in this learning unit. To speak and write about art, you need
a visual language. This visual language consists of terms, methods, and vocabulary. When you
are able to interpret artworks and other visual texts by using the correct terminology, vocabulary,
and methods, you are visually literate.

Visual literacy encompasses naming and identifying art elements within an image. It requires you
to be able to identify how these elements are used to create a message and how it leads to an
interpretation. It requires critical thinking. You will see that an analysis of visual elements may lead
you to multiple conclusions. Understanding the underlying ways of thinking that influence your
reading of an image will help you to analyse and interpret visual texts. Visual texts include anything
that you can see, artworks, photographs, films, advertisements, television, music videos and so
on.

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Literacy is commonly defined as the ability to read (receive a message) and write (send a
message). The ability to read and write also includes the ability to make and share ideas. This
means that to be literate, you have to understand what you read and make up your own ideas of
what is written and what meanings the author wants you to get from the text. However, literacy
goes beyond the written and spoken words. Literacy extends to non-verbal communication. In the
case of art history, literacy extends to the visual image. This form of literacy is called visual
literacy. Being visually literate means you know how to construct and decode meaning in visual
materials. This requires an analysis of elements that make up the image and encourages critical
viewing skills. Elkins (2009) states that visual literacy enables more than low-level decoding of
symbols, it also functions on a higher more critical level to help us make sense of what is seen.

Looking at images has become a primary feature of our everyday lives; images are everywhere.
Therefore, it is important not only to look but to see and ultimately interpret what we see. Below is
a chart on the practice of looking developed by the Toledo Museum of Art.

Figure 2-4: Video still from the video, What is visual literacy, by the Toledo Museum of Art (2014).

Activity 2.3: What is visual literacy?

Watch the talk by Brian Kennedy, from the Toledo Museum of Art, where he explains the
concept visual literacy.

You can view the video by clicking on the hyperlink below:

https://youtu.be/O39niAzuapc

Note the main concepts he refers to in the video. You will need these for activities later in the
learning unit.

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 Activity 2.4: Why do we need visual literacy?

Watch the TEDxDartmouth talk by Brian Kennedy “Visual Literacy: Why We Need It”

You can view the video by clicking on the hyperlink below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E91fk6D0nwM

While you watch the video and based on what you learnt in the previous video, make notes in
your learning journal of how visual literacy is explained.

Now, write a short essay of 300 words in your learning journal where you explain visual literacy
and what it means to be visually literate.

Visual literacy is the ability to construct meaning from images. This is the core of what we teach
you in art history.

Activity 2.5: Why is visual literacy important?

In our daily encounters with images, we are often confronted by an image that causes outrage,
sympathy, or doubt. When investigating the origin of the image, or its original use, we realise
that the image has a different meaning than what is presented in front of us.

Visit this website and scroll through the images:

https://www.boredpanda.com/fake-news-photos-viral-
photoshop/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=organic

Now, when you are active on social media platforms, identify similar images (not more than
five) and find their original intent and meaning by doing research on Google (reverse image
search). Post your findings on the Discussion forum on myUnisa.

It is important to be a critical consumer of visual images and popular culture in general.

In the video, What is visual literacy (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O39niAzuapc) Brian Kennedy

from The Toledo Museum of Art explains that

When we look at something, we often make assumptions about it, we have already decided what
it is because we have seen it before. But if we really look at it, we take our time and we start to

26
see it, when we can really see it, we can begin to describe it, very accurately. And after
describing it we can ask analytical questions about it like ‘what’s it made of?’ And when we’ve
gone through this four-stage process we then begin to construct meaning, we begin to make
sense of what we see, we begin to become visually literate.

The guidelines provided by the Toledo Museum of Art draws on the same knowledge that follows
in this learning unit, which teaches you how to make interpretations using art historical
methodologies. This is a valuable skillset and can be used on all forms of visual images, such as
art, advertising, film, photography, memes, and television.

Activity 2.6: Interpreting an artwork

Write your own analysis of the artwork (a section of a mural) depicted in the image below.

Do not search for any additional information on this image for this activity.

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 Your analysis and interpretation should be about two pages long. Since this is a complex work,
you do not have to discuss every aspect of the artwork, focus on the elements that stand out to
you.

It is important to be able to interpret images because they form a large part of our daily existence
and can be used to manipulate and distort our understanding of the world around us and each
other. When our looking, or field of vision, is restricted and controlled — “it can be used to
manipulate ideas and beliefs, but it can also be used to affirm one’s own subjectivity in the face
of a political system that controls and regulates looking” (Sturken, 2018: 2). There are power
relations involved in looking; advertisers manage what you see in an advert to convince you to
buy their product. Politicians near voting season run campaigns that highlight the positives they
have achieved, omitting the greater reality on the ground thus using the power of images to
manipulate viewers’ ideas and beliefs. The primary mode of communication for both is through
the visual image. Being visually literate means, you can become a more critically aware and
engaged citizen and individual.

2.3 Basics of art history

Now that you know what it means to be visually literate, I will start by teaching you some of the
common terms and concepts that you need for art history studies. In this section, I explain the
basic terms that you will encounter in your studies. It is important to understand the way that the
terms are used in art history as a subject, and not to confuse the terms as we use them in
everyday language.

2.3.1 Style

Style refers to the idea that the visual appearance of an artwork relates it to other artworks by the
same artist or from the same period.

Look at the two artworks below (Figure 2-5 and Figure 2-6). Compare the subject matter (what the
artist painted) and the technique (how it was painted). Can you see that the subjects and
technique are similar? Both paintings represent women in long flowing dresses in nature. The
brushstrokes are loose and thick, capturing the essence of the subject, rather than focusing on
detail. Natural light is emphasised. These similarities lead us to see that the artworks are similar
in style. When we look at when the paintings were created, we see that they were both made in
the 1870s, therefore, the artists come from the same time era. Claude Monet and Berthe Morisot
were both from France and they used the same techniques (those associated with
Impressionism). Therefore, we can conclude that they have very similar styles.

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Figure 2-5: Claude Monet, Woman with a Parasol – Madame Monet and Her Son (Camille and Jean
Monet), 1875 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Claude_Monet_-_Woman_with_a_Parasol_-
_Madame_Monet_and_Her_Son_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg).

Figure 2-6: Berthe Morisot, Reading, 1873

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berthe_Morisot_Reading.jpg).

Style refers to distinctive patterns or characteristics of form of one or a series of cultural objects.
Scholars use style or the analysis of forms primarily as a means of establishing the character of
that object and identifying the maker of the object – an individual, group or culture – as well as
its place of production. It also refers to a coherence of qualities in periods or people, for instance
medium, function, and subject matter. Style varies by time and place and can be used to determine

29
the origin of a work of art. Style serves as an instrument to place the object in a chronological
scheme or typological sequence, to create certain groupings (Gothic, Renaissance,
Impressionist) and to explain change.

Activity 2.7: Style across mediums

Go online and find images of the following:

• Nasir al-Mulk Mosque in Shiraz

• Sohelia Sokhanvari, Conquest of the Garden
• Tabriz rugs

Write a paragraph where you discuss these examples in terms of style.

2.3.2 Chronology

Chronology of art refers to the way that art changes throughout time. It can be described as a
timeline of art. The purpose of a chronological timeline is to show you where artists, art
movements, and events fit into the bigger picture of history. Chronological timelines can usually
be found in art history anthologies, such as Helen Gardner’s Art through the ages and Laurie
Adams’ Art across time. This topic is dealt with in-depth in the module ARH1502: An introduction
to Art History.

Figure 2-7: An example of a simplified chronology or timeline of selected art historical movements.

You can find various art history chronologies here: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/chronology/

30
2.3.3 Time and place of origin

Art is classified according to the time of its making. This refers to the idea of a chronology of art.
It is important to situate a work of art in the time period when it was made.

Activity 2.8: Time, art and technology

Peter Campus is considered as one of the founders of video art. Watch the video titled Three
Transitions (1974) by Campus by clicking on the hyperlink: https://vimeo.com/21140656

Now compare the video in terms of its technological innovation with the type of editing you can
achieve with standard functions on your smartphone. The editing on Three Transitions is really
basic compared to what can be done today. However, it is important to remember that for the
time when the work was created, it was seen as cutting-edge.

You can find more interesting art installations utilising moving images by clicking on these
hyperlinks:

Peter Kogler, Avantgarde with Robotic art at the EXPO 2017:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXRPB-oQpUY

Van Gogh’s Immersive Experience Autumn Toronto 2020:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elTMFHBgQrs

Nathaniel Stern, Stuttering (interactive installation):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VCzMRRyDt4Q

When you look through any art history book, you will see that artworks from the same era have
similar characteristics. This is again related to style that we discussed earlier.

Classifying artworks based on their place of origin is also important (see Activity 2.7:). Artworks
from different regions have different stylistic concerns. In addition, art created in Europe during
the 15th century, is vastly different from art created in China during the same time frame. Looking
at the time and place of origin gives the viewer an idea of the context in terms of the society in
which the artwork was created. Here, it is important to keep in mind that art made in different
societies should not be compared in order to make value judgments as to which is better. The
making of art is closely related to the society, its cultural values and norms, belief systems, belief
related to the purpose and function of art, and the resources available.

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Activity 2.9: Time, place and chronology

By using an online chronology of art, such as https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/chronology/ or a

chronology in an art anthology, find artworks made in the period 1500 to 1600 from three
different continents. Compare the works and list the differences and similarities.

This exercise will illustrate to you how the place of origin influences the type of artworks that
are created.

2.3.4 Medium

Medium refers to what the artist used to create the work. Traditionally, art is associated with
painting, usually oil on canvas, sculpture, and printmaking (lithograph, relief painting, etc.).
However, these narrow categories are no longer used to classify an artwork as art, and artists
use all sorts of things to create art.

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Activity 2.10: Art mediums

Go back to your findings from Activity 2.2:. List the different types of art mediums that were
used in the artworks you discovered.

Now, speak to your fellow students, friends or family, and ask them to list four different
mediums that they associate with art.

If you are an art student, you will be introduced to many different ways and mediums that you
can use to make art.

Look at the artworks below. They can all be found in building 12C, Sunnyside campus, where
the Department of Art and Music is located. The artists, former Unisa Visual Arts students,
used many different mediums to create the artworks.

Figure 2-8: Copper wire and plate metal (Photograph by Estelle McDowall).

33
Figure 2-9: Paper and lace (Photograph by Estelle McDowall).

34
Figure 2-10: Felt and fabric (Photograph by Estelle McDowall).

Figure 2-11: Perspex and rusted metal (Photograph by Estelle McDowall).

35
2.3.5 Subject matter

Subject matter is what is represented in a work of art or the main idea that is represented. You
identify the subject matter by asking: “What is the artwork about?” Sometimes, the subject is
easily identified. Look at this painting:

Figure 2-12: Helen Searle, Still Life with Fruit and Champagne (1869)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Still_Life_with_Fruit_and_Champagne.JPG).

You can see exactly what the painting is about: different types of fruit and a glass filled with
champagne. Even the title tells you exactly what the painting is about: Still life with fruit and
champagne. Therefore, there is no ambiguity in what the artist depicted in this painting.

Traditionally, artworks represented people, for instance portraits or commemorative sculptures,

mythological or historical events, landscapes, or still lives.

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Activity 2.11: Classifying the subject in artworks

Classify the artworks in terms of what they represent:

Figure 2-13: Dong Yuan (934 – 962) Dongtian Mountain Hall, 10th century, the Five Dynasties
(Chinese). National Palace Museum, Taipei
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dong_Yuan_Mountain_Hall.jpg).

37
Figure 2-14: Jan Mostaert, Portrait of an African Man (Christophle le More?) (c 1525 – 1530), oil on oak
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:African_man_portrait_Mostaert.jpg).

38
Figure 2-15: Caravaggio, Narcissus (1597 – 1599), oil on canvas
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissus_(Caravaggio)#/media/File:Narcissus-Caravaggio_(1594-
96)_edited.jpg).

Figure 2-16: Jan Davidsz. De Heem A Table of desserts (1640), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jan_Davidsz._de_Heem_-_A_Table_of_Desserts_-
_WGA11289.jpg).

39
Figure 2-17: Hamilton McCarthy, Anishinaabe Scout (1915), bronze, Major’s Hill Park, Ottawa, Ontario
(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Anishinabe_Scout_-_03.jpg).

The subjects of the artworks are as follows:

• Figure 2-13: landscape

• Figure 2-14: portrait
• Figure 2-15: mythological figure
• Figure 2-16: still life
• Figure 2-17: historical figure

Now look through the study guide and see if you can identify the other artworks represented
here in terms of their subjects.

40
The subject matter does not have to be representational. For instance, look at the image below:

When you study the image, there is not much that you can identify. There are rounded shapes of
different colours, that can refer to hills, and then there is a darker, almost black structure in the
centre of the image, but we cannot see what it is. The artist is Wassily Kandinsky, who is seen as
the father of abstract art. Therefore, we know now, that we are looking at an artwork which is
abstract. The title of the work is Landscape with Factory Chimney. And now, we know what the
subject matter of the painting is. It is a landscape, with a factory chimney. However, we only
know this by looking at the title. (The source of the image is:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wassily_Kandinsky,_1910,_Landscape_with_Factory_Chimney,_o
il_on_canvas,_66.2_x_82_cm,_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg).

Activity 2.12: Identifying the subject in art

41
 Go online and find images by Mark Rothko. Select two images. Study them carefully. In your
journal, note what you think the subject of Rothko’s colour field artworks are. Do you think an
artwork must have an identifiable subject in order to make it an artwork?

Now watch this video by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://smarthistory.org/rothko-orange/

By watching the video, you will realise that the purpose of the painting is about the feelings the
colours evoke, as well as the way that the colour is applied to the canvas. The artist did not
aim to depict a real object.

