State-of-the-Art Review

Water Reclamation and Reuse in Singapore

Yue Choong Kog, Ph.D. 1

Abstract: Singapore is a highly water-stressed country, and securing an adequate water supply has always been an important task for the
government. Water reclamation and reuse attempted in 1966 were not a success because of the costly and unreliable technology. Fortunately,
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

in 2003, advances in membrane technology enabled water reclamation and reuse to become both technically and economically feasible.
Currently, reclaimed water accounts for 40% of the water supply in Singapore and is projected by the government to account for a larger
proportion in the future. Some of the lessons learned and issues with the development of water reclamation and reuse in Singapore are briefly
discussed. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001675. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Water reclamation; Singapore; NEWater; Deep tunnel sewerage system.

Introduction impound water at the Thomson Road Reservoir, later renamed

Singapore is a very small country, with a size of slightly more than
700 km2 . During World War II, a water shortage was a major rea-
son leading to the Japanese occupation of Singapore. This historical
event is a constant reminder of the importance of water supply to
Singapore’s security (Simson 1970). Supplying water to the pop-
ulation of Singapore is estimated to cost $700 billion yearly (Tully
2000). Many believe that water will be a valuable commodity that
affects the prosperity of countries in the 21st century, and water
supply will always be critical to security (both economic and mili-
tary). The manner through which a nation manages its water supply
could influence its well-being. To be competitive, countries must
maintain their water plants in good condition and run them at the
minimum cost.
Rainfall is plentiful in Singapore, although year-to-year rainfall
is highly variable. It rains at least 0.2 mm an average of 167 days
each year, and the 1981–2017 long-term mean annual rainfall
total was more than 2,100 mm. Singapore’s average annual rainfall
total since 1980 has increased at an average rate of 100 mm per
decade. Countries with water resources <1,000 m3 per year per per-
son are defined as water-stressed (i.e., with insufficient resources to
meet their needs) (Postel 1993). With only 172 m3 of water per
person per year because of the limited land surface, Singapore
is one of the most water-stressed Asian countries, along with
the Middle Eastern countries. In fact, in a recent study, Singapore
was forecasted to be the most water stressed in 2040 (Maddocks
et al. 2015).
In 1819, when Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore, the 150
residents relied on water from wells and streams. A tiny reservoir
was built at Fort Canning to provide water to ships 3 years later.
However, there were no provisions for water for the population,
which by 1850 had grown to more than 50,000. The plight of
the residents for clean water prompted philanthropist Kim Seng
Tan to make a donation of S$13,000 in 1857 for the construction
of waterworks. This was the beginning of piped water supply in
Singapore. Construction work of an embankment commenced to
1
President, East West Engineering Consultants, 98 Duchess Rd.,
Singapore 269022. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8456-8554. Email:
eastwestconsult@yahoo.co.uk
Note. This manuscript was published online on February 12, 2020.
Discussion period open until July 12, 2020; separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of
Environmental Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9372.
MacRitchie Reservoir. The completed embankment in 1867 en-
abled the beginning of municipal water supplies.
By 1920, the population had grown to more than 400,000.
Studies established that groundwater extracted from the sandy de-
posit in eastern Singapore was very limited, and Singapore’s water
supply was not able to be self-sufficient. The colonial authorities
began looking toward neighboring Johor, the southernmost state of
Malaya, as a possible source of water. From 1924 to 1962, several
agreements with the Johor Sultan were signed for water. Until
2061, Singapore is able to import up to 250 million gallons/day
(mgd) from Johor according to the current water agreement.
In the 1960s, amid frequent droughts and floods and rampant
water pollution, Singapore had to build up adequate capabilities
and ensure a sustainable water supply. The provision of piped
gas, electricity, and water was taken over by the Public Utilities
Board (PUB) in May 1963, after Singapore gained independence
from the British. Since then, PUB has developed the bulk of
Singapore’s water supply capacity to provide Singapore residents
with water that is safe to drink directly from the tap with no further
filtration.
Currently, there are 17 reservoirs in Singapore, and two-thirds
of the island’s land surface serves as the catchment area for rain-
water. Singapore’s water supply consists of (1) local catchment
water; (2) water imported from Johor; (3) NEWater, high-grade re-
claimed water from used water; and (4) desalinated water. NEWater
is more cost-efficient and energy-efficient to produce compared
with desalination.
Singapore currently consumes around 430 mgd of water. About
55% of this is by the nondomestic sector, and the rest by homes.
In 2017, the per-capita household water consumption was 143 L
per day, which was decreased from 165 L in 2003; by 2030, the
target is to lower it to 130 L per day. As of 2019, NEWater ac-
counted for 40% of the water supply, up to 30% was supplied
by desalinated water, and the rest came from the local catchment
and imported water from Johor. According to PUB, the present pro-
jection is that homes will be consuming 40%, and the proportion
for the nondomestic sector will be 60%. NEWater is projected to
account for up to 50% of the water supply. Up to 30% will be sup-
plied by desalinated water, and the remaining supply will come
from the local catchment and imported water. By 2060, the water
demand of Singapore is projected to double, and 70% will be con-
sumed by the nondomestic sector. Desalination and NEWater are
projected to supply 85% of this demand.