2.3.6 Stylistic terminology

Stylistic terminology is used to describe the way that the artist depicted the subject matter.

a) Representational

• Figurative or naturalistic: The figures and objects are depicted more or less as we see them,
the subject matter is depicted in a way that it is recognisable. Naturalism is concerned with
the general appearances of nature that is, the representation of the visible world. In other
words, the artwork tries to be a pictorial equivalent of what the eye sees existing in everyday
nature. The opposite of stylisation or abstraction.
• Realistic: The figures and objects are depicted to resemble their actual appearances, and
not in a distorted or abstract way. Realistic and naturalistic are often used interchangeably.
• Illusionistic: Figures, objects, and the space they occupy are depicted in a convincing way
which results in the appearance of reality.

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Activity 2.13: Figurative art

Here are two examples of figurative or naturalistic art:

Figure 2-18: Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot Forest of Fontainebleau (Forêt de Fountainebleau) (1834), oil
on canvas (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Forest_of_Fontainebleau-1830-Jean-Baptiste-
Camille_Corot.jpg).

Figure 2-19: John Pugh, Mural on the front of the Mexicable Station 4 building, located in Ecaptepec de
Morelos, Mexico (2016) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quetzalcoatl,_Trompe-
l%27oeil_Mural_by_John_Pugh.png).

43
 The first image is naturalistic or realistic. This means that you can clearly recognise what the
artist depicted. The second image is illusionistic. The snake is depicted in such a way that it
seems to be coming out of the building as a three-dimensional shape. The term we refer to
here is trompe l’oeil. Trompe l’oeil is a French term that means to deceive the eye and is used
to describe an art technique that uses realistic imagery to create the optical illusion that the
depicted object exists in three dimensions.

Look at the artworks by Asha Zero by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://visi.co.za/artists-we-love-asha-zero/

It looks like the artist made a collage by cutting out sections from magazines and other printed
sources, however, the images are painted (hand-rendered in the words of Asha Zero). This is
an excellent example of illusionistic art in South African art.

If you are a visual arts student, and capable of illusionistic or trompe l’oeil art, please e-mail an
example of your work for the lecturer to show it to other students on myUnisa.

The next categories refer to depiction that is representational, but not realistic (faithful to its
subject).

• Stylised: the image is stylised when certain features are depicted as nonorganic surface
elements, instead of being naturalistic or realistic. It means that the artwork is less lifelike.
Methods of stylisation are flatness, simplified shapes, and unrealistic colours.
• Romanticised: this refers to when the subject is depicted in a nostalgic, emotional, fanciful, or
mysterious way.
• Idealised: this is when the object is depicted according to an accepted standard of beauty.
• Distortion: denotes the incorrect, or sometimes merely unusual, reproduction of the shapes or
things or of the proportions among their parts. It may be part of stylisation, or it may be used
for particular expressive ends. Distortion is used in Expressionism, where the emotions of the
artist are paramount and take precedence over a rational and true-to-life rendering of the
subject matter.

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Activity 2.14: Differentiating between stylised, romanticised, and idealised

This wood carving is an example of a stylised wood carving:

Figure 2-20: Ndop of king Mishe miShyaang maMbul (1760-1780), wood; Brooklyn Museum (New York
City)
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_art#/media/File:Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_
Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_(5).jpg).

Explain why this artwork is stylised, and not naturalistic.

The next image we will look at is from the Pre-Raphaelite period, and is a romanticised image:

45
Figure 2-21: John William Waterhouse, Soul of the rose (1903), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_William_Waterhouse_-
_The_Soul_of_the_Rose,_1903.jpg).

Explain why this image can be seen as romanticised.

The next artwork depicts a young woman in an idealised way:

46
Figure 2-22: Ernst Deger, Portrait of a young woman (1835) oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman_(SM_1184).png).

Explain why the representation of this young woman is idealised. Then, compare the standard
of beauty that is depicted in this painting, with the standards of female beauty we find in
popular media today, for instance, internationally, Beyonce, Yara Shahidi, Charlize Theron,
and Kerry Washington and locally, Zozibini Tunzi, Nomzamo Mbatha, and Bonang Matheba.

Activity 2.15: Dalí and distortion

Go online and find this image:

Salvador Dalí, The persistence of memory (1931).

Describe how the artist uses distortion in this artwork.

47
b) Non-representational

The subject matter of an artwork can also have little or no relationship to reality.

• Non-representational or nonfigurative: this is the opposite of representational or figurative

art, and the artwork does not depict objects or people from the real world.
• Abstract: the forms do not depict real objects, the reduction of natural appearances to
simplified forms, or the construction of nonrepresentational, or nonfigurative art objects not
by abstraction from natural appearances, but by building up with nonrepresentational shapes
and patterns.

Activity 2.16: Representation to abstraction

Look at the following images by Piet Mondrian. The images are organised chronologically from
1908 to 1920.

Figure 2-23: Piet Mondrian The Red Tree (1908 – 1910), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piet_Mondrian,_1908-
10,_Evening;_Red_Tree_(Avond;_De_rode_boom),_oil_on_canvas,_70_x_99_cm,_Gemeentemuseum
_Den_Haag.jpg).

48
Figure 2-24: Piet Mondrian, 1911, Gray Tree (De grijze boom), oil on canvas
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet_Mondrian#/media/File:Piet_Mondrian,_1911,_Gray_Tree_(De_grijze_
boom),_oil_on_canvas,_79.7_x_109.1_cm,_Gemeentemuseum_Den_Haag,_Netherlands.jpg).

Figure 2-25: Piet Mondrian Apple Tree in Bloom (1912), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blossoming_apple_tree,_by_Piet_Mondriaan.jpg#/media/File:B
lossoming_apple_tree,_by_Piet_Mondriaan.jpg).

49
Figure 2-26: Piet Mondrian, Composition o XVI, Composition 1 (Trees) (1912/1913), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piet_Mondriaan_-
_Composition_No._XVI,_Compositie_1_(Arbres),_1912_-_1913_-_Fondation_Beyeler.jpg).

Figure 2-27: Piet Mondrian, Composition No. 11 (1913). oil on canvas

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mondriaan_-_No._11.jpg).

50
Figure 2-28: Piet Mondrian Composition (1916), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piet_mondrian,_composizione,_1916_(guggenheim_nyc)_01.jp
g).

Figure 2-29: Piet Mondrian, Composition A (1920), oil on canvas

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Composition_A_by_Piet_Mondrian_Galleria_Nazionale_d%27
Arte_Moderna_e_Contemporanea.jpg).

51
 In this series of images, you can see how the artist changed his approach from
representational, to complete abstraction.

2.4 The language of visual art

The artist uses certain elements and principles to create an artwork. Any artwork can be seen as
a visual text. Therefore, art is like a language, and you have to know what elements and
principles the artist uses to create visual texts, much like a writer uses words and grammar to
create a story.

The overall plan or structure of an artwork is the composition. When we speak of composition, we
refer to the way that the artist arranged different elements in the artwork to compose the image. It
refers to the relationships of some parts to others, the work as a whole, and includes things like
balance and harmony. The composition can be simple or complex. This is also a word that you
will hear if you are an art student, for instance when a lecturer tells you that the composition is
not working. This simply means that the way that you arranged the different parts of the artwork,
is not resulting in a successful or visually pleasing artwork. You can compare an artwork to the
different sections of a story, it consists of a build-up, climax, and resolution.

When we discuss the composition of the artwork Newnham-on-Severn from Dean Hill (Figure
2-30), we start by noting how the different elements are related to each other. There are
prominent trees on either side of the picture plane, dividing it in roughly three horizontal sections
with the sky in the middle. The sky and ground divide the picture plan horizontally, approximately
in thirds. There is a man on a horse on the right-hand side of the painting, with a few cows in
front of him.

52
Figure 2-30: William Turner, Newnham-on-Severn from Dean Hill (c 1800s)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Newnham-on-Severn_from_Dean_Hill_-
_William_Turner_of_Oxford.jpg).

2.4.1 Elements of art

Formal elements refer to the basis of the basic visual vocabulary that the artist uses. The
elements of art are line, form and shape, colour, value, texture, space, and movement. Every
artwork can be described using these terms.

a) Line

A line is a mark that joins two points across a space, Lines have direction, width, and length. In
the table below, I give a graphic representation of the type of line, followed by an image where
the type of line can be identified.

53
 Different types of line:

Vertical Horizontal

Curved Diagonal

Zigzag
Spiral

Wavy or S- Dotted
shaped

Look at the image below (Figure 2-31):

54
Figure 2-31: Käthe Kollwitz, Not (Misère) (1897)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%A4the_Kollwitz,_Not_(Mis%C3%A8re).jpg).

Look at the way that artist uses only line to create this image. The lines are fairly uniform in width
and the lines are in different directions. In some places the lines are dense, creating darker
areas. Cross-hatching (a technique that utilises parallel, intersecting lines to shade an illustration) of
the lines also creates darker areas.

Line is used to evoke certain emotions or feelings in an image. Vertical lines are active, whereas
horizontal lines are passive. Diagonal lines suggest movement or energy. Undulating lines
convey a sense of calm compared with irregular lines that convey a sense of agitation.

55
Activity 2.17: Line as expression

Describe the way that the artist uses different types of line in the image below:

Figure 2-32: Leonardo da Vinci, Study for the Sforza Monument (1488 – 1489), metalpoint on bluish
prepared paper
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_Study_for_the_Sforza_monument_01.jpg)
.

b) Form and shape

A shape is a two-dimensional enclosed area. Lines that enclose space create shapes. Shapes
can be geometric or organic. Shapes with uniform measurements that do not appear in nature
are geometric, also known as regular shapes. Organic shapes are associated with things from
the natural world, or biomorphic shapes. Shapes also have expressive qualities – squares give
the impression of stability and reliability, whereas circles are associated with divinity. In Neolithic
times, circles and circle shapes were associated with fertility, as can be seen in fertility figures of
the time, such as the Venus von Willendorf figurine (Figure 2-33).

56
Figure 2-33: Venus von Willendorf, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wien_NHM_Venus_von_Willendorf.jpg).

Activity 2.18: Geometric and organic shapes

Look at the two paintings below (Figure 2-34 and Figure 2-35). Write a short paragraph where
you explain the way in which these artists used different types of shapes in constructing the
image.

Figure 2-34: Wassily Kandinsky, Composition VII (1913), oil on canvas

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vassily_Kandinsky,_1913_-_Composition_7.jpg).

57
 Figure 2-35: Piet Mondrian, Composition in red, yellow, blue and black (1926). oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Piet_Mondrian#/media/File:Piet_Mondriaan,_1921_-
_Composition_en_rouge,_jaune,_bleu_et_noir.jpg).

What do you think about these paintings? Write down three emotions that you associate with
each of these paintings.

Form refers to the three-dimensional volume of a shape, and includes depth, height, and width.
Form can refer to two-dimensional forms rendered in three dimensions on a flat surface, such as
a painting or a drawing (Figure 2-36). In the drawing below, you can imagine what size the objects
depicted are, and what their actual dimensions are.

Figure 2-36: Drawing illustration of still life composition with cylinder, sphere, cube and cone.

58
Form also refers to the physical form of sculptures (Figure 2-37, Figure 2-38, Figure 2-39). (We will
discuss these sculptures again when we talk about space.) In the sculptures you see different
types of form, the first, Laocoön and his sons (Figure 2-37) represents natural form, therefore, the
people represented look like real people, albeit idealised. The second, Brancusi’s The Gate of
the Kiss (Figure 2-38) depicts stylised form, which means that the natural form has been
simplified to the point of being abstracted. The form of the sculpture, 1.8 Renwick (Figure 2-39) is
non-representational, and the forms are organic and flowing.

Figure 2-37: Laocoön and His Sons (Laocoön group), marble, 208cm x 163 cm x 112 cm
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Laocoön_Vatican.jpg).

59
Figure 2-38: Constantin Brancusi, The Gate of the Kiss (1935), travertine
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Gate_of_the_Kiss#/media/File:Das_Tor_des_Kusses_
von_Constantin_Brancusi_in_Targu-Jiu_Rum%C3%A4nien.tif).

Figure 2-39: Photograph of the Smithsonian American Art Museum's Renwick Gallery, with the soft
sculpture 1.8 Renwick, by Janet Echelman, installed in the museum's Grand Salon
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Janet_Echelman_1.8_Renwick.jpg).

60
c) Colour

Colour is derived from light. Different colours are created by different wavelengths of light. Colour
refers to the hues as in the colour wheel (Figure 2-40). Each colour has a different wavelength and
mixing colours change the wavelength. Pure white reflects all the colour waves, whereas black
reflects no light at all. You can find more definitions of terms related to colour by clicking on this
hyperlink: https://munsell.com/about-munsell-color/how-color-notation-works/dictionary-color-terms/

Activity 2.19: The blackest black

Go online and look for images of the material Vantablack. This material explains the concepts
of reflecting light, or lack thereof in an interesting way.

A colour wheel is a useful tool to see the relationships between colours, the values and tones, as
well as how the colours are made up, for instance, yellow and blue makes green.

61
Figure 2-40: Photo of a colour wheel (Photograph by Estelle McDowall).

Activity 2.20: Optional activity: experimenting with colour

If you have access to art materials, mix different primary colours together to see how you can
make secondary and tertiary colours. Note if you can see different results by using different
mediums, for instance oil paint vs water colour vs food colouring.

(i) Hue

Hue refers to the name of a colour. Primary colours are red, blue and yellow. These colours cannot
be reproduced by combining other colours. Secondary colours are the result of mixing two primary
colours: green (yellow + blue), orange (red + yellow) and purple (blue + red). Tertiary colours are
formed by combining a primary colour with an associated secondary colour. Complementary
colours are those colours that are opposite each other on the colour wheel. Chromatic refers to
“with colour” whereas achromatic has no colour, consisting only of black, white and shades of grey.

62
(ii) Intensity or saturation

Intensity or saturation refers to the dullness or brightness of a colour. A colour with a high
intensity is purer whereas a colour with a low intensity is less pure. The intensity (brightness or
dullness) of a colour can be changed by adding white, black or grey. Adding white or black
reduces the colour’s intensity. White makes the colour lighter, which is less intense. Black makes
the colour darker and also less intense. Adding grey of the same value, makes the colour less
intense but it retains the same value. Adding a complementary colour also reduces intensity and
makes the colour more neutral. Changing the intensity of a colour also affects its value. Value is
discussed as a separate element in the next section.

In the artwork, Girl with wineglass by Johannes Vermeer (Figure 2-41), the principle of intensity is
demonstrated. The colour of the woman’s dress is saturated, whereas the intensity of the colour of
the man’s coat is reduced. The colour of the coat is most likely green, mixed with its complementary
colour red. When we look at the blue tablecloth to the left of the image, we can assume that the
darker values were achieved by adding black to the blue paint.

Figure 2-41: Johannes Vermeer, The girl with a wineglass (ca 1659 – 1660), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jan_Vermeer_van_Delft_006.jpg).

63
 Activity 2.21: Exploring colour

Look at the painting, Field of Spring Wheat at Sunrise, by Vincent van Gogh (Figure 2-42)
below. Take note of the different colours that the artist used. Write a paragraph of
approximately 200 words, where you discuss the concepts of hue, and saturation with
reference to the artwork.

Figure 2-42: Vincent van Gogh, Field of Spring Wheat at Sunrise (1889)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_Willem_van_Gogh_007.jpg).

(iii) Expressive qualities of colour

Colour has expressive qualities. Bright or warm colours convey feelings of happiness, for
example yellow, orange, and red. Cool colours, such as blue, violet, green, are associated with
sadness and negative feelings. Colours also have symbolic meanings. Red symbolises danger or
love (red roses). Green is associated with nature, or jealousy. Blue denotes calm or sadness.
This is beautifully illustrated by the children’s film Inside Out (2015). A symbol is something that
stands for, represents, or denotes something else. This is usually a learnt association and
depends on the society where a person lives. For instance, in Western societies black is used for
mourning, whereas in China white is associated with mourning.

64
Activity 2.22: Colour expression and popular media

When you watch television, a film, or an advertisement, pay attention to how the director uses
colour to convey certain emotions or how certain colour palettes are associated with certain
characters or events. This convention is most evident when there are flashbacks to happier
times in the past. The flashbacks are often saturated with yellow light, whereas the present is
gloomy with a greenish-grey filter.

Compare the two artworks in terms of the colour palette that the respective artists used:

Figure 2-43: Caspar David Friedrich The Midday (ca 1821), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CasparDavidFriedrich_Der_Mittag.jpg).

65
 Figure 2-44: Vincent van Gogh Wheat Field with Cypresses (1889), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-
_Wheat_Field_with_Cypresses_(National_Gallery_version).jpg).

Now note the emotions that you associate with the respective paintings. Give reasons for your
choices. Imagine which landscape, if they were real, you would use if you made a short film
about your childhood or, imagine what your landscape would look like, if you were tasked to do
so in your art studies.

d) Value

Value refers to the relative lightness or darkness of an image. Value is a function of the amount of
light reflected from the surface. Value is a characteristic of colour. The addition of white or black to
a colour alters the colour’s value, but not the hue. Artists create the illusion of light by using different
colours and tonal values. You can imagine value on a scale from dark to light. We refer to the
darker areas as shades and the lighter areas as tints.

← ← ← ← ← ← ← Shades → → → → → → →│← ← ← ← ← ← ← Tints → → → → → → →

When there are more tonal variants in the image, the contrast is lower or when shades of similar
value are used together. We can see an example of this in Monet’s Waterloo Bridge (Figure 2-45).
When there are fewer tonal values, as can be seen in Georges de La Tour, The Peninitent

66
Magdalen (Figure 2-46), the contrast is higher. Value is also used to create texture in an image, as
can be seen in the blouse of Magdalen.

Figure 2-45: Claude Monet, Waterloo Bridge (1903), oil on canvas

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Claude_Monet_-_Waterloo_Bridge_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg).

Figure 2-46: Georges de La Tour, The Peninitent Magdalen (ca 1640), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Penitent_Magdalen_MET_DT7252.jpg).

67
The term chiaroscuro is applied to the brightness and darkness in paintings when tone, rather than
colours, is the dominant characteristic. It is used for dramatic effect. The artist Rembrandt used
this effect to achieve an impression of depth in his Self-portrait in a flat cap (Figure 2-47).

Figure 2-47: Rembrandt Self-portrait in a flat cap (1642)

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Self-Portrait_(Royal_Collection).jpg).

e) Texture

Texture refers to the surface quality of an object and may be actual (tactile, which means you can
feel the texture when you touch it) or implied or simulated (visual). In Figure 2-48, you can see the
artist rendered the objects in such a way that you can imagine what they will feel like when you
touch them. The weave of the baskets, the smoothness of the glass items, as well as the
roughness of the bread are all textures that are implied. The brushstrokes are not really visible,
so we can image that if we actually touch the painting, that the surface will be smooth.

68
Figure 2-48: Antonio Pérez de Aguilar, Cupboard (c. 1769) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trompe-
l%27%C5%93il#/media/File:Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_de_Aguilar_-_Cupboard_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg).

The next image (Figure 2-49) is an example of paint that is applied thickly to the canvas, which
means when we touch the surface of the painting we can feel the thickness of the paint. This
method is called impasto, which is the application of thick, heavy and solid masses of paint. The
marks of the paint brush, palette knife, or finger, often remain discernible. Notable artists who
used this technique are Rembrandt van Rijn, Diego Velázquez, Vincent van Gogh, Jackson
Pollock, and Willem de Kooning. To see a South African example of the use of impasto, click on
the hyperlink to view the works of AD-REFLEX: https://ad-reflex.com/projects

69
Figure 2-49: Roman Michalowski, example of Impasto paint
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Impasto_(painting)#/media/File:Impasto-
detailed_example..jpg).

The relief sculpture (Figure 2-50), carved from ivory, is an example of tactile texture, which means
that you can feel the texture of the different elements that are represented.

Figure 2-50: Diptych with scenes from the Life of Christ (c. 1350 – 1365), ivory with traces of paint and
gilding ( https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:French_-
_Diptych_with_Scenes_from_the_Passion_of_Christ_-_Walters_71179_-_Open.jpg).

The work by Meret Oppenheim, Object (1936), is another good example of tactile texture in an
artwork. You can view the work by clicking on this hyperlink:
https://www.moma.org/collection/works/80997.

70
f) Space

Space refers to the environment in which an object occurs, as well as its relationship to other
objects. Space can be positive or negative, open or closed, shallow or deep, and two-
dimensional or three-dimensional.

(i) Positive and negative space

Positive space refers to the area that the object occupies, while negative space refers to the
space surrounding the object. The example below explains the difference between positive and
negative space. In the image on the left, the yellow vessel represents the positive space. This is
the space which the object occupies. In the image on the right, the negative space is depicted in
black, and shows the space surrounding the object.

Figure 2-51: Rubin's vase is an optical illusion in which the negative space around the vase forms the
silhouettes of two faces in profile, a well-known example of figure-ground reversal by emphasising that
negative space (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rubin2.jpg).

In this image, the artist’s use of negative space is creating visual complexity to the drawing:

71
Figure 2-52: Georges Seurat The Black Bow (ca 1882), conte crayon
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Seurat_-_The_Black_Bow_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg).

Activity 2.23: Sculpture and space

Look at the three images below and write a paragraph on how the artists use positive and
negative space, followed by a comparison of the forms of the artworks.

Figure 2-53: Laocoön and His Sons (Laocoön group), marble, 208cm x 163 cm x 112 cm
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Laocöon_Vatican.jpg).

72
Figure 2-54: Constantin Brancusi, The Gate of the Kiss (1935), travertine
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Gate_of_the_Kiss#/media/File:Das_Tor_des_Kusse
s_von_Constantin_Brancusi_in_Targu-Jiu_Rum%C3%A4nien.tif).

Figure 2-55: Photograph of the Smithsonian American Art Museum's Renwick Gallery, with the soft
sculpture 1.8 Renwick, by Janet Echelman, installed in the museum's Grand Salon
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Janet_Echelman_1.8_Renwick.jpg).

73
(ii) Perspective

Perspective is a term used for two-dimensional art, including relief sculpture. Perspective is one
of the means of representing the third dimension on a two-dimensional surface. It is a technique
to give an image on a flat surface, like a canvas or a piece of paper, a sense of depth and
distance.

Linear perspective was invented during the Renaissance by Brunelleschi, as a scientific theory to
suggest and simulate natural appearances. In this system each object is drawn as receding and
can be fitted into parallel lines. These parallel lines appear to meet at a vanishing point on the
horizon line. I illustrated this concept in the artwork, Raphael’s School of Athens (Figure 2-56)
below, by drawing red lines that converge at a single point on the horizon.

Figure 2-56: Raphael, School of Athens (1511)

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Raphael_School_of_Athens.jpg).

Aerial perspective is also termed "colour perspective" and "atmospheric perspective". It is the
rendering of space by means of less intense, less saturated colours, less contrast and less detail
for objects in the distance. It is largely based on our everyday experience of nature. This
technique is illustrated in the painting by JMW Turner, Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great
Western Railway (Figure 2-57).

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Figure 2-57: JMW Turner, Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great Western Railway (1844), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rain_Steam_and_Speed_the_Great_Western_Railway.jpg).

2.4.2 Principles of design

Principles of design refer to the use of the various art elements in relation to each other. The
principles of design are balance, scale or proportion, emphasis or focus, contrast, movement or
rhythm, and unity or harmony.

a) Balance

Balance refers to the visual tension or equilibrium between elements. The elements of art have
visual weight, and the way that the artist organises the elements on the picture plane results in a
sense of balance. When a composition is balanced, it means that no one area of the design
overpowers another area. An unbalanced composition gives a feeling of tension and/or
dynamism. In the Adoration of the Lamb (from the Ghent altarpiece (Figure 2-58), the composition
has a stable and symmetrical balance. The groupings of figures on the one side of the image, are
mirrored on the other side. Even though the two halves are not exactly the same, they are very
similar.

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Figure 2-58: Hubert and Jan van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb from the Ghent Altarpiece (1432)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Retable_de_l%27Agneau_mystique_(7).jpg).

Conversely, the balance in the painting of Sisyphus (Figure 2-59), is dynamic. The figure is placed
diagonally over the picture plane, and his arms and head are strained under the weight of the
stone. In this case, the use of dynamic or asymmetrical balance is used to show the weight of the
stone and to emphasise the struggle of Sisyphus.

Figure 2-59: Antonio Zanchi, Sisyphus (ca 1660 – 1665), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zanchi_-_Sisyphus.jpg).

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Activity 2.24: Exploring balance

Explain the concept of balance, as a principle of design, by referring to the image below. Write
a paragraph of about 200 words.

Figure 2-60: Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper (1495 – 1498), tempera on geddo, pitch and mastic
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Last_Supper_-_Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-
_High_Resolution_32x16.jpg).

Compare the use of balance in the image above, with the painting below:

Figure 2-61: Paul Cézanne, Still Life with Apples and a Pot of Primroses (ca 1890), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Still_Life_with_Apples_and_a_Pot_of_Primroses_MET_DT47.j
pg).

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b) Scale or proportion

Proportion refers to the relationship of part of the body to the entire body, or parts of a form to the
whole.

Activity 2.25: Proportion

Compare the application of proportion in the two artworks below:

Figure 2-62: Edgar Degas Little Dancer Aged Fourteen (between 1878 and 1881)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edgar_Degas,_Little_Dancer_Aged_Fourteen,_1878-
1881,_NGA_110292.jpg).

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 Figure 2-63: Statues guarding an ancient burial site in San Agustin Archaeological Park, Colombia

Scale refers to the relationship of parts of an image to the image as a whole, or to something in
the world outside of the image. When you compare the size of the Gommateshwara Statue
(Figure 2-64) located on Vindyagiri at Shravanbelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka, you can
see that it is a large-scale work. It is the tallest monolithic statue in the world at 30 metres high.
When it is a human figure, we will say that it is larger than life size.

Figure 2-64: The Gommateshwara Statue during the year-long celebrations of the Mahamastakabhisheka
in 2018 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shravanabelagola_-_Gommateshwara_Statue_1.jpg).

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c) Emphasis or focus

Emphasis or focus refers to the way that elements are combined to produce a focal point which
stresses the importance of a specific area or object. It is usually very different to the rest of the
picture and thus stands out. The object or area of emphasis is called the focal point. This is the
area that draws the viewer’s attention first. An artwork can have more than one focal point. A
specific item in an artwork can be emphasised by the careful design of the art elements and by
the composition of an artwork. Emphasis can be achieved by contrast, complementary colours,
isolated colour, isolation, location, and implied lines.

Activity 2.26: Drawing the viewer’s eye

Describe how the artist emphasises a particular figure in this image:

Figure 2-65: Gerard van Honthorst The Procuress (1625), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gerard_van_Honthorst_-_The_Procuress_-_WGA11670.jpg).

d) Contrast

Contrast refers to the difference in qualities of elements. The greater the difference, the more
pronounced the contrast. Usually, we think of contrast as the difference between black and white.

The ink wash painting by Hasegawa Tõhaku (Figure 2-66) displays the use of contrast in the
difference in tonal values (black, greys, and white), as well as the placement of the objects.

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Figure 2-66: Hasegawa Tõhaku, Pine Trees (ca 16th century), ink wash on paper
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hasegawa_Tohaku_-_Pine_Trees_(Sh%C5%8Drin-
zu_by%C5%8Dbu)_-_left_hand_screen.jpg).

Contrast can also be achieved by differences between other elements, such as colour, texture,
and size. In the artwork, Dressing for the carnival, by Winslow Homer (Figure 2-67), the figure in
the centre is emphasised by its placement in the middle of the picture plane and the use of
saturated colours in the clothing compared to the clothing of the other people.

Figure 2-67: Winslow Homer, Dressing for the carnival (1877), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Winslow_Homer_-_Dressing_for_the_Carnival.jpg).

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 Activity 2.27: Emphasising the sublime

Describe the ways that the artist emphasises the figure in the landscape (Figure 2-68) using
contrast.