© ASCE 03120001-1 J. Environ. Eng.

J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001

 Water reclamation and reuse have contributed significantly in
helping Singapore satisfy the demand for high-quality water since
2003. Singapore started with water reclamation and reuse as far
back as 1966. It was not successful. Persistent efforts by the
government and the realization of the necessity of water reclama-
tion and reuse in Singapore finally paid off in 2003. NEWater has
proven to be a viable sustainable water supply able to meet more
than 50% of future demand in Singapore. There are many benefits
with NEWater, such as improved water security, increased climate
change resilience, and reduced need for water storage capacity,
releasing land for other purposes. The purpose of this paper is
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
to report on the experience gained with water reclamation and
reuse.
Water Reclamation and Reuse in Singapore
Singapore is 100% served by modern sanitation today, facilitating
water reclamation and reuse that contribute to meet water demand
in Singapore. The Jurong plant commenced operation in 1966
to supply industrial water reclaimed from sewerage effluent to
Jurong for industrial use. Industrial water was about 2% of water
demand then.
NEWater’s genesis dates back to the 1970s, with a study to
evaluate the viability of reclaiming water for potable use. The study
reported that it was technically feasible, but the technology’s
unproven reliability and high cost were insuperable concerns (Kog
2015). Membrane technology’s performance and cost competitive-
ness improved considerably by the 1990s: the United States and
other countries increasingly have adopted this technology for water
reclamation. For water reclamation aimed at potable use, the use of
membrane technology was tested by PUB in 1998.
A full-scale demonstration plant with a daily capacity of
10,000 m3 of treated water was commissioned in 2000. The treated
effluent from the plant was used to produce NEWater, and a series
of assessments indicated this was a sustainable and safe water
source. An international experts group in biomedical sciences, en-
gineering, water technology, and chemistry found that the quality
of NEWater was unfailingly high and safe and complied fully with
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and World Health
Organizaion (WHO) requirements for potable water. The viability
of NEWater as an important source of the water supply in Singa-
pore was established.
NEWater was introduced to the Singaporean public in 2003. To
convince the public that NEWater was safe for human consumption,
the prime minister, ministers, and all the members of parliament
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the sewerage reticulation system. (Reprinted from PUBS 2019.)
© ASCE 03120001-2
J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001
from the ruling party took every opportunity during official func-
tions with their constituents to drink a bottle of NEWater. The pub-
licity program for NEWater was a big success and had gathered an
acceptance rate of 98%. The proportion of respondents that would
drink NEWater directly was 82%, and just 16% of respondents
wanted NEWater to mix with reservoir water (Guan and Toh 2012).
This showed that efforts by the government in convincing the
public of NEWater’s potability were crucial. Nevertheless, the panel
of international experts recommended NEWater to be introduced
into raw water reservoirs for psychological reasons.
Used water is collected through a network of sewers leading to
the water reclamation plants. Domestic used water includes sullage
and sewage water from commercial premises (e.g., shops, restau-
rants, and hotels) and households. Industrial used water is the trade
effluent from factories. The Trade Effluent Regulations under
the Sewerage and Drainage Act control trade effluent discharge.
Industries’ trade effluents may have to be pretreated to remove
any undesirable pollutants or chemicals to meet the regulations’
discharge standards. Figs. 1 and 2 show how used water from
commercial premises, households, and industries is gathered and
conveyed via a far-reaching sewerage reticulation system for water
reclamation plants (WRPs). Part of this treated used water is
directed to the NEWater plants, and the rest is discharged to
the sea.
Currently, there are four water reclamation plants serving a
population of more than 5 million. About 595 million m3 of used
water was treated in 2017 to USEPA and WHO standards: 59% by
Changi, 20% by Ulu Pandan, 11% by Jurong, and 10% by Kranji.
NEWater is used for both indirect potable use and direct nonpotable
use. For direct nonpotable use, NEWater is sent via a dedicated pipe
network to high-demand consumers, such as semiconductor wafer
plants, petrochemical and power generation industries, and air-
conditioner cooling towers of public and commercial buildings.
The largest NEWater consumers are wafer plants—the require-
ments for water quality of wafer plants are stricter than for potable
water.
For indirect potable use, NEWater is mixed with rainwater in
reservoirs for the reintroduction of trace minerals. Changi WRP,
with a capacity of 202 mgd or 900,000 m3 =day, is currently under-
going expansion. Once the S$500 million expansion is completed
in 2022, the upgraded plant will treat up to 246 mgd of used water.
As part of the expansion works, a 44-mgd facility is being built to
prevent too much water (due to high rainfall) from entering Changi
WRP’s systems by diverting water to treat it separately. This is
necessary because if too much water enters the plant too rapidly,
J. Environ. Eng.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of used water network. (Reprinted from PUBS 2019.)