Figure 2-68: Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (ca 1817), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caspar_David_Friedrich_-
_Wanderer_above_the_sea_of_fog.jpg).

e) Movement or rhythm

Movement or rhythm is achieved with repetitions or the careful placement of elements that align
or is grouped together to encourage the viewer’s eye to move through the image. The prominent
downwards (vertical) brushstrokes employed by Constable in Seascape Study with Rain cloud
(Rainstorm over the Sea) (Figure 2-69) depicts the way that the rain is beating down on the sea,
whereas the diagonal brushstrokes towards the left of the picture plane give the impression of the
howling wind. In this instance, the repetition and direction of brushstrokes guide the viewer’s eye
over the picture plane. In the artwork, Three children with dog, by Sofonisba Anguissola (Figure
2-70), rhythm is created by the placement of the children on the same level, as well as their
similarity in size. Rhythm is created by the repetition of the three figures, as well as the similar
patterns in the girls’ dresses.

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Figure 2-69: John Constable, Seascape Study with Rain Cloud (Rainstorm over the Sea) (1824 – 1828),
oil on paper (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Constable_-
_Seascape_Study_with_Rain_Cloud.jpg).

Figure 2-70: Sofonisba Anguissola, Three children with dog (ca 1570 – 1590), oil on panel
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sofonisba_Anguissola_001.jpg).

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Activity 2.28: Depicting movement

Identify the ways in which the artist depicts movement in this artwork:

Figure 2-71: Natalia Goncharova, The Cyclist (1913), oil on canvas

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Natalia_Goncharova,_1913,_The_Cyclist,_oil_on_canvas,_78_
x_105_cm,_The_Russian_Museum,_St.Petersburg.jpg).

f) Unity or harmony

Unity or harmony is achieved by combining elements to emphasise their relative similarity. Unity
means that the elements of the design of the artwork look like they belong together, or that there
is some visual connection between the different elements. It can be seen in the relationships
between the different objects that are depicted in the image, for instance they are somewhat
similar, both in terms of what they are, and in terms of their shape, linear elements, or repetition
of geometric forms. When an image is in harmony, it looks like the different elements of the
artwork belong together. In the image below, Edgar Degas’s Ballet Rehearsal on Stage (Figure
2-72) we can see the principle of unity and harmony in the way that the artist repeats the forms of
the ballet dancers, the similarity of the shape of their skirts, as well as the colour that is repeated
in their clothing. In addition, the curve of the stage is repeated in the curve of the placement of
the dancers.

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Figure 2-72: Edgar Degas, Ballet Rehearsal on Stage (1874), oil on canvas
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edgar_Degas_-_Ballet_Rehearsal_on_Stage_-
_Google_Art_Project.jpg).

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Activity 2.29: Different ways to create harmony

Study the image which is an example of aboriginal religious art (Figure 2-73). Identify the ways
that unity and harmony is achieved in this image.

Figure 2-73: Example of Aboriginal religious art, from St. Mungo Museum of Religious Life & Art,
Glasgow (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aboriginal_Religious_Art_(6854184762).jpg).

Now look at the painting by Pierneef (Figure 2-74). How did the artist use composition, form,
and colour to create harmony in this artwork?

Figure 2-74: Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef: Karibib, South West Africa (1929)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JH_Pierneef_-_Karibib,_South_West_Africa_1929.jpg).

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2.5 Methodologies of Art History

When you look at a work of art, you might wonder why it looks the way that it does, or who made
it, and why it was made. Often, we wonder what a work of art means. To get to the answers to
these questions, we need to analyse a work of art, using an art historical methodology.

In this section, we will discuss the main art history methods, namely formalism, iconography,
contextual approach, as well as a brief overview of semiotics and deconstruction. It is important
to note that these methods are not independent of each other and can overlap as can be seen in
the discussion of the artwork The Butcher Boys in the final learning unit.

The first method used in the study of art history was the biography: authors compiled histories of
artists. The biographical method entails the compilation and evaluation of biographical data, the
writings and statements of artists and other documentary evidence concerning their lives and
works. It informs us of artists' personalities and lives, but not necessarily of the nature of their
work, which is not simply a reflection or expression of their lives. The biographical approach is
especially common in the study of modern art (Kleinbauer 1989:68 – 69).

Over time, existing methods have been closely examined, revised, and supplemented with other
ways of studying the history of art to correct imbalances and to demystify art history. Methods
changed together with the prominence given to particular aspects of the artwork, be it its form or
its style, its content, or its context. As a result of the expansion of the study field in the 20th
century, art historians appropriated terms and methodologies from other humanistic disciplines
which originated in literary and social sciences. It is this great variety of approaches that
constitutes the essence of art history as an interdisciplinary enterprise.

The history of art history is not necessarily a story of progress: its methods did not steadily
become better. Also, older approaches were not abandoned because new methods were devised
– quite the opposite. As Hatt and Klonk (2006:4) state, "new approaches often depend on
aspects of earlier ones". Hence the question is not which method is better than another: the art
historian assimilates different techniques at different times. Moreover, most art historians do not
align themselves with only one method, but rather rely on a combination of methodologies
appropriate to the topic of investigation.

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 Activity 2.30: Introduction to art historical analysis

Read this article which explains different ways in which you can analyse an artwork. You can
view the document by clicking on this hyperlink:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/start-here-apah/intro-art-history-
apah/a/introduction-to-art-historical-analysis

Discussion about art often refers to two main aspects: content and form. Content refers to the
subject matter, the narrative (or story that the artist wants to tell), or information that the artist
wants to communicate to the viewer. Form is the purely visual aspects, and here we refer to
elements and principles of design. Therefore, content is what the artist wants to say, and form is
how they say it.

Activity 2.31: Content and form

Carefully study the artwork, The third of May, by Fransico de Goya (Figure 2-75) below:

Figure 2-75: Francisco de Goya, The third of May (1808)

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_thin
_black_margin.jpg).

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 Write a short essay of about two pages where you explain the form of the artwork, followed by
an explanation of the content or subject matter of the artwork.

When we look at form, we will look at things like medium, scale, contrast, composition, and so
on. Here, you look at what you see in the artwork.

When we speak of content, we refer to the story that the artist is telling us. The painting shows
the moment an innocent man is killed by a firing squad. In this instance, the artist (Goya) is
telling the viewer about the Spanish resistance to Napoleon’s army during the occupation of
1808 in the Peninsular War. The work comments on the horrors of the conflict as well as the
heroism.

Now watch this video by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://smarthistory.org/goya-third-of-may-1808/

While you watch the video, make notes of how the painting is described in terms of form and
content.

2.5.1 Formalism

The previous section explained the difference between form and content. Now, we are going to
investigate formalism as a method of interpreting art.

When we speak about formalism, the two main words you have to remember is form and style.
Formalism derives from form. As a method, it relies on formal qualities. Visual elements give an
artwork form. Therefore, formalism emphasises form over the content or meaning of an artwork,
which means that you focus on the way that the artwork is made, and its purely visual aspects,
rather than the content (meaning) and its relationship to the world.

a) Background to Formalism

Formalism was the first method of art history to be codified (Adams 2002:14). As a method in art
history, formalism featured prominently in modernist writings on art. English critic Roger Fry
(1866 – 1934) was one of the most significant formalist critics of his era. Briefly, Fry’s theory
emphasises looking at the artwork’s aesthetic biology (Adams 1996:16). This includes texture,
mass, line, colour, shape, and composition. Interconnected with these formalist principles is the
style of the artwork. Clive Bell (1881 – 1964) formulated the notion of significant form, which
refers to the idea that form itself can convey feeling.

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American critic Meyer Schapiro (1904 – 1996) defined style as “the constant elements, qualities,
and expression” inherent in a particular artist’s work or a select group of artists (Adams 1996:24).
In other words, style is that (those) prominent feature(s) within an artwork that can be
systemically traced and linked to other artworks by the same artist, within the same time frame or
throughout history.

These prominent features aid in organising artworks into movements and the art canon.
Furthermore, this system of analysis is based on visual analysis of an artwork’s formal qualities
rather than its creator’s intentions or its social function (Atkins 1993. Sv “Formal/Formalism”).
Formalist theory therefore advocates that the artwork is experienced as an autonomous text,
independent from society or cultural tags. This idea grew out of the nineteenth-century aesthetic
of “art for art’s sake” where artistic activity was typically seen as an end in itself (Adams
2002:14).

Therefore, formalism considers the formal qualities of an artwork as sufficient to analyse the work
and maintains that other considerations are unnecessary. This approach is particularly relevant
for artworks that have no representational content.

When you analyse an artwork using formalism, you will view the artwork independently from its
context, function, and content. A formalist analysis considers the formal elements of the artwork
and the aesthetic effect created by the arrangement of those elements and ignores all other
external aspects.

The point to remember in using this art methodology is that all deductions will be based mainly on
observation of the formal qualities of the work, without inferring much outside these observations.

b) Steps to follow when doing a formal analysis:

Being able to do a formal analysis of any visual text is an important skill to have when studying
art history or being in any visual-art-related field.

1. Find general information about the artwork. This can be on the label of the artwork, or in a
catalogue. General information includes things like the artist, title of the artwork, date,
medium, size, subject matter, and where it is exhibited.
2. Carefully study the artwork. Write the following down:
• What is being represented (who or what)?
• Who created the artwork?
• When was it made (date)?
• Where was it made and for whom was it made (provenance)?

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 • Where is the artwork now?
• What technique and medium did the artist use (what material did the artist use, i.e. oil on
canvas, bronze, mixed media, how big or small is it, how was it made)?
3. Describe the artwork (only a few sentences where you describe what the work looks like)
4. Analyse the form
• Discuss each of the art elements:
a. Form and shape
b. Line
c. Light and colour
d. Texture
e. Space
• Discuss the principles of design
a. Balance
b. Scale and proportion
c. Emphasis or focus
d. Contrast
e. Movement or rhythm
f. Unity and harmony
5. Opinions and conclusions
• Explain how and why the elements of art, and principles of design are used by the artist to
create meaning.
• Substantiate your findings with facts about the work.

Activity 2.32: Example of a formal analysis

In the video, How to do visual (formal) analysis in art history, art historians Dr Steven Zukcer
and Dr Beth Harris explain how to analyse an artwork, in this case Giovanni Bellini’s Madonna
of the Meadow (ca 1500). Watch the video by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/start-here-apah/intro-art-
history-apah/v/visual-analysis

As you watch, make notes of the different art elements discussed, as well as the keywords that
are highlighted. I want you to pay attention to the way that they discuss several elements in
relation to each other, and not each art element as a separate entity.

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Activity 2.33: Formalist analysis

Now that you know how to do a formal analysis, and have seen an example of a formal
analysis, I want you to do a formal analysis of Henri Rousseau’s A Carnival Evening (Figure
2-76).

Write an essay of approximately 1 500 words where you do a formal analysis of the painting.

Figure 2-76: Henri Rousseau, A Carnival Evening, oil on canvas (1886)

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Henri_Rousseau_-_A_Carnival_Evening.jpg).

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2.5.2 Iconography

In contrast with the formalistic approach, the iconographic method emphasises content or subject
matter over form (Adams 2002:15). The word iconography comes from two Greek words, eikon
(image) and graphe (writing). Therefore, iconography means that an image can tell a story. In the
most elementary sense, iconography engages with the symbolisms inherent in an artwork. To
accomplish an iconographic analysis, you must be familiar with the culture and the people that
produced the artwork.

a) Background to Iconography

Erwin Panofsky (1892-1968), a leading member of the Warburg Institute in Germany, was a
pioneer of this methodology. Panofsky categorised this methodology into three levels of meaning
(Atkins 1993:121). The three levels are pre-iconographic, iconographic, and iconological. Each
level builds on the previous level.

Firstly, the “pre-iconographic” level deals with the primary reading of the subject matter and aims
to identify clearly apparent motifs, expressions, and formal aspects. This level is a description of
the artwork, without considering meaning or cultural associations. You should also guard against
personal interpretations and bias.

The secondary or iconographic level engages with the “convention” or “precedent” of describing
that same image and attempts to assign themes or types to the forms or motifs. Iconography
attempts to locate pre-iconographic elements within stories or allegories that were favoured as
artistic themes. Accurate iconographic identification depends on a thorough acquaintance with
literary and oral sources that have bearing on the theme or type to be identified. However,
iconography (in a narrower sense) still does not attempt an explanation of forms but merely
elaborates on the pre-established identifications.

The last level, the tertiary or iconological, seeks to explain the “intrinsic” meaning of the subject
matter (Adams 1996:36-37). Iconology is defined by Ernst Gombrich (1909-2001), another member
of Warburg, as the reading of an image requiring “the reconstruction of an entire program, and
therefore encompasses more than a single text. It is contained within a context, which includes a
cultural as well as an artistic setting” (Adams 1996:37). Iconology therefore considers the personal,
technical, and cultural context of an artwork. Adams (2002:15) explains this with the example of a
statue in a Gothic cathedral: On top of the pre-iconographical and iconographical reading of the
statue, iconology will consider the choice and arrangements of subjects represented in the entire
cathedral and explore their interrelationship. Whereas the first two levels of pre-iconography and
iconography are more concerned with describing the subject matter of an artwork, iconology

93
attempts to also explain the preliminary description (Panofsky 1955:31). The preliminary
description is the pre-iconographic level or first step in the iconographic analysis. Fernie (1996:31)
describes this approach as an attempt to place the object studied into the culture that produced it.
It examines and analyses all aspects of the culture in question that conditioned the production of
the object to understand it as a synthesised whole.

Of all the levels of investigation, iconology is the most imprecise, the most prone to
misinterpretation and over-elaboration. The iconological level looks at the contextual significance
and the interpretation of subjects and meanings. It looks at the relationship of the artwork to the
social milieu in which it was created.

The artist may in fact be equally oblivious to the intrinsic meanings that may have been
programmed into her or his own work. Yet it is a helpful methodology exactly because iconology
assumes that members of a given society are in fact blind to certain conventional meanings that
may be intrinsic to their output. In explanation, to someone belonging to a certain social group —
used to the way things are organised and structured — intrinsic social meanings are often too
obvious, too visible to take any notice of. Iconology can help individuals in a society to see, with
new eyes and understanding, that which they have become accustomed to. It is obvious, then, that
the success of an iconographic analysis will depend on the thoroughness of the research done.

b) Steps to follow when doing an iconographic analysis:

1. Find general information about the artwork. This can be on the label of the artwork, or in a
catalogue.
2. Carefully study the artwork. Write the following down:
• What is being represented (who or what)?
• Who created the artwork?
• When was it made (date)?
• Where was it made and for whom was it made (provenance)?
• Where is the artwork now?
• What technique and medium did the artist use (what material did the artist use, i.e., oil on
canvas, bronze, mixed media, how big or small is it, how was it made)?
3. First level: Pre-iconographic description: describe the artwork (only a few sentences where
you describe what the work looks like, and what is being represented).
4. Second level: Iconographical analysis: this involves understanding the subject matter. Here,
you analyse the subject matter identified in the first level. You will look for symbols and icons
and explain their meaning with reference to the culture and time period of the artwork.

94
5. Third level: Iconological reading: an iconological reading would go further to analyse the
milieu in which the painting was created, considering the time in the artist’s life and the
historical place and time. This level would also be able to consider the influence the painting
had on the art world as a whole and can aid understanding of the work considerably.
6. Opinions and conclusions
• Substantiate your findings with facts about the work.

Activity 2.34: Understanding art with iconography

Here is a short video, Understanding Art with Iconography, Art Terms, LittleArtTalks, which
explains iconography. You can view the video by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rv2_UcSA8bY

In the following document, you will be introduced to how to do an iconographic reading. Here,
two artworks are discussed, namely Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and Pablo Picasso’s
Guernica. You can view the document by clicking on the hyperlink:

http://methods.sagepub.com/base/download/DatasetStudentGuide/art-iconology

Activity 2.35: More examples of iconography

To view more discussions of iconography, watch the videos listed below. You can view the
videos by clicking on the hyperlinks:

Explaining the Explosion of Iconography in Basquiat’s Pyro: https://youtu.be/2YakS8x8Qb8

Van Eyck’s The Arnolfini Portrait: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-

europe-and-colonial-americas/renaissance-art-europe-ap/v/van-eyck-portrait-of-giovanni-arnolfini-and-
his-wife-1434

A celebration of beauty and love: Botticelli's Birth of Venus:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-
americas/renaissance-art-europe-ap/v/botticelli-birth-of-venus

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 Activity 2.36: Iconography in music videos

Watch the music video, Lil Nas X – Montero (Call me by your name). You can view the video
by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6swmTBVI83k

Now read the article that explains the religious symbolism and iconography in the video. The
article can be found at this hyperlink:

https://time.com/5951024/lil-nas-x-montero-video-symbolism-explained/

As you can see, even though iconography is an old method, it still has relevance in contemporary
society.

2.5.3 Social history or contextual approach

Broadly speaking, social history is a methodology that takes the contextual approach of
reading an artwork. You might have noticed that the social historic method links up with
the iconological approach in this way. The social history method is more specifically
interested in the part economic and social conditions plays in shaping the artistic outputs
of a generation.

When following a contextual approach, you consider any of the following:

• The artist’s life (background, education, socioeconomic environment)

• Political milieu (for instance, apartheid, Black Lives Matter)
• Philosophical movements (for instance calls to decolonise universities)
• Major cultural expressions of the time
• Contemporary scientific and geographic knowledge (for instance climate change)
• Original setting and use of the work (for instance religious icons)

Art historians working within this method have been greatly influenced by Marxism. Karl
Marx (1818-1883) believed that art does not exist above or beyond societal influence and
thus rejected the idea of “art for art’s sake”. For him, art was made by the working class
(the proletariat) and owned by the property-owning class (the bourgeoisie), which meant
that there was an economy of art through which the artists were alienated from their work

96
(Adams 2002:15). The idea behind this method of reading art is that big social happenings
like wars or plagues will have an influence on the artists that live in that time, and that it is
helpful to engage with these in order to aid understanding.

Activity 2.37: Examples of contextual approaches

To view more discussions of the contextual approach in art, watch the videos listed below. You
can view the videos by clicking on the hyperlinks:

Art and context: Monet's Cliff Walk at Pourville and Malevich's White on White
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2aUFB9hQncQ

Edward Hopper, Nighthawks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j24uh8cZ3wA

Another approach within social history is feminism. Feminism is similar to Marxism in its
claim that “history is never neutral” (Hatt & Klonk 2006:145). The Marxist approach focuses
on the class system and the inequalities that arise from it, while the feminist approach is
mostly concerned with “sexual inequality, the oppression of women, and the ways in which
this has structured culture and its history” (Hatt & Klonk 2006:145). Two strategies in the
feminist approach include the consideration of how, throughout history, there has been
discrimination against women artists and, secondly, how women have been
misrepresented and objectified in artworks. Adams (1996:79) clarifies the latter: “feminists
argue that women have consistently been depicted in a passive or negative light, which is
emphasized by the selection of certain literary and iconographic themes”. A feminist
reading of art is inclined to sympathise with women, both as the producers and/or subjects
of art, but it also speaks out about inequality for other factions of society, for instance
oppression based on race or class.

You will learn about these concepts in detail in ARH2601 Ideology in the Arts

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Activity 2.38: Women in art (feminism)

Below are a few discussions of feminist art. You can view the videos by clicking on the
hyperlinks:

Carrie Mae Weems, Untitled (Woman Feeding Bird), from The Kitchen Table Series:
https://smarthistory.org/carrie-mae-weems-untitled-woman-feeding-bird-from-the-kitchen-table-
series/

Barbara Kruger – Consumerism, Power and the Everyday | Fresh Perspectives | Tate Collective:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bVxtKcDOHYc

Judy Chicago, The female aesthetic: https://www.sfmoma.org/watch/judy-chicago-female-

aesthetic/

Activity 2.39: Women in art

For an explanation of why it is important to focus on a feminist approach when considering art
history, read the essay Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? by Linda Nochlin,
written in 1971.

You can view the document by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://www.writing.upenn.edu/library/Nochlin-Linda_Why-Have-There-Been-No-Great-Women-
Artists.pdf

To understand why this is important, look at the poster by the Gorilla Girls. You can view the
image by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/guerrilla-girls-do-women-have-to-be-naked-to-get-into-the-met-
museum-p78793

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 2.5.4 Visual literacy and social history

In the previous sections, we learnt about art elements, how to describe images and interpret art;
but what are some of the other factors that influence how we interpret art? Our thoughts and
opinions are directed by our experiences and cultural influences; they are engrained in our
languages, in the way we think, and they appear normal to us (Berger 1972). However normal it
appears, this influence ‘naturalises’ codes of identity; this often means we develop stereotyped
ideas about people based on race, class, gender, and sexuality denying people’s individual traits
(Farber 2015). Representation within visual images has had a major influence on how we define
people of a different race, class, gender, or sexuality. In this learning unit, you will be introduced to
some of the ideologies that influence how we interpret art and the importance of visual literacy will
be discussed.

Art was and is being produced as part of everyday contemporary culture. Not only do artworks
reflect the notions, pre-occupations and assumptions of its own time (that is broadly the time of
its production or initial public display), but the ideas on art also reflect those very same notions,
pre-occupations and assumptions. Art is thus deeply embedded in a live culture, and that culture
continues throughout the existence of the artwork. Thus art, and the study of art, with all its
methods and approaches, are ideological.

Ideologies are a set of practices, ideas and ideals that are shaped and enforced within cultural
institutions such as the law, religion, media, art and schools. They present ideas on how society
ought to function and shape our ideas on accepted societal hierarchies, gender roles, appropriate
behaviour in specific contexts, and beliefs about people from certain geographical regions. When
you interpret an artwork, you will consider the culture and social history of the time of creation,
but you will also link it to your current understanding of the world.

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Activity 2.40: Interpreting an artwork using a social history methodology

Refer to Activity 2.6: where you did the formal analysis and interpretation of the mural. Here is
the image again, but I included the caption (artist, title, location, and date) of the artwork.

Figure 2-77: Diego Rivera, History of Mexico (left panel on stairway of National Palace of Mexico City)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:History_of_Mexico_mural_by_Diego_Rivera_(Mexico_City).jpg
).

Read the following article:

The History of Mexico: Diego Rivera’s murals at the National Palace, written by Megan Flattley.
You can find the article by clicking on the hyperlink: https://smarthistory.org/mexico-diego-rivera-
murals-national-palace/

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 In this article, you will learn about the social milieu of the time that the artwork was created, as
well as the ideological principles of the artist.

Take note of the way that Rivera draws on Marxist ideas in the way that he created the artwork.
Write your own social history analysis, based on the information you learnt from the Flattley
article. Write one to two pages in your learning journal. Now, compare what you wrote in Activity
2.6:. Write two paragraphs where you explain what you have learnt from this image by using
social history as a methodology.

2.5.5 Semiology

Semiotics investigates the way that meaning is created and how meaning is communicated.
Semiotics originated from the study of language, which looked at language as a linguistic system
but can be applied to any sign system. Semiotics can be defined as the study of signs (Rose
2001:69). Every image – whether an artwork, advertisement, poster, or illustration – is made up
of various signs, such as colour, the objects and subjects depicted, text, and the setting. A sign
consists of a signifier and the signified. The signifier is the things that give meanings, for instance
a word or an image and the signified is what is evoked in the mind, the mental concept. By
conducting a semiotic analysis in order to identify and investigate the various signs contained in
an image, we are able to give “detailed accounts of the exact ways the meanings of an image are
produced through that image” (Rose 2001:70). In this way, semiotics provides the field of visual
culture with an important tool for decoding the meanings produced by images.

Signs have different levels of meaning. The first level, denotative meaning, is the literal meaning
of the image. Here we refer to the function of signs to denote or label things. Signs are used to
describe the world and interpret things in the world. The feelings and associations that an image
evoke in the viewer make up the connotative meaning of the image. This is the second order of
signification. Connotation is culture-specific, arbitrary and subjective. Connotative meanings, as
socio-cultural meanings, include symbolic and indexical signs, stereotypes and myths.

A stereotype is an oversimplified view of a person, object or thing. Stereotyping is the action of

associating certain genders, races, and ages, for instance, with characteristics that do not reflect
reality. Myth is created when signs and connotations are brought together to shape a particular
message. Myth uses signs to communicate social and political messages about the world
(Bignell 2002:22).

Ideology is the third order of signification. Myths and stereotypes function to uphold ideologies.
The dominant ideology, or belief system, of a society seems natural and common-sense (Bignell

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2002:24). An ideology can be defined as a dominant worldview consisting of the normative
ideals, beliefs and values held by a group. Ideologies include but are not limited to patriarchy,
nationalism, consumerism, and capitalism.

Activity 2.41: Explaining semiotics

Watch this video, where semiotics is explained, by clicking on the hyperlink:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGYOHKCigAo&list=PL5P9k3ykmuk627XBVJa8NHj0w6-
Evujy9&index=1&t=8s

2.5.6 Deconstruction

Deconstruction is a form of post-structuralism as a critique on structuralism. Jacques Derrida

(1930 – 2004) criticises structuralism for depending on a circular argument in order to establish
the meaning of the signifier (see the explanation of signs in the section above). He argues that
meaning is like a web of presences and absences, none of which can be absolutely defined:
every act of reading produces a new meaning. While structuralists believe that there are
meanings for the critic to decipher (those in the structure behind the content), deconstructionists
see the search for meaning as endless and the content as something purely ambiguous.
Similarly with signs: for a sign to be a sign it must be repeatable, but in being so, it will also be
infinitely variable in meaning, because meaning changes with context and no two contexts are
the same.

Derrida challenges structure and therefore structuralism because structure presumes hierarchy.
As a result, to "deconstruct" has come to mean to analyse in an aggressively critical way (Fernie
1996:353). You will not be required to apply deconstruction to an artwork for the purposes of this
module, but you need to know the basic concept. For a further explanation of deconstruction,
watch this fun video by Tim Nance by clicking on the hyperlink:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cku46UJRlNo

Activity 2.42: The language of the visual

Now that you have completed the learning unit, make a list of terms that you can equate to the
alphabet of seeing, the vocabulary of seeing, and the grammar of seeing. Post your list on the
Discussion forum and compare your findings with those of other students.

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2.6 Conclusion

In this learning unit, I explained the origins of art history, and the reasons why we study art
history and why visual literacy is important. This was followed by an explanation of the basic
ideas that you need to understand when studying this discipline. I defined style, chronology, time
and place of origin, medium, subject matter, and stylistic terminology. In knowing these terms,
you will be able to understand how to talk about art. Art has its own language, and here we
looked at the different elements of art that make up an artwork, and the principles of design,
which explain how the artist arranges the elements of art when creating an artwork. In the last
section, I explained the methodologies that you must understand to be able to analyse any
artwork. You will continue to use these methodologies in your art history studies.

The next learning unit introduces you to the art world and to interacting with the art world. This is
followed by explanations of how to interpret artworks, specifically contemporary art and finally
how to critique an artwork.

Bibliography

Adams, LS. 1996. The methodologies of art: An introduction. New York: HarperCollins.

Adams, LS. 2002. Art across the ages. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Atkins, R. 1994. Artspoke. Sv “Form/ Formalism”; Sv “Iconography”. New York: Abbeville Press.

Berger, J. 1972. Ways of seeing. London: Penguin.

Farber, A. 2015. How museums shape meaning. Smarthistory. Available at:

https://smarthistory.org/how-museums-shape-meaning

Fernie, E. 1995. Art history and its methodologies: A critical anthology. London: Phaidon.

Hatt, M & Klonk, C. 2006. Art History: A critical introduction to its methods. Manchester and New
York: Manchester University Press.

Kleinbauer, WE. 1989. Modern perspectives in Western art history: An anthology of twentieth-
century writings on the visual arts. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Schmelenbach, W. 2000. Henri Rousseau Dream of the Jungle. Munich/London/New York:

Prestel.