Fig. 3. Deep tunnel sewerage system. (Reprinted from PUBS 2019.)

© ASCE 03120001-3 J. Environ. Eng.

J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001

 bacteria used to purify the sewage are washed away. Time is re-
quired to cultivate bacteria, and it is crucial to keep the bacteria
population stable.
Used Water Superhighway
Fig. 3 shows the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS). DTSS is a
sustainable and cost-efficient used water superhighway developed
by PUB for used water collection, treatment, and reclamation at
centralized WRPs located at the coastal areas. DTSS’s Phase 1
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
was completed in 2008 at a cost of S$3.4 billion. Changi WRP
was officially opened on June 23, 2009. Phase 1 of the DTSS in-
cluded a 48-km-deep tunnel (Changi WRP to Kranji WRP), a pair
of 5-km offshore outfall pipes, and 60 km of connecting sewers.
The treated used water is sent to the sea via the offshore outfall
pipes or directed to Changi to produce NEWater (Fig. 4).
The completion of Phase 2 of DTSS is scheduled in 2025.
Phase 2 will gather used water from the southern and western
parts of Singapore. Its collection system will include 40-km-deep
tunnels and 60 km of connecting sewers. Industrial and domestic
used water will be conveyed separately to the Tuas WRP by the
DTSS. These two streams of used water will be treated separately
at Tuas WRP. The NEWater capacity of Tuas WRP will be
800,000 m3 =day (180 mgd). It will include technologies to in-
crease treatment efficiency and enhance energy recovery from used
Fig. 4. Treatment process at the Changi WRP. (Reprinted from PUBS 2019.)
© ASCE 03120001-4
J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001
water. The technologies are a novel combination of treatment
processes that include space-efficient inclined lamella primary
settling tanks and a membrane bioreactor (MBR) system. These
features shorten the process of wastewater treatment while also
reducing energy usage and maximizing biogas production (which
can generate energy), as well as helping reduce the plant footprint.
At 12,500-m3 =day (2.75 mgd), the Ulu Pandan demonstration
plant has been in operation since 2017 to test these technologies.
Technology suppliers included Nordic, Suez WTS, and Lar Process
Analyzers. These technologies will enable the future Tuas WRP to
be more energy efficient, doubling energy recovery while consum-
ing less energy compared with conventional plants. PUB envisages
the forthcoming Tuas WRP as the most energy-efficient MBR, with
a net process energy consumption target of 0.1 kWh=m3 , 2.5 times
lower than a typical MBR. The biologically enhanced primary
treatment system boosts chemical oxygen demand (COD) capture
to maximize biogas production downstream, while a step-feed
MBR configuration, deploying Suez’s membranes and a LEAPmbr
aeration system, slashes energy requirements. Singapore’s space
constraints forced PUB to target an ambitious land intensity of
0.04 ha=m3 =day for the Tuas WRP. To achieve this target, a lamella
clarifier will be placed on top of a circular sludge collection system,
radically reducing the footprint of the primary treatment process.
Integrating the reverse-osmosis polishing stage into the wastewater
treatment plant will also be groundbreaking for Singapore, drasti-
cally reducing the need for future NEWater production space.
J. Environ. Eng.
 In addition, the Ulu Pandan demonstration plant incorporates au-
tomation control to reduce staffing requirements. The Ulu
Pandan demonstration plant won the Water/Wastewater Project
of the Year Award at the 2018 Global Water Awards in Paris
(https://globalwaterawards.com/2018-water-wastewater-project-of
-the-year/).
Conventional WRPs at Jurong WRP were converted to MBRs
with a capacity of 68,000 m3 =day in 2014. When Phase 2 is com-
pleted, the existing conventional WRPs at Jurong and Ulu Pandan
will be phased out progressively. Tuas WRP will be colocated with
an integrated waste management facility (IWMF) to maximize re-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
source recovery and energy. The food waste collected at IWMF will
be separated and processed with sludge in digesters to produce bio-
gas. The resulting sludge and biogas can be used as fuel for incin-
eration at IWMF, and the operations of Tuas WRP will use the