Stabenow, C. 1994. Henri Rousseau 1844 – 1910. Köln: Taschen.

Sturken, M. 2018. Practises of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. New York: Oxford
University Press.

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LESSON 3: ART CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION

Compiled by Catherine Terblanche, with contributions by Estelle McDowall

3.1 Introduction

In this learning unit you will be introduced to the processes and thinking around art interpretation
and art criticism. Here, you will be able to apply the skills you learnt in the previous learning unit
and write using the guidelines given in the first learning unit. Artworks always have something to
‘say’. In this unit we will introduce you to the principles of art interpretation and art criticism by
way of selected readings, virtual tours, and discussions of relevant examples.

In the first section, we look at what constitutes the artworld, how it is structured, how it functions
and how to interact with it. We look at how to engage with the artworld using virtual tours of a
variety of art institutions such as galleries and museums. This section has several activities
listed, and it is important that you work through all the activities in order to develop a good
understanding of the terminology and concepts associated with both art interpretation and art
criticism. Due to the nature of this study guide, it is nearly impossible to cover all the topics in any
depth, and therefore I have also listed several additional resources which should be read
alongside this study guide. Many of the terms and concepts are dealt with in greater detail in the
additional resources.

In the second section, we look at specific artworks with the focus on how to interpret the images,
as well as how to apply some of the theory covered in the previous unit. In the last section, we
consider how to assimilate the knowledge and present it in a logical, well researched manner.

Learning outcomes

After working through this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Identify and describe the relevant role-players in the art world

• Identify and describe the different ways of interacting with art
• Identify and explain the correct terminology associated with art interpretation and art criticism
• Describe and explain the processes and theory associated with art interpretation and
criticism
• Apply the methods of art interpretation to selected examples of artworks and provide
relevant interpretations
• Interpret artworks by using relevant texts

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Key concepts

• Art world
• Art object
• Museums, galleries, art fairs, biennales
• Public art
• Art interpretation
• Art criticism

3.2 Introduction to the Artworld (Art World)

To start this learning unit, we look at the various entities that make up the artworld, their roles
and how to engage with them. At its most basic level, the artworld consists of three aspects,
namely the art object, the producers of art and the art consumers. Easy? Maybe not. The one
thing you will notice throughout this unit, is that trying to ‘define’, ‘understand’, and ‘interpret’ any
of these concepts is rather tricky, as they are all multi-layered and rather fluid. This is often
daunting for the inexperienced student who relies on very specific definitions and facts. So, this is
the first skill you need to cultivate – to understand and interpret art, you need to be open to all the
aspects, and how they collectively influence the understanding of an image or concept. You will
also note that I still refer to ‘definitions’ on occasion, and this is because the act of trying to define
something helps us to understand what it is about.

To illustrate this, let’s look at the three aspects mentioned in the beginning:

The art object: This is essentially the product produced. The artworld cannot exist without the ‘art
object’, or can it? What is the art object anyway? Traditionally, it was rather easy to identify the
art object as it was either a painting, a sculpture, or a drawing, but as you will see in this unit, this
‘definition’ no longer holds true.

Inherent in the words ‘art object’, is the idea that it needs to be something tangible, something
that can be bought or sold. But what happens when the art object doesn’t exist? For instance, in
a performative artwork there is no tangible object, so how do we define art in this instance? Our
understanding of the ‘art object’ is also inextricably linked to the how we define art. As you can
see, the issue of trying to define one of the core elements of art, is fraught with contradictions
and inconsistencies. The following resource will provide you with further insight into this debate.

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 Activity 3.1: Additional reading

Read the following article to get a deeper understanding of what we mean by the term ‘art object’.

Levinson, J. 2003. Art, work of. Grove Art Online. Available at https://0-www-oxfordartonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-
7000004287 .

Another way to understand art, is to see it as a way of communication instead of a commodifiable

object. This approach shifts the focus from the art object to the message or meaning of the
artwork. The article listed in activity 3.2 will provide you with further insight into the debates
around aesthetics.

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with problems of value arising from the existence
of works of art as physical entities. It is concerned with the processes and abilities involved in the
creation, use and enjoyment of art, and with the response of the beholder to the qualities inherent
in works of art. The aesthetician seeks to establish standards of evaluation, categories of thought
and systematic definitions in order to express particular points of view about the arts. The
aesthetician attempts to learn about the nature of art, to define such terms as ‘beauty’, ‘aesthetic
value’, ‘truth’ and ‘significance’, and to evolve a theory of art (Kleinbauer 1989:2–3).

Activity 3.2: Additional reading

This article will provide you with further insight into the debates around aesthetics.

Walton, K, Nussbaum, M, Marenbon, J, Quiviger, F & Robinson, J. 2003. Aesthetics. Grove Art
Online. Available at https://0-www-oxfordartonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-
7000000568 .

Then we have the art producer who generally creates the art object. We would commonly refer to
this person or persons as ‘the artist’. However, once again trying to pin down a definition or
explanation of who or what the artist is, becomes rather murky. In modern and contemporary art,
the artist has become synonymous with fame and success. The artist’s name has become a kind
of shorthand for their style, their subject matters, even the value of their works. But artists existed
thousands of years ago, creating images on cave walls, many of these lost to us, as is the
identities of the artists. The fact that their names and identities are not known to us, does not
diminish their artistic achievements. The myth that artists work alone, is another contested

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concept. For centuries, artists have worked collectively in workshops, under the guidance of
guilds. Even today, many artists employ other artists to assist them with specific tasks.

Categories of fine art and craft have also been used to try and outline the role of the artist, but as
you would have noticed from the earlier readings, the whole notion of art is fraught with
problems, and trying to use this as a benchmark is also problematic.

Another aspect to think about is how artists function in the artworld. While they are generally
responsible for creating the works, there is a whole support system or network which ultimately
determines whether a work of art is available to viewers, and how it is perceived and accepted.
(DeWitte, Larmann & Shields 2015:30-34)

Activity 3.3: Definitions

Memorise the following terms:

Patron: A patron of the arts is a person who supports artists either by commissioning or
buying works already created.

Guilds: Associations of artists, craftsmen, or tradesmen.

Academies: Institutions which specialise in training artists in both theory of art and
practical techniques.

Lastly, we consider the art consumer: How do we consume art? On the one hand, we always
consume art as an individual activity, meaning that when we look at an artwork, we engage with it
on a personal level.

Conversely, the consumption of art is mediated by a variety of institutions, each with their own
agenda. These institutions would include art galleries, museums, corporate collections,
educational institutions such as art schools and universities, and institutions responsible for
buying and selling art such as auction houses.

Activity 3.4: Self-assessment

In your learning journal, start by mind mapping the relationship between the art object, the
art producers and the art consumers. Try and see if there is a hierarchy at play, in other

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 words, who or what is the most important role-player, and how do the rest of the artworld
relate to this aspect.

Write down short descriptions for each entity, including core roles for each.

Feedback: In this exercise you should have noticed that the hierarchy is not that obvious,
and that roles are fluid. One person may fulfil several roles at the same time, such as
being the artist, the curator, maybe even the gallerist, further complicating the hierarchy.

Activity 3.5: Definitions

Memorise the following terms:

Art object: Artwork or object created with aesthetic value as primary function.

Installations: Three-dimensional art displays consisting of several individual elements,

forming a cohesive narrative. May or may not be site-specific. Often has an interactive
element which requires viewer participation.

Conceptual art: Art in which the idea or concept is more important than the object.
Concept art is characterised by a fundamental critical attitude towards societal structures,
methodologies, and rational thinking in particular. It focuses on the idea or concept
underlying the artwork as the guiding principle regarding choice of materials and images.

Performance art: This term is extraordinarily open-ended. Since the late 1970s, it has
emerged as the most popular name for art activities that are presented before a live
audience and that encompass elements of music, dance, poetry, theatre, and video.

3.3 Interacting with the artworld

In this section we explore different ways of engaging with art in both the institutional and public
spheres. In the previous section, we discussed the various types of art institutions which mediate
our consumption of art. Here we will focus specifically on how to engage with two of these types
of institutions, namely galleries and museums. Museums focus primarily on the preservation of
cultural objects. However, in recent years, while museums are more focused on research and
education, they have also become important sites of social interaction where people meet as a

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leisure activity. As art is not restricted to the gallery or museum space either, we will investigate
the position of public art in relation to the consumption of art as well.

Figure 3-1: The Zhengzhou Art Museum, China

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zhengzhou_Art_Museum.jpg).

Activity 3.6: Additional reading

To understand the role of museums, as well as how museums have evolved over time,
please read the following resources:

Khan Academy: Tools for understanding museums, available at:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/approaches-to-art-history/tools-for-understanding-
museums

In contrast with museums which normally act as custodians for specific (mostly historically
important) objects, commercial galleries act as primary agents for selling art produced by artists
to collectors and art lovers. In South Africa, examples of commercial art galleries are David Krut,
Everard Read and Goodman. Art auction houses, for instance Sotheby’s, normally act as
intermediaries for selling art already owned by someone to third parties via auction. As art has
become a sought-after high-end commodity, and for some a financial investment which could
produce high returns, this section of the art industry focuses primarily on the resale of art.
Auctions are held at regular intervals during the year, with the auction house presenting

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consigned artworks in a public forum for sale to the highest bidder. The achievement of a record
price for a specific artist’s work or a rare example often gathers much media attention.

Figure 3-2: Sotheby's art auction of the work Retrospective Once, by Allan Banford
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Retrospective_One_by_Allan_Banford_Sotheby%27s_Auction_2
016.jpg).

Activity 3.7: Additional reading

To ensure that you have a good understanding of the art market, please read the following
resource:

Tattersall, B & Degen, N. 2015, February 16. Art market. Grove Art Online. Available at
https://0-www-oxfordartonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-
e-7000004430

The appearance of biennales and art fairs have also influenced the way in which we consume
art. In many countries, art biennales and fairs have become massive tourist attractions, carefully
positioned to attract tourism and showcase cultural heritage. Art fairs normally focus on
commercial aspects, with several galleries banding together to promote and sell their artists’
works. An example of this is the Joburg Art Fair. Art biennales do not necessarily sell the artist’s
work, but they do provide opportunity for large-scale exhibitions which showcase works by
specific artists curated along certain predetermined themes. Individual countries may occupy

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pavilions, which showcase the specific country’s artistic heritage. The most well-known are held
in Venice, Italy every second year, and Documenta in Kassel, Germany every five years.

Figure 3-3: View of the Joburg Art Fair held at the Sandton Convention Centre
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg-Art-Fair-Goodman.jpg).

Figure 3-4: Art installation at the Venice Biennale, 2017

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biennale,_Venice.jpg).

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Figure 3-5: Martha Minujín, Parthenon of Books (2019), installation at the Documenta 14, Kassel,
Germany
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Documenta_14_Der_Parthenon_der_B%C3%BCcher._Zentrale_
Hauptattraktion_09.jpg).

Activity 3.8: Additional reading

For further information on the differences between biennales and art fairs, please read the
following resource:

Wu, C. 2010. Biennials and art fairs. Grove Art Online. Available at https://0-www-
oxfordartonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-
9781884446054-e-7002086262.

We have discussed the various institutions through which art is most commonly consumed. But
how do we engage with these institutions?

Visiting museums and galleries could be daunting, and most museums or galleries are situated in
larger metropolitan areas, providing challenges for anyone not living in these areas. However,
with today’s technology, a visit to a museum, no matter where it is situated in the world, is only a
click away. This section will deal with how to engage with a museum or gallery, and we will do
this using virtual tours of museums and galleries around the world.

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I have listed two websites with links to various museums and galleries for you to choose from, but
keep in mind that due to the nature of digital websites, some of the links may not always be
available. Please feel free to search for alternative websites if this is the case.

Google Arts and Culture | Culture available at https://artsandculture.google.com/partner contains

links to most of the world’s major art museums. Please note that not all the museums have
virtual tours available, in which case you would have to choose a different museum for this
exercise. Museums are listed alphabetically.

Joy of Museums | Virtual Tours available at https://joyofmuseums.com/ contains links to hundreds

of museums and galleries, as well as their virtual tours. Museums are listed according to
countries.

Please remember that the museum you choose must focus on art! Many of these composite
lists include museums not necessarily focused on art.

Choose a gallery or museum that appeals to you, click on their virtual tours and start exploring
the site. Keep your learning journal handy for any observations. These observations could
include any of the following:

• Exterior – building size, architectural style, accessibility, signage

• Entrances – atmosphere, security, reception desks, signage
• Floor plans – rooms/sub galleries, flow from one room to the next, doorways, staircases
• Artworks – layout, number of works, installation views
• Information – labels, information posters, access to digital material
• Any other aspects which capture your attention

For these exercises it is important that you get into the habit of writing out your observations in
full sentences, paragraph style. Do not just copy and paste the information from the websites
(Remember, this is plagiarism!). Writing about art is a skill that needs to be developed, and
starting off with short pieces, you will soon have the confidence to write longer, more complex
essays.

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Activity 3.9: Self-assessment

Start your ‘walking tour’ of the museum or gallery, starting at the entrance and going from
one room to the next. Many virtual tours allow 360°degree view of various rooms. Explore
as much as you can.

Write down your first impressions of the museum or gallery. What does the entrance look
like? Are there floor plans available to help you navigate the collection? Consider the size,
layout, the number of works on display.

Is this a private or public (government) funded institution? How does this influence the
type of works being exhibited?

Is the institution dedicated to one artist, a specific group of artists, or does it display works
by a variety of artists on a rotational basis?

What exhibition is currently on display? Is it a permanent or temporary exhibition?

Is there an overarching theme for the collection or exhibition? If so, what is it? What kind
of works are on display? Who is the artist (or artists) represented in the specific
exhibition?

How are the works displayed? Are the spaces crammed with artworks or are the artworks
given ample space?

Activity 3.10: Self-assessment

Write your own overview for the museum, giving a short introduction to the purpose of the
museum, its origins, and type of exhibitions on display.

Activity 3.11: Self-assessment

Make a list of five artworks on display. Refer to Tutorial Letter 301/ARHALLY for the
correct bibliographic format normally used to identify artworks in the List of Illustrations for

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 all assignments. Use this format for your list. Ensure that you keep this information handy,
as you will be using one of these artworks in activity 3.13 and onwards.

Remember! Whenever referring to an artwork in any academic essay, you need to follow
the prescribed method for referencing the artwork. Ensure that you are familiar with this
and keep Tutorial Letter 301 handy whenever you write.

Activity 3.12: Self-assessment

Write a short introduction to the exhibition you are researching. Remember to include the
“Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?”

You may want to look at more than one museum or gallery in order to gain a greater
understanding of how different institutions compile their exhibitions and present them to the
viewer. After this exercise, you should feel more comfortable with exploring galleries and
museums, and we encourage you to visit these personally if the opportunity arises. There is no
substitute for experiencing art first-hand.

3.3.1 Engaging with Public Art

So far, we have considered how to engage with art within the gallery or museum space.
However, we are more likely to encounter art in our daily movement through public spaces,
malls, shopping centres, parks, and recreational spaces we visit. Even the highways and
suburban walls have become sites where we encounter art. learning unit 2 discusses several
examples of public art.

The question now arises, how do we engage with public art, and does it differ from the way we
engage with art displayed in an institution? Yes, and no. Public art could firstly be produced for
mere aesthetic reasons, such as much of the public art found in malls and shopping centres. In
these cases, we may need only consider the formal aspects of the works using the points in the
Basics of Art History in learning unit 2 (section 2.3). Public art on the other hand could also be a
powerful statement about ideology and power, often political. In these cases, we need to
consider how the artwork furthers a specific ideological point of view. At this point it is advised
that you reread section 2.5.3 Social History in learning unit 2, including the sections relating to
Marxism and Feminism to help your understanding of ideology and art.

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According to Cartiere and Willis (2008), public art should adhere to at least one of the following
criteria:

1. be in a place accessible or visible to the public: in public

2. concerned with or affecting the community or individuals: public interest
3. maintained for or used by the community or individuals: public place
4. paid for by the public: publicly funded (Cartiere & Willis (eds) 2008:15)

Figure 3-6: Albert Luthuli, Desmond Tutu, FW de Klerk and Nelson Mandela on Nobel Square, V&A
Waterfront, Cape Town, South Africa (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nobel_Square.jpeg).

When looking at the sculptures of Albert Luthuli, Desmond Tutu, FW de Klerk, and Nelson
Mandela on Nobel Square, situated at the V&A Waterfront in Cape Town, you can see that it
complies to the four criteria set out above.

From these criteria one can already start to see where the controversies surrounding public art
have their roots. Art in public spaces has recently become a site of art activism, often as a result
of the ideology represented by the work, as can be seen in the #RhodesMustFall campaign
(Schmahmann 2016). In these cases, the public art in question no longer reflects the values and
interests of the public and become sites of contention.

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For the purposes of this learning unit, the issue is how do we interpret and understand public
artworks? While we can use the guidelines and principles discussed in this study guide, the
viewer needs to keep in mind that any interpretation of public artworks is necessarily
accompanied by a questioning of purpose, context and ideology. Other important issues to
consider include the source of funding for the project, the transparency with which commissions
are done, and the significance of the installation site.

Activity 3.13: Self-assessment

Ensure that you have a good understanding of the following terms relating to public art:

Site-specific art: This type of installation is created for a specific space (indoor or outdoor)
and consists of a variety of art objects in a ‘conversation’ with the environment in which it
is placed. The display environment is crucial in terms of understanding the artwork and
needs to be considered.

Environmental art: Also known as Earth Art. This movement which started in the 1960s,
focused on ecological issues, often incorporating natural materials, or placed in natural
environments, or commenting on environmental matters.

Community-based art: These are community-based projects which are characterised by

collaborations between professional artists and communities, informed by interaction and
dialogue with the community in question.

To recapture: thus far we have discussed how we consume art in general, how we interact with
art displayed in various types of art institutions, as well as in public spaces. We now move on to
how we engage, understand, and interpret individual artworks.

For the rest of this section, as an illustrative example I will refer to the work The Butcher Boys
(1985/86) by Jane Alexander. I will discuss a few aspects of the artwork to illustrate how to
approach the interpretation of any artwork. It is important to remember though that these
interpretations are not exhaustive by any means, and the extent to which you engage with these
will determine your understanding of any artwork. To test your understanding, you will be
required to formulate an interpretation of your choice of artwork from the virtual museum or
gallery you visited in Activity 3.9:.

In preparation for this section, please collect several images of The Butcher Boys (1985/86) and
read the following:

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 ▪ Self-assessment

Please read the following resource as an introduction to the artwork The Butcher Boys
(1985/86) by Jane Alexander:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/global-culture/concepts-in-art-1980-to-now/identity-
art/a/jane-alexander-butcher-boys?modal=1

Here are a few of my own images of Jane Alexander’s The Butcher Boys:

Figure 3-7: Jane Alexander, The Butcher Boys (1985/6), installation view from the front, (Photograph by
Catherine Terblanche).

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Figure 3-8: Jane Alexander, The Butcher Boys (1985/6), installation view from the front, (Photograph by
Catherine Terblanche).

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Figure 3-9: Jane Alexander, The Butcher Boys (1985/6), installation view from the back, (Photograph by
Catherine Terblanche).

Figure 3-10: Jane Alexander, The Butcher Boys (1985/6), detail (Photograph by Catherine Terblanche).

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3.4 Interpreting artworks

In the previous section, we toured a virtual gallery or museum, looking at the purpose of the
institution, the layout, the exhibitions on display and the artists represented. In this section we
look at how to interpret individual works, starting with how to look at the artwork. It is also
recommended that at this stage, you reread learning unit 2, section 2.3 Basics of Art History to
ensure that you have a clear understanding of the terminology and concepts used. It is important
that you incorporate what you learnt in the previous unit into the activities listed for this section.

3.4.1 What am I looking at?

The act of interpreting art starts with visual observation. Obvious as it may seem, we need to look
at the artwork. To help you with this process, you could start your investigation by posing the
question “What am I looking at?” Always try to answer this question as fully as possible. Include
the type of artwork, the media and the materials used, the size, down to smaller details such as
objects illustrated, colours, textures, etc. If you are uncertain about any of the terms, please read
section 2.3 Basics of Art History in learning unit 2 again.

If we look at our example The Butcher Boys (1985/86), a possible description of the work could
be as follows:

“I am looking at a sculpture consisting of three life-sized figures, crafted from plaster and oil
paints, sitting on a bench. The figures are naked, except for what appears to be modified
protective gear such as those worn by cricket players, covering their genitals. They are all looking
in different directions with no physical contact between the figures. Their skin colour appears to
be a greyish blue. They all have a long vertical scar running from their throats to their middles.
The scars look deep and old....”

This is just the start of a description which can be expanded on greatly to include aspects of each
figure’s head, posture, the similarities and differences between them, the bench they are seated
on, and finally the environment in which they are displayed. At this stage you may want to reread
section 2.5.2 Iconography in learning unit 2 again.

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Activity 3.14: Self-assessment

This activity builds on the research you did in activities 3.9 to 3.12, so keep your notes
handy. Choose one of the artworks you identified in activity 3.11 for the rest of the self-
assessments. Find several images of the work, including close-up images of details, front,
back, and side views for sculptures and installations, as well as the display environment.

Look at the images of the artwork you are researching. Write your own description of what
you observe in the work. Start your description with the following words:

“I am looking at a ……”

Remember to include as many details as possible.

Feedback: As you have begun to formulate the description of the work, you should have
started to notice that you thought about what these individual aspects mean, and how they
would contribute to the meaning of the work.

3.4.2 Aboutness

This is a concept originally proposed by Arthur Danto (Barrett 1994) which in essence means that
any “artwork is about something”. Thus, the primary goal of interpretation is to establish what the
artwork is ‘about’. How do we find this out? There are several ways to go about this. By first
asking the question “What am I looking at?”, you have probably identified several important
aspects already. The more comprehensive your initial observations, the more inclusive your
understanding of the work will be. However, the artwork itself holds many clues and all factors
should be considered. These could include aspects relating to the physical data of the work such
as the relative size, the materials and media used, the display arrangement, and so forth. At this
stage you should already be making connections between the terms and concepts discussed in
learning unit 2 and your understanding of the artwork. If not, please reread section 2.5.2
Iconology and section 2.5.4 Semiology.

Again, in our example, The Butcher Boys (1986/86), the three figures are life size, sitting on a
bench. What would this imply? Using life-sized figures relates these sculptures to our own
physical nature, and by implication, our own reality. Think for a moment how the size of a work
could relate to its meaning.

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Display arrangements can vary, and depending on the context, this may also influence the
understanding of the work. For instance, The Butcher Boys (1985/86) initially formed part of
Alexander’s Master’s exhibition for the University of Witwatersrand. The artwork currently forms
part of the permanent collection of the Iziko South African National Gallery in Cape Town. In both
cases the display arrangement would reflect the role the artwork fulfilled in each context. In the
Master’s exhibition the work formed part of a larger narrative, which included other works relating
to the artist’s concept. At Iziko, the work has been taken out of its original context and is placed in
a narrative that speaks to the artistic and political history of our country.

Dates are also important for a variety of reasons. Firstly, it puts the work in a very specific
historical and cultural setting. Knowledge of the particular time frame, its significant events,
prevailing social and ideological attitudes, even the technology available to artists, could provide
a deeper understanding of the artwork, and conversely the artwork may provide us with insights
into the political, social, and cultural mindsets of a specific period. In our example, The Butcher
Boys (1985/86), the dates place the work within the framework of apartheid South Africa. Section
2.5.3 Social History in learning unit 2 provides you with more information on how the social
history context of the work affects our understanding of it.

Secondly, a date will provide us with information regarding available materials and methods
generally used by artists at the time. This is important when it comes to establishing authenticity
of artworks. Authenticity implies that the object is what it claims to be, in other words that the
assertions relating to the identity of the artist, the date of production, materials used, etc. are
validated as true. For instance, if we know that a certain type of paint pigment was only available
after a specific date, its presence in an ‘older’ painting could indicate that the work is possibly a
fake. Dating is also an important factor when it comes to judging the relative monetary value of
an artwork, generally, the older a work, the more valuable it could possibly be.

3.4.3 Understanding titles

Titles can be a handy way to determine the aboutness of an artwork, but it can also be a sticking
point. Titles are often a way of distinguishing various works by a specific artist, but often works
may be left untitled. In some cases, artworks were not titled by the original artist, such as in the
case of ancient arts, and titles may have been allocated retrospectively to the works to help
identity the work in a contemporary setting, for example ancient religious or ceremonial masks
now displayed in museums.

In the case where artists have allocated titles to a specific work, one must assume that this is
done with some purpose, and that the viewer needs to engage with the title. Titles could also be

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open-ended, adding extra layers of meaning to the artwork, and so force the viewer to think of
different interpretations.

Activity 3.15: Additional Reading

The following additional resource is an overview of the use of titles, which you may want to
explore further.

Chattopadhyay, C, Stanley-Baker, J & Self, J. 2003. Titles. Grove Art Online. Available at:
https://0-www-oxfordartonline-
com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-
7000085280 .

As a practical example, in our illustrative work The Butcher Boys (1985/86), the title consists of
three words. Let’s look at them separately first. The word “the” is a definite article which indicates
a very specific group of people. “Butcher” could firstly refer to the profession (noun), it could refer
to the act of cutting up the meat of a dead animal (verb), but it could also be a surname.
Synonyms for “butcher” as a noun include “destroyer”, “killer”, “murderer”, and as a verb
“assassinate”, “exterminate”, “massacre”. So, from this point of view, one would assume that the
artwork is essentially about the act of killing. Note that the title does not use the word
“butchered”, which would have implied that the “boys” in question were the ones being killed.
This of course raises the question why the figures are mutilated if they are not the ones being
“butchered”. The word “boys” refer to firstly, a specific gender (male and not female), it also
refers to young males (not adults). So, one interpretation would be that this work is about the
young males assigned to be killers, for instance in the army.

Can you think of any other interpretations of the words in the title?

Activity 3.16: Self-assessment

Think about the title of the artwork you are researching and write out the various
interpretations you can think of, based on the words used. Feel free to use a variety of
dictionaries, including dictionaries of symbolism to research the words.

Feedback: You should have noticed that there are several ways to understand the titles
based on linguistics.

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3.4.4 Artist’s biography and artist’s statement

The artist’s biography tells us something about who the artist is (or was) as a person. This
normally includes information regarding their date of birth, education and art-related career. In
some cases, knowledge of the artist’s background can help with understanding the artwork such
as in the case of Zanele Muholi, the black lesbian photographer and activist whose work focuses
largely on the plight of the black lesbian community in South Africa (Van Der Vlies 2012). In other
cases, the artist’s biography might add very little. What is important, is to keep in mind that when
writing about art, the focus should remain on the work itself, and delving into the artist’s
biography should always be relevant. At all costs, avoid speculating about the artist’s
psychological frame of mind, engaging with gossip, and including unsubstantiated statements.

We can also read the artist’s statement about the work. Here the artist will explain to us in their
own words how they understood the work at the time of creation. Therefore, it is always important
to read the artist’s statement if it is available. However, the artist’s interpretation (or intention) is
not necessarily the final interpretation, and therefore it is important to consider other factors.
Once the work of art has left the artist’s studio, the artist no longer has control over the way the
work is understood. Each art critic writing about a specific work, will propose a different
interpretation of the same work. Each time a work is displayed in a different context, the meaning
will differ. The artwork may even have a ‘life’ of its own and could include incidents of vandalism,
theft, cinematic interpretations, and so forth.

Activity 3.17: Additional Reading

Read more about artist intention in this article:

Summers, D. 2003. Intention. Grove Art Online. Available at https://0-www-oxfordartonline-

com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-
7000041403 .