electricity generated by IWMF. It will be the first time treatment
processes of solid waste and used water are integrated in Singapore.
This will maximize resource recovery and energy generation and
minimize the plant footprint.
Once DTSS is fully completed, valuable land in land-scarce
Singapore will become available, as land occupied by used water
facilities will be reduced by 50%. When Phase 1 of DTSS was com-
pleted, land occupied by the intermediate pumping stations and
WRPs decreased to 190 ha from 300 ha. When Phase 2 is com-
pleted, the land occupied will decrease further to 150 ha. Because
of its compact design, Changi WRP, completed in Phase 1 of
DTSS, was merely one-third the size of a conventional plant.
The risk of cross-contamination between the used water system
and water catchments was also minimized, thereby improving the
dependability of the used water system. DTSS enables efficient
and large-scale water recycling and ensures the sustainability of
NEWater by collecting every drop of used water. In the long term,
the overall water recycling rate will increase from 30% to about
55% of the total water demand, thereby achieving water sustain-
ability and resilience for Singapore.
Fig. 5. Treatment process to produce NEWater. (Reprinted from PUBS 2019.)
© ASCE 03120001-5
J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001
Treatment Process
Fig. 5 shows the treatment process to produce NEWater. Table 1
summarizes the main design features of the WRPs, influent and
treated effluent/filtrate quality, and key differences in performance
of the four WRPs. One of the features of municipal wastewater in
Singapore has been the low range of alkalinity (Cao et al. 2008).
The final effluent meets the discharge standards of 30 mg=L of
total suspended solids (TSS) and 20 mg=L of biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD). Additional treatment of a portion of the final
effluent is needed to supply to the petrochemical plants in Jurong
Island, and additional treatment with membrane and reverse
osmosis process on the final effluent is necessary to produce
NEWater.
Changi WRP, commissioned in 2007, is the largest WRP in
Singapore. Table 1 shows that BOD5 , NO3 ─N, and TSS of the
Changi WRP Phase 1 plant effluent are the lowest among all the
WRPs, whereas COD and NH4 ─N of the Jurong WRP MBR plant
effluent are the lowest. According to Cao et al. (2016), Ou et al.
(2012), and Cao et al. (2014), the Changi WRP has the lowest final
effluent nitrogen (TN < 5 mg N=L) and significant nitrite concen-
tration (1.1 mg NO2 -N=L) compared with other activated sludge
processes in Singapore. There are four parallel reactors (capacity,
200,000 m3 =day each) of step-feed activated sludge processes with
identical configurations and working volumes and separate settling
tanks and return-activated sludge facilities. There are six basins per
bioreactor and two passes per basin. Under normal operating
conditions, five basins are running while one basin is taken offline
for maintenance.
Singapore is located just north of the equator. Based on the
record from 1981 to 2010, the mean daily maximum temperature
was 30.2°C–32.3°C, and the mean daily temperature was 23.9°C–
25.4°C. Phase 1 of Changi WRP’s large-scale multipass step-
feed nitrogen removal process at short aerobic solids retention
times (about 3 days) in warm climate conditions was effective.
J. Environ. Eng.
 Table 1. Comparison of influence and treated effluent/filtrate qualities of the four WRPs
WRP Changi Jurong Ulu Pandan Kranji
Commission date Phase 1 (2008): Phase 1 (1981): 82,000 m3 =day; South works (various stages in 1961, Phases 1 and 2 (1990):
and capacity 800,000 m3 =day Phase 1 was converted to MBR in 1973, and 1980): 200,000 m3 =day 76,000 m3 =day
2004: 68,000 m3 =day
MBR retrofit (2017): Phase 2 (1988): 82,000 m3 =day North works (1981): 86,000 m3 =day Phase 3 (1999):
120,000 m3 =day Phase 3 (2004): 41,000 m3 =day Liquids treatment module (LTM, 75,000 m3 =day
2000): 75,000 m3 =day
Phase 4 (2018): 55,000 m3 =day MBR (2007): 23,000 m3 =day
Main design Phase 1: step feed Conventional aerobic BOD South works: MLE MLE
features that bioreactor removal design for all phases North works: conventional aerobic
differed from (except MBR) BOD removal
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