Activity 3.18: Self-assessment

Write a short biography for the artist whose work you are researching. Remember to
include references.

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 Find the artist’s statement for the work you are researching. Summarise this and
remember to include references. If the artist’s statement is not available, provide reasons
for this absence.

3.4.5 Historical context/background

First, it is important to note that not all artworks made at a specific time will necessarily deal with
the political or social issues of the day. Just because a work was created during apartheid, it
does not necessarily mean that it is “about” apartheid. However, one should always keep the
historical context in mind as it could help to understand the circumstances in which a work was
produced. This could include technology available to the artist, the social norms, religious dogma,
economic factors, political ideology including laws and regulations.

For instance, in our example, The Butcher Boys the work was created in 1985/86, which was the
height of apartheid in South Africa. One cannot fully understand this work if the political context is
not considered.

Activity 3.19: Additional reading

Read this article to get a deeper understanding of the term ideology.

Gardner, S. 2003. Ideology. Grove Art Online. Available at https://0-www-oxfordartonline-

com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-
9781884446054-e-7000039833.

3.4.6 Symbolism and metaphors

Artists often make use of symbolism and metaphors to enhance the meaning of their work. The
use of symbolism and metaphors is covered in greater depth in section 2.5.5 Semiology in
learning unit 2. Please reread this section before continuing.

A symbol is a mark, sign, word or object that represents something else, often an abstract
concept, for instance a heart shape is universally accepted as meaning “love”. Exactly what kind
of “love” is represented, is not necessarily clear, and one can interpret the symbol in a variety of
ways. A metaphor on the other hand, is a figure of speech which equates one idea with another,
for instance calling someone a “pig”. The person is not literally a pig, but the implication is that
their behaviour is that of a pig. New metaphors are constantly being generated, and often reflect
the historical context in which they occur.

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Activity 3.20: Additional reading

Read this article to get a deeper understanding of the term symbol.

Wirth, J. 2019. Symbol. Grove Art Online. Available at https://0-www-oxfordartonline-

com.oasis.unisa.ac.za/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-
9781884446054-e-7000082755.

In our illustrative example, The Butcher Boys (1985/86), there are several elements which are
heavily endowed with symbolism. Let’s look at one of these aspects, the inclusion of horns on the
heads of the three figures. It is also important to note the condition of the horns in the artwork. A
quick search of the symbolism attached to “horns” will provide us with several interpretations.
Horns firstly represent the animal kingdom, which could be a reference to the human/animal
binary implying the superiority of humans versus the baseness of animals. Horns are often
associated with power. The larger the horns, the more powerful the animal. Their horns are also
often used as weapons, to protect the animal, but also to injure or kill another. Trophy hunters
would often keep the horns of the hunted animal as a “souvenir”, mounted and displayed on their
walls. On another level, “horns” could refer to the spiritual realm, most commonly associated with
“evil”, “the devil” or Satan. In mythology, human-animal forms and horned deities are common.
Even in popular contemporary myth, unicorns have very specific horns. Horns could also be
associated with prosperity. Cornucopias are traditionally symbols of wealth and abundance. In
African cultures, wealth is often related to the possession of animals such as cattle. So, these are
just a few interpretations associated with the aspect of “horns”.

Take some time now to think about how each of these suggestions would influence the way the
artwork is understood. Each interpretation will influence the understanding of the work in a
different way, but not all the interpretations may be valid. It is therefore important to evaluate
each interpretation in terms of its validity in the overall understanding of the artwork.

Activity 3.21: Self-assessment

Identify elements in your chosen artwork with associated symbolism. Research all the
possible meanings and apply these to an interpretation of the artwork. Consider these
separately at first, and then in relation to other elements in the work. Evaluate the
interpretations and decide which would be most logical and appropriate.

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3.4.7 All art is about other art

Terry Barrett (1994:12) states that “All art is in part about the world in which it emerged” and “all
art is in part about other art”. What this means is that all art is a product of the culture, the world
from which it emerged. Art is also a product of the system, the institution of art, which has
produced it. Therefore, it is wise to consider any artwork as part of a larger network, or a system.
Artists often draw on this, not only as a source of knowledge, but also as a source of inspiration.
Related to the idea is the way artists either ‘borrow’ from others, ‘steal’ ideas, or pay tribute to
other artists. In the activity below, I have listed some of the terms associated with this aspect of
art, which you may want to investigate further.

Activity 3.22: Self-assessment

Ensure that you have a good understanding of the following terms by researching them in
a discipline-specific dictionary such as Grove/Oxford Art Online:

Original: Work of art verified as being created by the specific artist and considered an
authentic example.

Copy: Replica of an existing artwork.

Fake: Fakes are copies of existing artworks, sometimes slightly altered, and presented as
originals.

Forgery: Forgeries are characterised by their intent to deceive, often associated with
elaborate schemes to prove the provenance of the work. These works are not necessarily
copies of existing works by the artist but could be ‘manufactured’ by the forger.

Appropriation: Borrowing or taking something from one context and using it for something
else. Appropriation is a technique or way of working with two-dimensional images. Images
can be copied, repainted, drawn or printed and altered in several ways to make a new
artwork.

Homage: This is a reference to another artist or artwork as a sign of respect or as a

tribute.

Pastiche: Imitation with incorporation of stylistic elements of other artists.

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3.5 Understanding contemporary art

Chances are that you chose a relatively traditional museum or gallery with mostly displays of
paintings, sculptures and the odd installation for your activities. However, contemporary art often
finds its way into our environment in different ways, trying to escape the constraints of museum
and gallery culture. Trying to understand contemporary art using the above-mentioned pointers
does not always yield any results, leaving the viewer confused and frustrated. Ossian Ward in his
book Ways of Looking: How to experience contemporary art (2018), uses the Latin word tabula
as a mnemonic1 for approaching contemporary art. Tabula rasa is a Latin term meaning “the
unblemished tablet or blank slate” (Ward 2018:12), in other words, a fresh consideration of how
to understand art. What follows is a brief synopsis of each of the letters used in the mnemonic
(Ward 2018:14-19).

T stands for Time: Contemporary art often requires effort and time from the viewer in that they
may have to sit through hours of video footage, works may be large-scale or spread over several
venues requiring the viewer to move through all of these in order to understand the work. Works
are also often accompanied by lengthy texts which need to be read. Artworks often need to be
‘experienced’ instead of being ‘viewed’.

A is for Association: Contemporary art often requires the viewer to internalise the message of the
work, seeking the significance of the work in their own lives, instead of being passive observers.
Many viewers disengage with a work due to a lack of personal association with the ideas or
concepts presented. Therefore, contemporary art requires the viewer to engage with the work in
a different manner.

1A mnemonic is a tool that helps us remember certain facts or large amounts of information. The
mnemonic device used here is an acronym, which uses a simple formula of a letter to represent each word
or phrase that needs to be remembered.

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B is for Background: Contemporary art is notoriously difficult to understand without access to
background information. In most cases, the interpretation of contemporary art requires the viewer
to engage with press releases, artist’s statements, and additional reading materials.

U is for Understand: Understanding contemporary art is often not a quick process, but rather a
journey in which the viewer is exposed to several elements and concepts, all of which need to be
engaged with.

L is, predictably, for Look Again: Once all the information has been gathered, it is necessary for
the viewer to ‘take a second look’ and evaluate their interpretation of the work, based on both
their observations and the information gathered.

A is for Assessment: Assessing a contemporary artwork based on more traditional concepts such
as quality, technique, originality and so forth is often impossible. The concepts are mostly fluid
and open-ended, meaning that no right or wrong evaluation can be made.

Ward (2018) also proposes an approach which favours the ‘function’ of art, which includes art as
entertainment, art as confrontation, art as event, art as message, art as joke, art as spectacle
and art as meditation. This is yet another way of approaching the interpretation of art which may
yield results.

3.6 Art criticism

In essence, art criticism entails writing about art. In this section, we will look at how to consolidate
your research into a logical, coherent essay.

3.6.1 Gathering research

When preparing to write about a specific artwork or exhibition, one must collect as much
information as possible, starting with the artwork itself. Wherever possible, one must view the
work in person. There is no substitute for personal engagement with a work of art, and many
details not visible on photographs could be noted. Take a notebook along to jot down your
observations. Photographs can be handy to help capture specific details. Remember that most
museums and galleries have policies regarding the photographing of artworks, so ensure that
you obtain permission to photograph the artwork beforehand, as well as copyright permission if
you intend publishing the photos.

If a personal viewing of the artwork is not possible, ensure that you obtain several images of the
artwork, either from the internet or from catalogues and books. If the work is three dimensional,
ensure that you obtain photographs from all angles. Keep in mind that the quality of photographs

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on the internet may vary considerably, and this may affect the way in which works are
understood.

Supporting documents needed could include copies of the catalogues, artist’s statement if
available, artist’s biography, correspondence or letters, books, newspaper and magazine articles,
reviews and academic journal articles. For academic essays, rather avoid the use of blogspots
unless you are certain of the author’s credentials.

Once you have collected your research, read through all the resources several times, making
notes on your observations.

3.6.2 Evaluating ideas and interpretations (and what to do with contradictions)

Once all the information has been gathered, one can start evaluating the interpretations. It is
important to remember that it is possible to have different, competing and sometimes even
contradictory interpretations for the same artwork. While some would say there are no right or
wrong interpretations, the arguments should always be logical, sound and persuasive.

Firstly, that means that the presentation of your argument must show a reasonable and verifiable
connection (or evidence) between the artwork and the discussion. This is referred to as
correspondence. If there is no relevant connection between the artwork and the idea, the
argument cannot be logical and lacks correspondence.

The argument also needs to be coherent. Coherence refers to the internal conceptual
consistency. This means that the idea needs to be unpacked in a logical, step-by-step manner
which presents the argument in a reasonable and valid manner (Barrett 1994:10).

As you do your research, you may find different authors proposing different, sometimes
contradictory interpretations for the same work. How are we to engage with these contradictory
arguments? Firstly, you need to ensure that there is correspondence, meaning that the ideas and
the evidence produced are in agreement, and secondly that the argument is coherent and logical.
But it is possible for different, competing and contradictory interpretations to sit alongside each
other and still be relevant. Some interpretations may also be more valid than others, and these
are normally the ones most widely accepted by the art community at large (Barrett 1994:9). This
is another reason why your research should include several resources, and why you should
always keep an open mind.

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Activity 3.23: Self-assessment

Ensure that you are able to explain the difference between the following terms:

Correspondence: Refers to the agreement or logical connection between an idea and the
facts presented.

Coherence: Refers to how the argument ‘hangs together’ in a logical fashion.

3.6.3 Emotional responses to artworks

Our emotional response to an artwork is a crucial part of experiencing and engaging with art. In
some cases, artworks may elicit an extreme emotional reaction from the viewer, as is often the
case with first-time viewers of The Butcher Boys (1985/86). Artists often craft the artwork with the
viewer’s emotional response in mind, as this may be instrumental in capturing the viewer’s
attention. We are more likely to engage with a work (and the ideas it represents) if we have an
emotional response to it. However, we need to keep in mind that emotional responses are not
objective and may vary from person to person based on their own history, experiences, values
and beliefs. Therefore, we need to acknowledge our own emotional responses to the artwork, but
we should not allow these emotions to cloud our judgement, and ultimately the interpretation of
the artwork. When writing about art it is also wise to steer clear of emotional outpourings.

3.6.4 Applying theoretical frameworks

As you work through the various Art History modules, you will be exposed to a variety of
theoretical frameworks and approaches. Some of these include Marxism and materialism,
feminisms (discussed in learning unit 2), queer theory, cultural studies and postcolonial theory
(D'Alleva 2005:46). Again, this study guide does not allow space for a full discussion of any of
these topics. In short, these ideas will provide you with the ‘tools’, the language, the philosophical
approaches, and questions to further investigate art.

A handy introduction to the use of critical theories in art history is the book Methods & Theories of
Art History (2005) by Anne D’Alleva.

3.6.5 Structuring your writing

Again here, there are no rules, but all essays have at least three parts. The introduction which
poses the question being investigated as well as giving relevant background information about
the topic, the body of the essay in which the ideas and concepts are explored, and the conclusion

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which summarises the discussion. You are referred to learning unit 1, specifically section 1.5.6
Basic Structure of Essay and section 1.5.7 Paragraphs for guidance on how to approach your
writing.

If you are given a specific artwork to discuss, be sure to identify the key issues in the question
and to structure your writing around these points. Remember the concepts of correspondence
(the relevance of your ideas to the issue in question) and coherence (the logical unfolding of your
argument).

Lastly, remember to include references in your writing, and avoid plagiarism at all costs. This is
covered in learning unit 1.

3.7 Conclusion

We have taken a journey through the artworld, first considering the institution of art as a whole.
The journey took us on a virtual tour through some of the world’s most iconic and interesting
galleries and museums, considering how to approach the interpretation of individual works, and
finally, how to collate these experiences and knowledge into well researched, logical texts. This
learning unit concludes the study guide.

In the first learning unit we explained to you how to find information and how to write art history
assignments. The second learning unit introduced many new art history terms and art history
methods, and the last learning unit demonstrated where you find art, and how to interpret art.
These learning units provided you with the foundation of your art history studies, and we trust
that we have given you the tools to speak and write about art with insight and confidence.

Bibliography

Barrett, T. (1994, Sept). Principles for Interpreting Art. Art Education, 47(5), 8-13.

Bick, T. (2010). Horror histories: Apartheid and the abject body in the work of Jane Alexander.
African Arts, 43(4), 30-41.

Cartiere, C & Willis, S. (eds). (2008). The Practice of Public Art. New York: Routledge.

D'Alleva, A. (2005). Methods and Theories of Art History. London: Laurence King Publishers.

DeWitte, DJ, Larmann, RM & Shields, MK. (2015). The Thames & Hudson Introduction to Art.
New York: Thames & Hudson.

Idema, J. (2014). How to visit an art museum: Tips for a truly rewarding visit. Amsterdam: BIS
Publishing.

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