other WRPs MBR: modified MBR: modified Johannesburg LTM: A-B stage
Ludzack-Ettinger MBR: MLE
process
Influent (mg=L) COD: 485–640 Phases 1 (MBR) and 2 COD: 520–685 COD: 395–770
BOD5 : 145–235 COD: 685–815 BOD5 : 210–265 BOD5 : 185–340
TSS: 140–230 BOD5 : 245–340 TSS: 230–315 TSS: 140–325
TKN: 40–60 TSS: 245–355 TKN: 35–50 TKN: 30–65
NH4 ─N: 35–50 TKN: 40–55 NH4 ─N: 25–40 NH4 ─N: 25–55
NH4 ─N: 35–45
Phases 3 and 4 (industrial train)
COD: 1,210–1,910
BOD5 : 360–510
TSS: 280–385
TKN: 25–50
NH4 ─N: 20–45
Treated effluent/ Phase 1 conventional Conventional Conventional Conventional
filtrate quality COD: 25–40 COD: 25–100 COD: 39–52 COD: 15–45
(mg=L) BOD5 : 1–3 BOD5 : 4–20 BOD5 : 7–12 BOD5 : 2–9
TSS: 2–7 TSS: 5–28 TSS: 12–19 TSS: 2–12
NH4 ─N: 2–5 NH4 ─N: 8–38 NH4 ─N: 7–17 NH4 ─N: 1–4
NO3 ─N: 1–5 NO3 ─N: 6–23 NO3 ─N: 4–21 NO3 ─N: 3–16
MBR MBR MBR
COD: 12–25 COD: 8–23 COD: 10–20
BOD5 : <2 BOD5 : <2 BOD5 : <2
NH4 ─N: 1–2 NH4 ─N: 1–3 NH4 ─N: 1–2
NO3 ─N: 4–12 NO3 ─N: 6–7 NO3 ─N: 2–10
Key differences Low NO3 ─N in step High NH4 ─N in conventional Higher NO3 ─N in MLE effluent; low —
in performance feed effluent; and low aerobic process effluent; low BOD5 COD in MBR effluent
BOD5 in MBR effluent and turbidity in MBR effluent;
low COD, NH4 ─N and PO4 –P
in MBR effluent
Source: Data provided by PUB (Singapore’s National Water Agency), personal communication (2019).
Note: The bold values are the highest of all WRPs.

Anammox (anaerobic ammonium oxidation) bacteria convert am-
monium and nitrite directly to N2 anaerobically. The results of a
study of the kinetic parameters for anammox bacteria growing
at the temperature of Changi WRP (30°C) in a system with an an-
oxic sludge retention time (SRT) of 3 days showed that flocculent/
free suspended cell anammox bacteria (dominated by Candidatus
brocadia anammoxidans sp. 40) were retained at a relatively short
SRT (Lotti et al. 2014).
The performance of the 800,000-m3 =day capacity of Changi
WRP is good: COD, BOD5 , NH3 ─N, and TSS removals are about
89%, 98%, 93%, and 95%, respectively (Ou et al. 2012). The
BOD5 , TSS, and NH3 ─N removal of >90% is comparable to or
slightly better than that of other WRPs operating at longer SRTs.
Nitrification process efficiency is high, at 93%. BOD5 and TSS of
Changi WRP plant effluent are good, at 1.4–3.2 and 2–7 mg=L,
respectively.
The volumetric ratio of Changi WRP between the anoxic and
aerobic zones is 50∶50. Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in
the aerobic zones is maintained between 1.4 and 1.8 mg=L by on-
line DO sensors. Complete nitrification is achieved, while the
effluent NO3 ─N varies between 1 and 5 mg=L, much lower than
other WRPs that use the modified Ludzack-Ettinger (MLE) process
(Ou et al. 2012). The denitrification process, which produces plant
effluent of low NH4 ─N (2–5 mg=L) and NO3 ─N (1–5 mg=L), is
very efficient. This could be attributed to (1) the relatively larger
anoxic zone by volumetric ratio relative to other WRPs, (2) the im-
mediate direct contact of NO3 with the denitrifying bacteria when
water from the preceding aerobic zone flows to the anoxic zone,
and (3) the ample supply of soluble BOD in the primary effluent
at each step-feed point.
Aeration energy usage of 0.12 kWh=m3 (or 0.40 kWh=kg)
COD of Changi WRP Phase 1 plant is the lowest among the WRPs
that use the MLE activated sludge process and operates at longer
aerobic SRTs. The energy requirement is only 80% that of the other
WRPs, with MLE processes operated at longer aerobic SRTs. The
lower aeration energy requirement leads to energy savings. Oxygen
is needed for oxidation of biodegradable carbonaceous materials
and endogenous respiration, which is aerobic SRT dependent.
The lower energy requirement is possible because (1) less biomass
is kept in the system at shorter aerobic SRTs, and the air demand

© ASCE 03120001-6 J. Environ. Eng.

J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001

 for respiration is less; and (2) the relatively larger anoxic zone
and multipass step feed result in a very efficient denitrification pro-
cess, which helps to supplement some oxygen requirement for car-
bonaceous oxidation, since the oxygen equivalent of nitrate is
2.86 g O2 =g NO3 ─N denitrified (Metcalf and Eddy 2003).
Smaller bioreactor volume is required, and substantial savings
in infrastructure cost was achieved. The bioreactor aerobic volume-
to-sewage treated ratio of the Changi WRP Phase 1 plant is
0.12 m3 per m3 , 49% of the other WRPs. This is possible because
the flow handling capacity of secondary sedimentation tanks is
higher owing to the lower mixed liquor suspended solids in influent
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
from bioreactors. By splitting the flow to several influent feed
locations and directing all return activated sludge to the first pass
of the bioreactor, much of the biomass inventory is kept in the first
few passes. It is possible to operate a step-feed system at a higher
SRT compared with a plug flow system with the same aeration
volume, because the average mixed liquor suspended solids of the
bioreactor system are higher. On the other hand, the mixed liquor
suspended solids of the aerated effluent from the last pass are lower.
The lower mixed liquor suspended solids fed to secondary sedi-
mentation tanks reduce the solids loading rate and increase the flow
handling capacity.
The three-step treatment at NEWater plants (Fig. 6) includes
the following. (1) Microfiltration filters out microscopic particles
including some bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts, and suspended
solids. (2) Using reverse osmosis, a partially permeable membrane
filters out undesirable contaminants, such as viruses, bacteria, chlo-
ride, nitrate, sulphate, pesticides, disinfection, and heavy metals. At
this stage, the water is high-quality water that is free from viruses
Fig. 6. Three-step treatment to produce NEWater. (Reprinted from PUBS 2019.)
© ASCE 03120001-7
J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001
and bacteria and contains extremely low amounts of salt and
organic matter. (3) The remaining organisms are eliminated using
ultraviolet light, and the pH is adjusted by adding alkaline chem-
icals. More than 150,000 scientific tests have shown that NEWater
complies fully with WHO requirements for potable water. A panel
of overseas experts in microbiology, water chemistry, engineering,
and toxicology carry out rigorous audit processes of NEWater
every 6 months. To date, NEWater has consistently been able to
maintain this high quality that complies with WHO and USEPA
standards. Table 2 is a summary of the typical NEWater quality.
The water content of the excess activated sludge gathered from
the treatment processes is high. Centrifugation or air flotation thick-
ening is used to reduce this high water content, but additional treat-
ment using anaerobic sludge digesters of the thickened sludge is
needed. The sludge’s organic substances are broken down in the
digesters by another culture of microorganisms that flourish in
an oxygen-deficient setting. In the digesters, the sludge remains
for 20–30 days. This organic matter is converted by the digestion
process into biogas containing 60%–70% methane. The energy re-
quired at the plant is supplemented by using this biogas to fuel
power generators. Dewatering centrifuges are used to reduce water
content substantially to enable handling, removal, and dumping.
The incineration ash of dewatered sludge is disposed of in the land-
fill at Pulau (Island) Semakau.
PUB controls the discharge of pollutants such as heavy metals
via Sewerage and Drainage (Trade Effluent) Regulations. The
heavy metals in the used water are mainly removed with the sludge.
The sludge is digested, dewatered, and thereafter incinerated. The
ash is disposed of at Semakau Landfill.
J. Environ. Eng.
 Table 2. WHO standards and typical values of NEWater quality, as of
May 2017
Characteristics
Microbiological parameters
Escherichia coli
Heterotrophic plate
count (HPC)
Physical parameters
Color
Conductivity
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Massachusetts, Amherst on 03/29/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Acknowledgments
WHO (2017) The permission by the Singapore Public Utilities Board for the use
(first addendum Typical of all the figures and tables is gratefully acknowledged.
Unit to 4th edition) value
cfu=100 mL <1 <1 References
cfu=mL — <1
Cao, Y. S., B. H. Kwok, A. Z. M. Noraini, C. L. Lau, I. Zulkifli, S. C.
Chua, Y. L. Wah, and A. G. Yahya. 2014. “Mainstream partial
Hazen — <5 nitration-anammox nitrogen removal in the largest activated sludge
uS=cm — <250 process and comparisons with other BNR activated sludge process in

Chlorine mg=L 5 <2 Singapore.” In Proc., IWA World Water Congress. London:
pH value — — 7.0–8.5 International Water Association.
Total dissolved mg=L — <150 Cao, Y. S., B. H. Kwok, M. C. M. van Loosdrecht, G. T. Daigger, H. Y. Png,
solids (TDS) Y. L. Wah, S. C. Chua, and A. G. Yahya. 2016. “Mainstream partial
Turbidity NTU 5 <5 nitration and anammox in a 200,000 m3 =day activated sludge process
Chemical parameters in Singapore: Scale-down by using laboratory fed-batch reactor.”
Ammonia (as N) mg=L — <1.0 In Proc., Water Science & Technology, 1–9. London: IWA Publishing.
Aluminum mg=L — <0.1 Cao, Y. S., Y. L. Wah, C. M. Ang, and K. S. Raajeevan. 2008. Biological
Barium mg=L 1.3 <0.1 nitrogen removal activated sludge process in warm climates: Full-scale
Boron mg=L 2.4 <0.5 process investigation, scaled-down laboratory experimentation and
Calcium mg=L — 4–20 mathematical modeling. London: IWA Publishing.
Chloride mg=L — <20 Guan, Y. K., and S. Toh. 2012. “From zero to hero: NEWater wins public
Copper mg=L 2 <0.05
confidence in Singapore.” In Water sensitive cities, edited by C. Howe
Fluoride mg=L 1.5 <0.5
and C. Mitchell, 139–146. London: IWA Publishing.
Iron mg=L — <0.04
Kog, Y. C. 2015. “Transboundary urban water: The case of Singapore and
Manganese mg=L — <0.05
Nitrate (as N) mg=L 11 <11 Malaysia.” In Understanding and managing urban water in transition,
Sodium mg=L — <20 global issues in water policy, edited by Q. Grafton, K. Daniell,
Sulphate mg=L — <5 C. Nauges, J. D. Rinaudo, and N. W. W. Chan, 687. Dordrecht,
Silica (as SiO2 ) mg=L — <3 Netherlands: Springer.
Strontium mg=L — <0.1 Lotti, T., R. Kleerebezem, C. Lubello, and M. C. Loosdrecht. 2014.
Total trihalomethanes ratio — <1 <0.04 “Physiological and kinetic characterization of a suspended cell anam-
Total organic carbon (TOC) mg=L — <0.5 mox culture.” Water Res. 60 (Sep): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j
Total hardness (as CaCO3 ) mg=L — <50 .watres.2014.04.017.
Zinc mg=L — <0.1 Maddocks, A., R. S. Young, and P. Reig. 2015. “Ranking the world’s most
water-stressed countries in 2040.” Accessed August 9, 2018. http://
Source: Reprinted from PUB (2017).
www.wri.org/blog/2015/08/ranking-world%E2%80%99s-most-water
-stressed-countries-2040.
Conclusion Metcalf, L., and H. Eddy. 2003. Wastewater engineering treatment and
reuse. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Reclamation and reuse has come a long way since 1966 in meeting Ou, G. L., B. H. Kwok, Y. N. Zhang, and Y. S. Cao. 2012. “Excellent
water demand in Singapore. Although initially it was not successful nitrogen removal performance of full-scale step-feed activated sludge
because of the technology’s high cost and unproven reliability, process of municipal wastewater treatment in Singapore.” In Proc.,
water reclamation and reuse is now the main source of water supply Water Convention. Singapore: Singapore International Water Week.
in Singapore. The experience gained in Singapore proves that water Postel, S. 1993. “Water scarcity spreading.” In Vital signs: Trends that
reclamation and reuse is technically and economically feasible. are shaping our future 1993/1994, edited by L. R. Brown, H. Kane,
and E. Ayres. London: World Watch Institute.
The Singapore experience demonstrates that government-sponsored
PUB (Singapore’s National Water Agency). 2017. “PUB NEWater quality
public education outreach efforts can overcome the psychological
(typical value).” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.pub.gov.sg
resistance of the general public toward the consumption of reclaimed /watersupply/waterquality/newater.
water. PUBS (Singapore’s National Water Agency). 2019. “Qualified Persons
Portal.” Accessed July 31, 2019. https://www.pub.gov.sg/.
Simson, I. 1970. Singapore—Too little, too late: The failure of Malaya’s
Data Availability Statement defence in 1942. Singapore: Asia Pacific Press.
Tully, S. 2000. “Water, water everywhere.” Fortune 141 (10): 69–78.
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study WHO (World Health Organization). 2017. Guidelines for drinking-water
appear in the published article. quality, first addendum to the fourth edition, 123. Geneva: WHO.

© ASCE 03120001-8 J. Environ. Eng.

J. Environ. Eng., 2020, 146(4): 03120001